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Q.1 Define Management. Answer.

To achieve organization goals through the major functions of planning, organizing, leading, staffing & controlling by co-ordination human, material, technological & financial resources is termed as Management.

Many definitions of management are given by different authors: (1) F. W. Taylor:


Management is art of Knowing what you want to do and then seeing that is done in the best & cheapest way.

(2) Henry Fayol:


To manage is to forecast, plan, organize, command, co-ordinate & control.

Q.2

State the functions of management.

Answer. There are six fundamental functions of management.

Planning

In this function it establishes goals and objectives to pursue during a future period. The planning function spans all levels of management. Top managers are involved in strategic planning that sets board, long-range goals for an organization. These goals become the basis for short-range, annual operational planning; during which top and middle managers determine specific departmental objectives that will help the organization makes progress toward the broader, long-range goals. Organizing In this function it typically follows planning and reflects how the organization tries to accomplish its goals and objectives. In relation to the structure of a company, organizing involves the assignment of tasks, the grouping of tasks into departments and the allocation of resources to departments. Organizing also involves establishing the flow of authority and communication between position and levels within the organization. Top manager performs these activities. Like wise middle manager and supervisors organize the tasks to create positions within their departments. Job analysis and job design activities are organizing function.

Coordinating In this function coordinating refers to management activities related to achieving an efficient use of resources to attain the organization's goals and objectives.

Staffing In this function staffing refers to the fundamental cycle of human resources activities, determining human resource needs, and recruiting, selecting, hiring, training, and developing staff members. Directing In this function directing is also referred to as leading, it involves influencing division, departments, and individual staff members to accomplish the organization's goals and objectives. Controlling In this function manager performing the controlling management function translate organizational goals and objectives into performance standards for divisions, department and individual position. Controlling also involves assessing actual performance against standards to determine whether the organization is on target to reach its goals and taking corrective actions as necessary. Managers practicing the evaluative component of controlling assess how well the organization has achieved its objectives. Q.3 Explain, Management is a science as well as an art. Answer. Management is a science as well as an Art.
Many Social Scientists like Fredrick Taylor, Henry Frayor, Abraham Maslow, Mc Clelland etc, etc have

written on this topic according to their various schools of Thought.

Management is

a Science:

1. Development of a true science of management replacing the old rule of thumb method, which would enable managers among other things, to determine the best method of performing each task. 2. Scientific selection of workers so that each worker could be assigned the task for which he is best suited; 3. Scientific training and development of workers so as to achieve the highest level of efficiency; 4. Close cooperation between management and labor to ensure that work is carried out in accordance with the scientific principles which are developed.

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With the help of general principles & theories of science manager can improve the performance & throughput of Organization.

Management is art, because A manager applies his knowledge and skills to coordinate the efforts of the people to integrate the process in his organization. 2. Management is creative like any other art. 3. It is personalized process. Every manager has his own perception about problem and accordingly he decides.
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Q.4 State the four basic principles of scientific management. Answer. F.W.Taylor, well-known management expert, worked as an apprentice, machinist, and foreman and ultimately as the chief engineer of a steel company in U.S.A. Taylor suggested a new approach to management early in the twentieth century. This is known as Scientific Management. The basic principles developed by Taylor as principles of scientific management were: 1. Development of a true science of management replacing the old rule of thumb method, which would enable managers among other things, to determine the best method of performing each task; 2. Scientific selection of workers so that each worker could be assigned the task for which he is best suited; 3. Scientific training and development of workers so as to achieve the highest level of efficiency; 4. Close cooperation between management and labor to ensure that work is carried out in accordance with the scientific principles which are developed. Que.5 what are the characteristics of management?

Answer. are

The characteristics of management

(i) There is always a definite objective of management and managers help in achieving that objective successfully. Management, thus, is a goal directed activity. (ii) In a group activity, the manager alone cannot achieve the objectives. He has to take the help of others. He has to see that different employees perform their activities in such a manner that there is no conflict, that work is performed in an orderly manner and completed at the right time. Besides, different activities should support each other. This is called coordination. It shows that management is concerned with arranging group activity in a co-ordinate manner. (iii) Managers have to make a number of decisions to manage the activities properly. Suppose a factory manager aims at increasing the profits through increased production and sales. Then he will first have to take steps to increase the level of production and then try to sell the goods produced. To increase production there may be a few alternatives, e.g. increase in working hours, installing another machine, Hiring more workers, improvement in the methods of work and so on. He has to choose the most suitable alternative to achieve his

objective. This is known as decision making. Managers are involved in decision making that is, choosing between alternative courses of action at all stages of management. (iv) Management aims at securing maximum results with minimum of effort and cost. Managers use various methods to reduce wastes and increase the efficiency of work. Management, in this sense, is an economicactivity. (v) Managers have to get work done in different types of situations with the help of people having different types of skills. Managers have, therefore, to think of different ways of getting things done. In this sense management is a creative activity. Q.6.What is different roles of manager? Answer. Following are the roles of manager: 1. Interpersonal roles include: o Figurehead role manager represents the business organization in all matters of formality, legally and socially to those inside and outside of the organization (it depends on his position in the enterprises structure) and he is like a company symbol for external environment. o Leader role he reaches the organizations aims by using specified type

of motivation oriented on employees needs satisfaction, o Liaison role manger interacts with peers and people outside the organization, he enters into agreements, contracts, gain the orders and therefore perform activity essential for the company. 2. Information roles include: o Monitor role manager searches for the information concerned with the companys activity (problems with selling, taxes, production, etc), which are necessary for Making decisions; he read professional magazines connected with specificity and selling market of his enterprise. o Disseminator role manager transmits and propagates special information into the organization; he works up and sends reports, letters, etc, o Spokesperson disseminates the organizations information into its environment (central government, local government, different offices, media, etc.) and into the organization (e.g. organized labor). 3. Decision roles include: o Entrepreneur role manager analyzes possibilities of companys development and implements systematic changes,

initiates different programs and scientific research, encourages employees to make contribution and present individual ideas for developing the organization, Disturbance handler role manager improves the organizations structures, responds to conflicts, all types of criticism and complaints that appear in the company, solves them and counteracts new ones, eliminates disturbances and negative events in the enterprise. Resource allocate role he chooses where the organization will expand its efforts, distribute limited resources (finance, technical, human, etc) in the organization, regulate their usage in work, prioritizes tasks and procedures. Negotiator role manager negotiates on behalf of the organization in any individual or group, external or internal agreements. you mean by business process

Q.7 what do management?

Answer. Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients. It promotes business effectiveness and efficiency

while striving for innovation, flexibility, and integration with technology. BPM attempts to improve processes continuously. It can therefore be described as a "process optimization process." It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, more effective and more capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach. An empirical study by Kohlbacher (2009) indicates that BPM helps organizations to gain higher customer satisfaction, product quality, delivery speed and time-to-market speed. Que.8 Define organization? Types of organization & principles of organization? Answer. An organization is a social arrangement to distribute tasks for a collective goal. The word itself is derived from the Greek word organon, itself derived from the better-known word ergon - as we know `organ` - and it means a compartment for a particular job. There are a variety of legal types of organizations, including: corporations, governments, non-governmental organizations, international organizations, armed forces, charities, not-for-profit corporations, partnerships, cooperatives, and universities. A hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector, simultaneously fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities. As a result the hybrid organization becomes a mixture of a government and a corporate organization.

A social unit of people, systematically structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals on a continuing basis. All organizations have a management structure that determines relationships between functions and positions, and subdivides and delegates roles, responsibilities, and authority to carry out defined tasks. Organizations are open systems in that they affect and are affected by the environment beyond their boundaries.

Principles of Organization The principles of organization that can facilitate smooth functioning of organization are as follows: 1. Unity of objectives: There should be unity of objective for each member of the organization so that all collective efforts can be concentrated on the set goals. The objectives of organization should be well understood and formulated so that every member is familiar with it. 2. Division of work and specialization: The division of total work is done as to confine every individual to the performance of a single job. It facilitates specialization in the organization and enhances efficiency and quality. Every area of specialization should be

interconnected to the total integrated system by means of coordinating together of all activities done in all departments. 3. Definition of job: There should be appropriate defining of every position in relation to other positions in the organization. The overlapping of functions should be avoided. It can be done by assigning duties and responsibilities to every position and its relationships with other positions in the organization. 4. Separation of line and staff functions: Line functions are those functions that help in accomplishing the main objectives of the company. These line functions should be separated from staff activities. The functions other than line functions are staff functions. 5. Chain of Command and Scalar Principle: According to this scalar principle, the line of authority from top level to bottom level of organization should be clearly defined. This authority refers to the right to decide direct and coordinate. The structure of the organization should facilitate delegation of

authority. The clarity is completely achieved through delegation by steps or levels from the top position to the operating level of the organization. It is also referred to as chain of command. 6. Parity of Authority and Responsibility or Principle of Correspondence: The responsibility delivered to every employee should be accompanied with its corresponding authority. Every subordinate should have sufficient authority to perform responsibilities entrusted to him. It will make him self reliant and can help him in taking quiet decisions without concerning higher departments or authorities. 7. Unity of command: Every subordinate should report to his assigned superiors or boss. It will avoid state of confusion, chaos, conflicts and lack of action in the organization. 8. Unity of Direction: The unity of direction states that group of activities with a common goal should be managed by one person. It encourages one head and one plan of action for a common objective of different activities.

9. Exception principle: The exception principle states that high level of managers should attend to exceptional matters only. The higher level of managers should deal with problems that concerns with unusual matter and policy decisions. The routine decisions should be referred to lower level of managers. 10. Span of supervision: It refers to the number of persons that a manager or supervisor can direct or control. Every manager is confined with restricted numbers of subordinates so that he can direct them efficiently within the limits of available time and ability. The number of persons is dependent on the nature of job and the desired frequency of intensity of supervision required in the organization. 11. Principle of Balance: The principle of balance states that there should be proper balance between various parts of the organization. No function should be given undue importance at the cost of other functions. This balance should also be maintained between centralization and

decentralization, span of supervision and lines of communication and authority allocated to department and personnel at various levels. 12. Communication: The objectives of organization desires good communication network. The two way communication between superiors and subordinates helps in uniting organization into working as effectively operating system. 13. Flexibility: The flexibility in organizational structure helps in adapting to changes in the nature of the business as well as changes corresponding to technological innovations. 14. Continuity: The continuity in efficient performance of organization can be achieved by adapting to new changes that takes place inside or outside the organization. It will help organization to survive and excel for longer duration of time. Q.9 what do you mean by organizational chart? What are the types & limitations of organizational chart?

Answer. An organizational chart (often called organization chart, org chart, organigram, or organogram) is a diagram that shows the structure of an organization and the relationships and relative ranks of its parts and positions/jobs. The term is also used for similar diagrams, for example ones showing the different elements of a field of knowledge or a group of languages. An organizational chart of a company usually shows the managers and sub-workers who make up an organization. It also shows the relationships between directors: managing director chief executive officer: various departments... In many large companies the organization chart can be large and incredibly complicated and is therefore sometimes dissected into smaller charts for each individual department within the organization. There are three different types of organization charts:

Hierarchical Matrix Flat (also known as Horizontal Limitations There are several limitations of organizational charts:

If updated manually, organizational charts can very quickly become out-of-date, especially in large organizations that changes their staff regularly.

They only show 'formal relationships' and tell nothing of the pattern of human (social) relationships which develop. They also often do not show horizontal relationships. They provide little information about the managerial style adopted (e.g. 'autocratic', 'democratic' or an intermediate style) In some cases, an organ graph may be more appropriate, particularly if one wants to show nonlinear, non-hierarchical relationships in an organization. It often does not include customers. Examples

A military example chart for explanation purposes.

Q.10 Define line organization and merits and demerits of line organization.
Line organization is the oldest and simplest method of administrative organization. According to this type of organization, the authority flows from top to bottom in a concern. The line of command is carried out from top to bottom. This is the reason for calling this organization as scalar organization which means scalar chain of command is a part and parcel of this type of administrative organization. In this type of organization, the line of command flows on an even basis without any gaps in communication and coordination taking place. Features of Line Organization It is the simplest form of organization. 2. Line of authority flows from top to bottom. 3. Specialized and supportive services do not take place in this organization. 4. Unified control by the line officers can be maintained since they can independently take decisions in their areas and spheres.
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5. This kind of organization always helps in bringing efficiency in communication and bringing stability to a concern. Merits of Line Organization
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Simplest- It is the most simple and oldest method of administration.

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Unity of Command- In these organizations, superior-subordinate relationship is maintained and scalar chain of command flows from top to bottom. Better discipline- The control is unified and concentrates on one person and therefore, he can independently make decisions of his own. Unified control ensures better discipline. Fixed responsibility- In this type of organization, every line executive has got fixed authority, power and fixed responsibility attached to every authority. Flexibility- There is a co-ordination between the top most authority and bottom line authority. Since the authority relationships are clear, line officials are independent and can flexibly take the decision. This flexibility gives satisfaction of line executives. Prompt decision- Due to the factors of fixed responsibility and unity of command, the officials can take prompt decision.

Demerits of Line Organization


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Over reliance- The line executives decisions are implemented to the bottom. This results in over-relying on the line officials. Lack of specialization- A line organization flows in a scalar chain from top to bottom and there is no scope for specialized functions. For example, expert advices whatever decisions are taken by line managers are implemented in the same way. Inadequate communication- The policies and strategies which are framed by the top authority

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are carried out in the same way. This leaves no scope for communication from the other end. The complaints and suggestions of lower authority are not communicated back to the top authority. So there is one way communication. Lack of Co-ordination- Whatever decisions are taken by the line officials, in certain situations wrong decisions, are carried down and implemented in the same way. Therefore, the degree of effective co- ordination is less. Authority leadership- The line officials have tendency to misuse their authority positions. This leads to autocratic leadership and monopoly in the concern.

Q.11 Define Groups? Give the classification of Groups? Differentiate between formal groups & informal groups? Answer. Two or more people/individuals coming into contact on a continuing basis, personally & meaningfully could be referred to as a group. Informal group comprises of a small number of

people who frequently participate in activities and share feelings for the purpose of meeting their mutual needs. The institution is a set of rules based on implicit understanding, being in most part socially derived and therefore not accessible through written developments or necessarily sanctioned through formal position. These formal institutions include social norms, routines and political processes. Formal group could be defined as the rules that are readily observable through written documents or rules that are determined & executed through formal position such as authority or ownership. They include explicit incentives, contractual terms, & firm boundaries as defined by equity positions, organizational charts and job descriptions generally reflect the formal structure or prescribed network in a given organization. An informal group is a group of people casually acquainted with each other for their own personal fulfillment because they have some common characteristics and concerns (interests/hobbies/friendship). Whilst it is easy to differentiate between a formal group and a formal organization, the differences between informal group and informal organization tend to be blurred.

Que12. What are contributions of Henri Fayol to management thoughts? Henri Fayol, Theory of Administration A. American early focus is worker productivity; in France, the focus is organization and its administration by engineer Henri Fayol, director of Comambault, the French mining company. B. 1918, Industrial and General Administration - translated into English in 1930's to impact US management in organization theory. C. "Fourteen principles of organization identified general rules that successful organizations ought to follow:

1. Division of work work and tasks should be perform by people specialized in the work and similar tasks should be organized as a unit or department. 2. Authority delegated persons ought to have the right to give orders and expect that they be followed. 3. Discipline workers should be obedient and respectful of the organization 4. Unity of command employees should receive orders from only one person with authority 5. Unity of direction the organization and employees are dedicated to one plan of action or set of objectives. 6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest organizational conflict should be limited by the dominance of one objective. 7. Remuneration although Fayol provides no guidance on pay, the organization must recognize the economic value of employees and that their economic interests are important. 8. Centralization whether an organization should be centralized or decentralized depends upon such factors as communications and the importance of who should make the decision. 9. Scalar chain authority in an organization moves in a continuous chain of command from top to bottom. 10. Order everything, people and resources, has a place that it belongs.

Equity fairness is important in management-employee relations 12. Stability of tenure of personnel turnover is disruptive; shared experience is important 13. Initiative Workers are exhorted to be productive and motivated. 14. Esprit de corps there is a need for harmony and unity within the organization
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Que.13 what are contributions of Frederick Taylor to management thoughts? Answer. Frederick Taylor decides to time each and every worker at the Midvale Steel Company. His view of the future becomes highly accurate: "In the past man was first. In the future the system will be first." - Frederick Taylor In scientific management the managers were elevated while the workers' roles were negated. "Science, not rule of thumb, - Frederick Taylor 1929 - Taylorism The Taylor Society publishes a revised and updated practitioner's manual: Scientific Management in American Industry. Que14. What are Fayol Functions and Principles of Management?

Fayol (1841-1925) Management

Functions

and

Principles

of

Henri Fayol, a French engineer and director of mines, was little unknown outside France until the late 40s when Constance Storrs published her translation of Fayol's 1916 Administration Industrielle et Generale ". His theorizing about administration was built on personal observation and experience of what worked well in terms of organization. His aspiration for an "administrative science" sought a consistent set of principles that all organizations must apply in order to run properly. Fayol synthesized various tenets organization and management. or principles of

Fayol's five functions are still relevant to discussion today about management roles and action.
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To forecast and plan Prevoyance examine the future and draw up plans of action To organize build up the structure, material and human of the undertaking To command maintain activity among the personnel To co-ordinate bind together, unify and harmonize activity and effort To control see that everything occurs in conformity with policy and practice

Taylor's 4 Principles of Scientific Management After years of various experiments to determine optimal work methods, Taylor proposed the following four principles of scientific management: 1. Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks. 2. Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leaving them to train themselves. 3. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically developed methods are being followed. 4. Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks. These principles were implemented in many factories, often increasing productivity by a factor of three or more. Henry Ford applied Taylor's principles in his automobile factories, and families even began to perform their household tasks based on the results of time and motion studies. Q Explain the drawbacks of scientific management. Answer. While scientific management principles improved productivity and had a substantial impact on industry, they also increased the monotony of work. The core job dimensions of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback all were missing from the picture of scientific management.

While in many cases the new ways of working were accepted by the workers, in some cases they were not. The use of stopwatches often was a protested issue and led to a strike at one factory where "Taylorism" was being tested. Complaints that Taylorism was dehumanizing led to an investigation by the United States Congress. Despite its controversy, scientific management changed the way that work was done, and forms of it continue to be used today. Que. 15 Contributions of Maslow to the management thought. Answer. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation. Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, all of Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality. Hierarchy Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization at the top. Physiological needs Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans. Clothing and

shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. The intensity of the human sexual instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate adequate to survival of the species. Safety needs Safety and Security needs include:

Personal security Financial security Health and well-being Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

Love and belonging This aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally based relationships in general, such as:

Friendship Intimacy Family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs, or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). Esteem

All humans have a need to be respected and to have selfesteem and self-respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and selfvalued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. Note, however, that many people with low selfesteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels. Self-actualization What a man can be, he must be. This forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is and realizing that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. This is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when applied to individuals the need is specific Self-transcendence Maslow later added Self-transcendence.

Criticisms In their extensive review of research based on Maslow's theory, Wahba and Bridge well found little evidence for the ranking of needs Maslow described, or even for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all. Chilean economist and philosopher Manfred Max-Neef has also argued fundamental human needs are non-hierarchical, and are ontologically universal and invariant in nature.

Q.16 what is the process of organizational development?

The process of Organizational Development comprises of follows steps and they are:1. Initial Diagnosis: The initial diagnosis refers to finding the inadequacies within the organization that can be corrected by OD activities then it is necessary to find out the professionally competent persons within organization to plan and execute OD activities. 2. Data Collection: The survey method is employed to collect the data for determining organizational climate. It also helps in identifying the behavioral problems that are rising in the organization. 3. Data Feedback: The collected data are analyzed and reviewed by various work groups that are formed for this purpose. It is done in order to intervene in the areas of disagreement or confrontation of ideas or opinions. 4) Selection of Interventions: The interventions can be described as the planned activities that are introduced into the system to achieve desired changes and improvements. The suitable interventions are to be selected and designed at this stage. 5) Implementation of Interventions: The

selected intervention should be implemented progressively as the process is not a one shot, quick cure for organizational problems. Consequently, it achieves real and lasting change in the attitudes and behavior of employees. 6) Action Planning and Problem Solving: To solve the specific and identified problems by using the collected data, groups prepare recommendations and specific action planning. 7) Team Building: The consultants explain the advantages of the teams in OD process and encourage the employees throughout the process to form into groups and teams. 8) Inter-group Development: After the formation of groups/teams, the consultants encourage the inter-group meetings, interaction etc. 9) Evaluation and follow up: The organization should evaluate the OD programmers and should find out their utility, and develop the programmers further for correcting the deviations. The consultants make great significance to the organization in this respect. The entire steps in the OD processes should be followed by the

organization in order to derive full range of OD benefits. Q 16 what is organization development? Answer : Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations. The process is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization, its employees and its stakeholders. The client organization may be an entire company, public agency, non-profit organization, volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization. The change process supports improvement of the organization or group as a whole. The client and consultant work together to gather data, define issues and determine a suitable course of action. The organization is assessed to create an understanding of the current situation and to identify opportunities for change that will meet business objectives. OD differs from traditional consulting because client involvement is encouraged throughout the entire process. The ways in which people communicate and work together are addressed concurrently with technical or procedural issues that need resolution. Q 17 Why is organization development important? Answer: Profitability, productivity, morale and quality of work life are of concern to most organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals. There is an increasing trend to maximize an organization's investment

in its employees. Jobs that previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort. Organizations need to "work smarter" and apply creative ideas. The work force has also changed. Employees expect more from a day's work than simply a day's pay. They want challenge, recognition, a sense of accomplishment, worthwhile tasks and meaningful relationships with their managers and co-workers. When these needs are not met, performance declines. Today's customers demand continually improving quality, rapid product or service delivery; fast turn-around time on changes, competitive pricing and other features that are best achieved in complex environments by innovative organizational practices. The effective organization must be able to meet today's and tomorrow's challenges. Adaptability and responsiveness are essential to survive and thrive. Q. 18 what do organization development consultants do? Answer: OD consultants custom tailors established social science theory and methods to organizations seeking to improve profitability, productivity, morale and/or quality of work life. Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are: Team Goal Group building Setting Facilitation

Creative Problem solving Strategic Planning Leadership Development Management Development Career Management Conflict Resolution Developmental Education Interpersonal Communication Human Resources Management Managing Workforce Diversity Organization Restructuring High Involvement Work Teams Socio technical Systems Design Technical Training Total Quality Management There are both internal and external OD consultants. An internal OD consultant is a full-time employee with a given organization. External consultants may be self-employed or on the staff of a consulting firm. "Externals" work with one or more clients contracting for specific projects. Q. 19 what does organization development consultants serve? Answer: OD consultants work with all levels of employees. Examples include: The Board of Directors, CEO or Vice Presidents -- during changes in corporate strategy, mission, leadership development, technology or organization structure.

Middle Managers -- within specific areas or across functions to identify sources of conflict and barriers to performance, or help build a broader vision and more effective leadership. First-line supervisors -- improve operations and employee involvement, establish high involvement work teams, improve organizational communication, install statistical process control (SPC) develop supervisory training or new reward systems. Line workers -- to facilitate job redesign improved performance, teambuilding or improvement in the work environment. Q. 20 what are different OD services? Answer: Organization Development (OD) consultants provide services to improve organization effectiveness and/or individual employee effectiveness. The purposes are to increase productivity, work satisfaction and profit for the client company. The strategies appearing below "Organization" and "Employee" Effectiveness are defined to help you become an informed user of OD consultant services. Organization Effectiveness Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when there are needs for assessment, planning, growth, quality improvement, teamwork and other organizational changes.

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units as a foundation for other consulting strategies.) Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots, developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict. Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEO's or VP's to improve their effectiveness. Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an organization get where it wants to go. (Can also be applied to employee development.) Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to apply group guidelines that foster open communication, participation and accomplishment. Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify, understand, and begin to manage their resistance to planned organizational change. Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental and/or individual reporting structures, identifying roles and responsibilities, redesigning job functions to assure that the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and service.

Project Management - The general management of specific work, blending diverse functions and skills, usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes. Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating a well defined segment of finished work. Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize the relationship between people's performance, the workplace environment and the technology used to produce goods and services in order to affect high level productivity. Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organization's mission and vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and future resources toward fulfilling its vision. Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities where they must interact. Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis, teambuilding, defining quality and setting measurable standards, the consultant assists the organization in becoming more cost effective, approach zero-defects and be more market-driven. Q. 21 Defining ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE AND DESIGN. Answer. There are several definitions that must be understood as a precursor

to understanding organizational structure and design. A. Organizing is the process of creating an organization's structure. B. Organization structure is an organization's framework as expressed by its degree of complexity, formalization, and centralization. C.Complexity is defined as the amount of differentiation in an organization. D. Formalization is the degree to which an organization relies on rules and procedures to direct the behavior of employees. E. Centralization is defined as the concentration of decision-making authority in upper management. Decentralization is the handing down of decision-making authority to lower levels in an organization. F.Organization design is development or changing of organization's structure. the an

Q. 23 BUILDING THE VERTICAL DIMENSION OF ORGANIZATIONS. A. Unity of command is defined as the principle that a subordinate should have one and only one superior to whom he or she is directly responsible.

1. In the classical view, unity of command was strictly adhered to. In the rare instance when the principle had to be violated, it was clearly designated that there be an explicit separation of activities and a supervisor responsible for each. B. Authority and responsibility. Authority is defined as the rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders and expect them to be obeyed. Responsibility is defined as an obligation to perform assigned activities. Q. Why is organizing important? Answer Organizing is important and fulfills many different purposes. The process allows the division of work into specific jobs and departments. It allows the assignment of tasks and responsibilities associated with specific jobs. It coordinates diverse organizational tasks. It clusters jobs into units and establishes relationships among individuals, groups, and departments. It establishes formal lines of authority. Finally, it allows the allocation and deployment of organizational resources.

2. Which is more efficient - a wide or a narrow span of control? Why? All other things being equal, a wide span is more efficient. This is true because it requires fewer managers. However, it is important to recognize that, at some point, effectiveness will decline. 3. Why did the classical writers argue that authority should equal responsibility? The classical writers argued that authority should equal responsibility so that managers were not responsible for outcomes over which they had no authority and to protect against excessive use of authority. 4. Can the manager of a staff department have line authority? Explain. Yes. Managers of staff departments have line authority over those individuals in their department who report directly to them. 5. Describe the ways that managers can departmentalize. Management can departmentalize by function, product or service, customer or client, geography, or process. 6. Compare and contrast Woodward's and Perrow's technology frameworks. What

are their implications for organization design? Woodward found distinct relationships between her technology classifications (unit production, mass production, and process production) and the subsequent structure of the organizations. She also found that the effectiveness of the organization was related to the "fit" between technology and structure. The implication for organization design is that managers should consider the technology classification and make sure it fits with the type of appropriate structure. Perrow proposed that technology can be viewed in terms of two dimensions: task variability and problem analyzability. He used these two dimensions to construct a matrix of four cells. Each cell represents a certain type of technology: routine, engineering, craft, and non routine. Perrow argues that each technology should be matched with a preferred organization design. Essentially, this translates into using a mechanistic design with routine and engineering technologies, and an organic design with craft and non routine technologies.

7. What are three major contingency factors that affect organization design? How? Three major contingency factors that affect organization design include strategy, size, and technology. Strategy affects organization design in that structure should change as an organization's strategy changes. Size affects organization design because as organizations grow, they tend to become more formalized and bureaucratic. Finally, technology affects organization design because the production process should fit with the type of organization structure in order to be effective. 8. What are the characteristics of mechanistic and organic organizations? Mechanistic organizations are high in complexity, formalization, and centralization. Organic organizations are low in complexity, formalization, and centralization. 9. Do you think the various types of organization structure designs described in this chapter would also be appropriate for not-for-profit organizations? Explain.

Yes, these organization designs would also be appropriate for not-for-profit organizations. These organizations also face design issues regarding complexity, formalization, and centralization. 10. What do you think some of the disadvantages of team-based structures and boundary less organizations might be? Could these disadvantages be minimized? How? Obviously, team-based structures and boundary less organizations are going to have minimal formalization and centralization. This could create some coordination and control problems for managers. However, these disadvantages could be minimized by having mechanisms in place to manage conflicts over coordination and control. Q. Explain the common types of departmentalization. Answer The common types of departmentalization are as follows: Functional departmentalization - Grouping activities by functions performed. Activities can be grouped according to function (work being done) to pursue economies of scale by placing employees with shared skills and knowledge into departments for example human resources, IT, accounting, manufacturing, logistics, and engineering. Functional departmentalization can be used in all types of organizations.

Product departmentalization - Grouping activities by product line. Tasks can also be grouped according to a specific product or service, thus placing all activities related to the product or the service under one manager. Each major product area in the corporation is under the authority of a senior manager who is specialist in, and is responsible for, everything related to the product line. LA Gear is an example of company that uses product departmentalization. Its structure is based on its varied product lines which include womens footwear, childrens footwear and mens footwear. Customer departmentalization - Grouping activities on the basis of common customers or types of customers. Jobs may be grouped according to the type of customer served by the organization. The assumption is that customers in each department have a common set of problems and needs that can best be met by specialists. The sales activities in an office supply firm can be broken down into three departments that serve retail, wholesale and government accounts. Geographic departmentalization - Grouping activities on the basis of territory. If an organization's customers are geographically dispersed, it can group jobs based on geography. For example, the organization structure of Coca-Cola has reflected the companys operation in two broad geographic.

Q. Explain centralization & decentralization?

Centralization is said to be a process where the concentration of decision making is in a few hands. All the important decision and actions at the lower level, all subjects and actions at the lower level are subject to the approval of top management. According to Allen, Centralization is the systematic and consistent reservation of authority at central points in the organization. The implication of centralization can be :1. Reservation of decision making power at top level. 2. Reservation of operating authority with the middle level managers. 3. Reservation of operation at lower level at the directions of the top level.

On the other hand, Decentralization is a systematic delegation of authority at all levels of management and in all of the organization. In a decentralization concern, authority in retained by the top management for taking major decisions and framing policies concerning the whole concern. Rest of the authority may be delegated to the middle level and lower level of management.

The degree of centralization and decentralization will depend upon the amount of authority delegated to the lowest level. According to Allen, Decentralization refers to the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest level of

authority except that which can be controlled and exercised at central points. Decentralization is not the same as delegation. In fact, decentralization is all extension of delegation. Decentralization pattern is wider is scope and the authorities are diffused to the lowest most level of management. There is a saying that Everything that increasing the role of subordinates is decentralization and that decreases the role is centralization. Decentralization is wider in scope and the subordinates responsibility increase in this case. On the other hand, in delegation the managers remain answerable even for the acts of subordinates to their superiors. Q. What are Implication s of Decentralization? Answer Implications of Decentralization
There are fewer burdens on the Chief Executive as in the case of centralization. 2. In decentralization, the subordinates get a chance to decide and act independently which develops skills and capabilities. This way the organization is able to process reserve of talents in it. 3. In decentralization, diversification and horizontal can be easily implanted. 4. In decentralization, concern diversification of activities can place effectively since there is more scope for creating new departments. Therefore, diversification growth is of a degree.
1.

5. In decentralization structure, operations can be coordinated at divisional level which is not possible in the centralization set up. 6. In the case of decentralization structure, there is greater motivation and morale of the employees since they get more independence to act and decide. 7. In a decentralization structure, co-ordination to some extent is difficult to maintain as there are lot many department divisions and authority is delegated to maximum possible extent, i.e., to the bottom most level delegation reaches.

Q. what is management? Answer Management can be defined in detail in following categories:


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Management as a Process Management as an Activity Management as a Discipline Management as a Group Management as a Science Management as an Art Management as a Profession

George R. Terry, Management is a distinct process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish stated objective by the use of human beings and other resources. As a process, management consists of three aspects:
1.

Management is a social process - Since human factor is most important among the other factors, therefore

2.

3.

management is concerned with developing relationship among people. It is the duty of management to make interaction between people productive and useful for obtaining organizational goals. Management is an integrating process Management undertakes the job of bringing together human physical and financial resources so as to achieve organizational purpose. Therefore, is an important function to bring harmony between various factors? Management is a continuous process - It is a never ending process. It is concerned with constantly identifying the problem and solving them by taking adequate steps. It is an on-going process.

Q. 28: Justify Management is a science? Science is characterized by following main features:


1.

Universally acceptance principles - Scientific principles represents basic truth about a particular field of enquiry. These principles may be applied in all situations, at all time & at all places. E.g. - law of gravitation which can be applied in all countries irrespective of the time. Management also contains some fundamental principles which can be applied universally like the Principle of Unity of Command i.e. one man, one boss. This principle is applicable to all type of organization - business or non business.

2.

Experimentation & Observation - Scientific principles are derived through scientific investigation & researching i.e. they are based on logic. E.g. the principle that earth goes round the sun has been scientifically proved. Management principles are also based on scientific enquiry & observation and not only on the opinion of Henry Fayol. They have been developed through experiments & practical experiences of large no. of managers. E.g. it is observed that fair remuneration to personal helps in creating a satisfied work force.

3.

Cause & Effect Relationship - Principles of science lay down cause and effect relationship between various variables. E.g. when metals are heated, they are expanded. The cause is heating & result is expansion. The same is true for management; therefore it also establishes cause and effect relationship. E.g. lack of parity (balance) between authority & responsibility will lead to ineffectiveness. If you know the cause i.e. lack of balance, the effect can be ascertained easily i.e. in effectiveness. Similarly if workers are given bonuses, fair wages they will work hard but when not treated in fair and just manner, reduces productivity of organization.

4.

Test of Validity & Predictability - Validity of scientific principles can be tested at any time or any number of times i.e. they stand the test of time. Each

time these tests will give same result. Moreover future events can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by using scientific principles. E.g. H2 & O2 will always give H2O. Principles of management can also be tested for validity. E.g. principle of unity of command can be tested by comparing two persons - one having single boss and one having 2 bosses. The performance of 1st person will be better than 2nd. Q. Justify Management is an Art? Management as an Art Art implies application of knowledge & skill to trying about desired results. An art may be defined as personalized application of general theoretical principles for achieving best possible results. Art has the following characters 1.

Practical Knowledge: Every art requires practical knowledge therefore learning of theory is not sufficient. It is very important to know practical application of theoretical principles. E.g. to become a good painter, the person may not only be knowing different colour and brushes but different designs, dimensions, situations etc to use them appropriately. A manager can never be successful just by obtaining degree or

2.

3.

diploma in management; he must have also known how to apply various principles in real situations by functioning in capacity of manager. Personal Skill: Although theoretical base may be same for every artist, but each one has his own style and approach towards his job. That is why the level of success and quality of performance differs from one person to another. E.g. there are several qualified painters but M.F. Hussain is recognized for his style. Similarly management as an art is also personalized. Every manager has his own way of managing things based on his knowledge, experience and personality, that is why some managers are known as good managers (like Aditya Birla, Rahul Bajaj) whereas others as bad. Creativity: Every artist has an element of creativity in line. That is why he aims at producing something that has never existed before which requires combination of intelligence & imagination. Management is also creative in nature like any other art. It combines human and non-human resources in useful way so as to achieve desired results. It tries to produce sweet music by combining chords in an efficient manner.

4.

5.

Perfection through practice: Practice makes a man perfect. Every artist becomes more and more proficient through constant practice. Similarly managers learn through an art of trial and error initially but application of management principles over the years makes them perfect in the job of managing. Goal-Oriented: Every art is result oriented as it seeks to achieve concrete results. In the same manner, management is also directed towards accomplishment of predetermined goals. Managers use various resources like men, money, material, machinery & methods to promote growth of an organization.

Q. Justify Management as both Science and Art Answer Management is both an art and a science. The above mentioned points clearly reveal that management combines features of both science as well as art. It is considered as a science because it has an organized body of knowledge which contains certain universal truth. It is called an art because managing requires certain skills which are personal possessions of managers. Science provides the knowledge & art deals with the application of knowledge and skills. A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the knowledge of science & the art of applying it. Therefore management is a judicious blend of science as

well as an art because it proves the principles and the way these principles are applied is a matter of art. Science teaches to know and art teaches to do. E.g. a person cannot become a good singer unless he has knowledge about various ragas & he also applies his personal skill in the art of singing. Same way it is not sufficient for manager to first know the principles but he must also apply them in solving various managerial problems that is why, science and art are not mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other (like tea and biscuit, bread and butter etc.). The old saying that Manager are Born has been rejected in favor of Managers are Made. It has been aptly remarked that management is the oldest of art and youngest of science. To conclude, we can say that science is the root and art is the fruit. Management is an activity concerned with guiding human and physical resources such that organizational goals can be achieved. Nature of management can be highlighted as: 1.

Management is Goal-Oriented: The success of any management activity is accessed by its achievement of the predetermined goals or objective. Management is a purposeful activity. It is a tool which helps use of human & physical resources to fulfill the predetermined goals. For example, the goal of an enterprise is maximum consumer satisfaction by producing quality goods and at reasonable prices. This can be achieved by employing efficient persons and making better use of scarce resources.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Management integrates Human, Physical and Financial Resources: In an organization, human beings work with non-human resources like machines. Materials, financial assets, buildings etc. Management integrates human efforts to those resources. It brings harmony among the human, physical and financial resources. Management is Continuous: Management is an ongoing process. It involves continuous handling of problems and issues. It is concerned with identifying the problem and taking appropriate steps to solve it. E.g. the target of a company is maximum production. For achieving this target various policies have to be framed but this is not the end. Marketing and Advertising is also to be done. For this policies have to be again framed. Hence this is an ongoing process. Management is all Pervasive: Management is required in all types of organizations whether it is political, social, cultural or business because it helps and directs various efforts towards a definite purpose. Thus clubs, hospitals, political parties, colleges, hospitals, business firms all require management. When ever more than one person is engaged in working for a common goal, management is necessary. Whether it is a small business firm which may be engaged in trading or a large firm like Tata Iron & Steel, management is required everywhere irrespective of size or type of activity. Management is a Group Activity: Management is very much less concerned with individuals efforts. It is more concerned with groups. It involves the use of

group effort to achieve predetermined goal of management of ABC & Co. is good refers to a group of persons managing the enterprise. Q. 31 Explain the levels of management The term Levels of Management refers to a line of demarcation between various managerial positions in an organization. The number of levels in management increases when the size of the business and work force increases and vice versa. The level of management determines a chain of command, the amount of authority & status enjoyed by any managerial position. The levels of management can be classified in three broad categories: 1. 2. 3.

Top level / Administrative level Middle level / Executory Low level / Supervisory / Operative / First-line managers

Managers at all these levels perform different functions. The role of managers at all the three levels is discussed below:

LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT Top Level of Management It consists of board of directors, chief executive or managing director. The top management is the ultimate source of authority and it manages goals and policies for an enterprise. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating functions. The role of the top management can be summarized as follows a.Top management lays down the objectives and broad policies of the enterprise. b.It issues necessary instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures, schedules etc. c. It prepares strategic plans & policies for the enterprise.

d.It appoints the executive for middle level i.e. departmental managers. e.It controls & coordinates the activities of all the departments. f. It is also responsible for maintaining a contact with the outside world. g.It provides guidance and direction. h.The top management is also responsible towards the shareholders for the performance of the enterprise. Middle Level of Management The branch managers and departmental managers constitute middle level. They are responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. In small organization, there is only one layer of middle level of management but in big enterprises, there may be senior and junior middle level management. Their role can be emphasized as i. They execute the plans of the organization in accordance with the policies and directives of the top management. j. They make plans for the sub-units of the organization. k. They participate in employment & training of lower level management.

l. They interpret and explain policies from top level management to lower level. m. They are responsible for coordinating the activities within the division or department. n.It also sends important reports and other important data to top level management. o.They evaluate performance of junior managers. p.They are also responsible for inspiring lower level managers towards better performance. Lower Level of Management Lower level is also known as supervisory / operative level of management. It consists of supervisors, foreman, section officers, superintendent etc. According to R.C. Davis, Supervisory management refers to those executives whose work has to be largely with personal oversight and direction of operative employees. In other words, they are concerned with direction and controlling function of management. Their activities include q.Assigning of jobs and tasks to various workers. r. They guide and instruct workers for day to day activities.

s. They are responsible for the quality as well as quantity of production. t. They are also entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining good relation in the organization. u.They communicate workers problems, suggestions, and recommendatory appeals etc to the higher level and higher level goals and objectives to the workers. v.They help to solve the grievances of the workers. w. They supervise & guide the subordinates. x.They are responsible for providing training to the workers. y.They arrange necessary materials, machines, tools etc for getting the things done. z. They prepare periodical reports about the performance of the workers. aa. They ensure discipline in the enterprise. bb. They motivate workers. cc. They are the image builders of the enterprise because they are in direct contact with the workers. Q. what are the main objectives of management? Answer The main objectives of management are:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Getting Maximum Results with Minimum Efforts The main objective of management is to secure maximum outputs with minimum efforts & resources. Management is basically concerned with thinking & utilizing human, material & financial resources in such a manner that would result in best combination. This combination results in reduction of various costs. Increasing the Efficiency of factors of Production Through proper utilization of various factors of production, their efficiency can be increased to a great extent which can be obtained by reducing spoilage, wastages and breakage of all kinds, this in turn leads to saving of time, effort and money which is essential for the growth & prosperity of the enterprise. Maximum Prosperity for Employer & Employees Management ensures smooth and coordinated functioning of the enterprise. This in turn helps in providing maximum benefits to the employee in the shape of good working condition, suitable wage system, incentive plans on the one hand and higher profits to the employer on the other hand. Human betterment & Social Justice - Management serves as a tool for the upliftment as well as betterment of the society. Through increased productivity & employment, management ensures better standards of living for the society. It provides justice through its uniform policies.

Q. What is Importance of Management? Answer It helps in Achieving Group Goals - It arranges the factors of production, assembles and organizes

the resources, integrates the resources in effective manner to achieve goals. It directs group efforts towards achievement of pre-determined goals. By defining objective of organization clearly there would be no wastage of time, money and effort. Management converts disorganized resources of men, machines, money etc. into useful enterprise. These resources are coordinated, directed and controlled in such a manner that enterprise work towards attainment of goals. Optimum Utilization of Resources - Management utilizes all the physical & human resources productively. This leads to efficacy in management. Management provides maximum utilization of scarce resources by selecting its best possible alternate use in industry from out of various uses. It makes use of experts, professional and these services leads to use of their skills, knowledge, and proper utilization and avoids wastage. If employees and machines are producing its maximum there is no under employment of any resources. Reduces Costs - It gets maximum results through minimum input by proper planning and by using minimum input & getting maximum output. Management uses physical, human and financial resources in such a manner which results in best combination. This helps in cost reduction. Establishes Sound Organization - No overlapping of efforts (smooth and coordinated functions). To establish sound organizational structure is one of the objective of management which is in tune with objective of organization and for fulfillment of this, it establishes effective authority & responsibility relationship i.e. who is accountable to

whom, who can give instructions to whom, who are superiors & who are subordinates. Management fills up various positions with right persons, having right skills, training and qualification. All jobs should be cleared to everyone. Establishes Equilibrium - It enables the organization to survive in changing environment. It keeps in touch with the changing environment. With the change is external environment, the initial co-ordination of organization must be changed. So it adapts organization to changing demand of market / changing needs of societies. It is responsible for growth and survival of organization. Essentials for Prosperity of Society - Efficient management leads to better economical production which helps in turn to increase the welfare of people. Good management makes a difficult task easier by avoiding wastage of scarce resource. It improves standard of living. It increases the profit which is beneficial to business and society will get maximum output at minimum cost by creating employment opportunities which generate income in hands. Organization comes with new products and researches beneficial for society. Q. What is difference between Management and Administration? According to Theo Haimann, Administration means overall determination of policies, setting of major objectives, the identification of general purposes and lying down of broad programmers and projects. It

refers to the activities of higher level. It lays down basic principles of the enterprise. According to Newman, Administration means guidance, leadership & control of the efforts of the groups towards some common goals. Whereas, management involves conceiving, initiating and bringing together the various elements; coordinating, actuating, integrating the diverse organizational components while sustaining the viability of the organization towards some predetermined goals. In other words, it is an art of getting things done through & with the people in formally organized groups. The difference between Management and Administration can be summarized under 2 categories: Functions 2.Usage / Applicability
1. On the Basis of Functions: -

Basis

Management

Administration It is concerned with formulation of broad objectives, plans & policies.

Meanin Management is an g art of getting things done through others by directing their efforts towards achievement of

pre-determined goals. Nature Management is an Administration is executing function. a decisionmaking function. Management decides who should as it & how should he dot it. Administration decides what is to be done & when it is to be done. Administration is a thinking function because plans & policies are determined under it.

Proces s

Functio Management is a n doing function because managers get work done under their supervision. Skills Technical Human skills

and Conceptual and Human skills

Level

Middle & lower Top level function level function

On the Basis of Usage: Basis Applicabil ity Management It is applicable to business concerns i.e. profit-making organization. The management decisions are influenced by the values, opinions, beliefs & decisions of the managers. Management constitutes the employees of the organization who are paid remuneration (in the form of Administration It is applicable to non-business concerns i.e. clubs, schools, hospitals etc. The administration is influenced by public opinion, govt. policies, religious organizations, customs etc. Administration represents owners of the enterprise who earn return on their capital invested & profits

Influence

Status

salaries wages).

& in the form dividend.

of

Q. Describe different functions of Management? Answer Planning It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals. According to KOONTZ, Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be. A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc. Organizing

It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals. According to Henry Fayol, To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnels. To organize a business involves determining & providing human and nonhuman resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a process involves:

Identification of activities. Classification of grouping of activities. Assignment of duties. Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility. Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.

Staffing It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to Kootz & ODonnell, Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure. Staffing involves:

Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and giving the right place). Recruitment, selection & placement. Training & development. Remuneration. Performance appraisal. Promotions & transfer. Directing

It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating subordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:

Supervision Motivation Leadership Communication

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of watching & directing work & workers.

Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose. Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of subordinates in desired direction. Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding. Controlling It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, Controlling is the process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation. According to Koontz & ODonnell Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being accomplished. Therefore controlling has following steps:

Establishment of standard performance. . Measurement of actual performance. . Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any. . Corrective action.

Co-ordination is the unification, integration, synchronization of the efforts of group members so as to provide unity of action in the pursuit of common goals. It is a hidden force which binds all the other functions of management. According to Mooney and Reelay, Coordination is orderly arrangement of group efforts to provide unity of action in the pursuit of common goals. According to Charles Worth, Co-ordination is the integration of several parts into an orderly hole to achieve the purpose of understanding. Management seeks to achieve co-ordination through its basic functions of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. That is why; co-ordination is not a separate function of management because achieving of harmony between individuals efforts towards achievement of group goals is a key to success of management. Co-ordination is the essence of management and is implicit and inherent in all functions of management. A manager can be compared to an orchestra conductor since both of them have to create rhythm and unity in the activities of group members. Co-ordination is an integral element or ingredient of all the managerial functions as discussed below: -

a.

b.

c.

d.

Co-ordination through Planning - Planning facilitates co-ordination by integrating the various plans through mutual discussion, exchange of ideas. e.g. - co-ordination between finance budget and purchases budget. Co-ordination through Organizing - Mooney considers co-ordination as the very essence of organizing. In fact when a manager groups and assigns various activities to subordinates, and when he creates departments co-ordination uppermost in his mind. Co-ordination through Staffing - A manager should bear in mind that the right no. of personnel in various positions with right type of education and skills are taken which will ensure right men on the right job. Co-ordination through Directing - The purpose of giving orders, instructions & guidance to the subordinates is served only when there is a harmony between superiors & subordinates. Co-ordination through Controlling - Manager ensures that there should be co-ordination between actual performance & standard performance to achieve organizational goals.

e.

From above discussion, we can very much affirm that coordination is the very much essence of management. It is required in each & every function and at each & every stage & therefore it cannot be separated.

Coordination and Cooperation Co-ordination is an orderly arrangement of efforts to provide unity of action in the fulfillment of common objective whereas co-operation denotes collective efforts of persons working in an enterprise voluntarily for the achievement of a particular purpose. It is the willingness of individuals to help each other. Co-ordination is an effort to integrate effectively energies of different groups whereas co-operation is sort to achieve general objectives of business. Though these two are synonymous but they are different as below: Q. Differentiate between Co-ordination and Co-operation Co-ordination Co-operation

Basis Meaning

It is an orderly It means mutual arrangement of help willingly. group efforts in pursuit of common goals. It is broader It is termed as a than co- part of cooperation ordination.

Scope

which includes as well because it harmonizes the group efforts. Process The function of co-ordination is performed by top management. Co-ordination is required by employees and departments at work irrespective of their work. The functions of co-operation are prepared by persons at any level. Co-operation is emotional in nature because it depends on the willingness of people working together.

Requireme nts

Relationshi p

It establishes It establishes formal and informal informal relationship. relationships. It is planned It depends upon

Freedom

and entrusted by the central authority & it is essential. Support It seeks wholehearted support from various people working at various levels.

the sweet will of the individuals and therefore it is not necessary. Co-operation without coordination is fruitless & therefore it may lead to unbalanced developments.

. Q What are features of principles of management?


1.

Principles of Management are Universal a.Management principles are applicable to all kinds of organizations - business & non business. b. They are applicable to all levels of management. c. Every organization must make best possible use by the use of management principles.

2.

3.

4.

d.Therefore, they are universal or all pervasive. Principles of Management are Flexible a.Management principles are dynamic guidelines and not static rules. b.There is sufficient room for managerial discretion i.e. they can be modified as per the requirements of the situation. c. Modification & improvement is a continuous phenomenon in case of principles of management. Principles of Management have a Cause & Effect Relationship a.Principles of management indicate cause and effect relationship between related variables. b.They indicate what will be the consequence or result of certain actions. Therefore, if one is known, the other can be traced. Principles of Management - Aims at Influencing Human Behavior a.Human behavior is complex and unpredictable. b.Management principles are directed towards regulating human behavior so that people can give their best to the organization.

5.

c. Management is concerned with integrating efforts and harmonizing them towards a goal. d.But in certain situations even these principles fail to understand human behavior. Principles of Management are of Equal Importance a.All management principles are equally important. b.No particular principle has greater importance than the other. c. They are all required together for the achievement of organizational goals.

Q. What is Importance of management principles?


Answer Following are the main importance of the Principles of Management.
1. 2. 3. 4. 1.

Improves Understanding. Direction for Training of Managers. Role of Management. Guide to Research in Management. Improves Understanding - From the knowledge of principles managers get indication on how to manage an organization. The principles enable managers to decide what should be done to accomplish given tasks and to handle situations which may arise in management.

2.

3.

4.

These principles make managers more efficient. Direction for Training of Managers Principles of management provide understanding of management process what managers would do to accomplish what. Thus, these are helpful in identifying the areas of management in which existing & future managers should be trained. Role of Management - Management principles makes the role of managers concrete. Therefore these principles act as ready reference to the managers to check whether their decisions are appropriate. Besides these principles define managerial activities in practical terms. They tell what a manager is expected to do in specific situation. Guide to Research in Management The body of management principles indicate lines along which research should be undertaken to make management practical and more effective. The principles guide managers in decision making and action. The researchers can examine whether the guidelines are useful or not. Anything which makes management research more exact & pointed will help improve management practice.

Q.

What are management

the

principles

of

scientific

Development of Science for each part of mens job (replacement of rule of thumb) a.This principle suggests that work assigned to any employee should be observed, analyzed with respect to each and every element and part and time involved in it. b.This means replacement of odd rule of thumb by the use of method of enquiry, investigation, data collection, analysis and framing of rules. c. Under scientific management, decisions are made on the basis of facts and by the application of scientific decisions. Scientific Selection, Training & Development of Workers d.There should be scientifically designed procedure for the selection of workers. e.Physical, mental & other requirement should be specified for each and every job. f. Workers should be selected & trained to make them fit for the job.

g.The management has to provide opportunities for development of workers having better capabilities. h.According to Taylor efforts should be made to develop each employee to his greatest level and efficiency & prosperity. Co-operation between Management & workers or Harmony not discord i. Taylor believed in co-operation and not individualism. j. It is only through co-operation that the goals of the enterprise can be achieved efficiently. k. There should be no conflict between managers & workers. l. Taylor believed that interest of employer & employees should be fully harmonized so as to secure mutually understanding relations between them. Division of Responsibility m. This principle determines the concrete nature of roles to be played by different level of managers & workers. n.The management should assume the responsibility of planning the work whereas workers should be concerned with execution of task.

o.Thus planning is to be separated from execution. Mental Revolution p.The workers and managers should have a complete change of outlook towards their mutual relation and work effort. q.It requires that management should create suitable working condition and solve all problems scientifically. r. Similarly workers should attend their jobs with utmost attention, devotion and carefulness. They should not waste the resources of enterprise. s. Handsome remuneration should be provided to workers to boost up their moral. t. It will create a sense of belongingness among worker. u.They will be disciplined, loyal and sincere in fulfilling the task assigned to them. v.There will be more production and economical growth at a faster rate. Maximum Prosperity for Employer & Employees w. The aim of scientific management is to see maximum prosperity for employer and employees.

x.It is important only when there is opportunity for each worker to attain his highest efficiency. y.Maximum output & optimum utilization of resources will bring higher profits for the employer & better wages for the workers. z. There should be maximum output in place of restricted output. aa. Both managers & workers should be paid handsomely. Q. What are management? techniques of scientific

Answer Time Study a.It is a technique which enables the manager to ascertain standard time taken for performing a specified job. b.Every job or every part of it is studied in detail. c. This technique is based on the study of an average worker having reasonable skill and ability. d.Average worker is selected and assigned the job and then with the help of a stop watch, time is ascertained for performing that particular job. e.Taylor maintained that Fair days work should be determined through

observations, experiment and analysis by keeping in view an average worker. Standard Time Working Hours = Fair Days Work Motion Study a.In this study, movement of body and limbs required to perform a job are closely observed. b.In other words, it refers to the study of movement of an operator on machine involved in a particular task. c. The purpose of motion study is to eliminate useless motions and determine the bet way of doing the job. d.By undertaking motion study an attempt is made to know whether some elements of a job can be eliminated combined or their sequence can be changed to achieve necessary rhythm. e.Motion study increases the efficiency and productivity of workers by cutting down all wasteful motions.

Functional Foremanship

a.Taylor advocated functional foremanship for achieving ultimate specification. b. This technique was developed to improve the quality of work as single supervisor may not be an expert in all the aspects of the work. c. Therefore workers are to be supervised by specialist foreman. d.The scheme of functional foremanship is an extension of principle pf specialization at the supervisory level. e.Taylor advocated appointment of 8 foramen, 4 at the planning level & other 4 at implementation level. f. The names & function of these specialist foremen are: o Instruction card clerk concerned with tagging down of instructions according to which workers are required to perform their job o Time & cost clerk is concerned with setting a time table for doing a job & specifying the material and labor cost involved in it. o Route clerk determines the route through which raw materials has to be passed.

Shop Disciplinarians are concerned with making rules and regulations to ensure discipline in the organization. Gang boss makes the arrangement of workers, machines, tools, workers etc. Speed boss concerned with maintaining the speed and to remove delays in the production process. Repair boss concerned with maintenance of machine, tools and equipments. Inspector is concerned with maintaining the quality of product.

Standardization It implies the physical attitude of products should be such that it meets the requirements & needs of customers. b.Taylor advocated that tools & equipments as well as working conditions should be standardized to achieve standard output from workers. c. Standardization is a means of achieving economics of production. d.It seems to ensure o The line of product is restricted to predetermined type, form, design, size, weight, quality. Etc o There is manufacture of identical parts and components.
a.

Quality & standards have been maintained. Standard of performance are established for workers at all levels.

Q. Explain criticism of scientific management.


Answer Although it is accepted that the scientific management enables the management to put resources to its best possible use and manner, yet it has not been spared of severe criticism.

Workers Viewpoint
1.

2.

3.

Unemployment - Workers feel that management reduces employment opportunities from them through replacement of men by machines and by increasing human productivity less workers are needed to do work leading to chucking out from their jobs. Exploitation - Workers feel they are exploited as they are not given due share in increasing profits which is due to their increased productivity. Wages do not rise in proportion as rise in production. Wage payment creates uncertainty & insecurity (beyond a standard output, there is no increase in wage rate). Monotony Due to excessive specialization the workers are not able to take initiative on their own. Their status is

4.

5.

reduced to being mere cogs in wheel. Jobs become dull. Workers loose interest in jobs and derive little pleasure from work. Weakening of Trade Union - To everything is fixed & predetermined by management. So it leaves no room for trade unions to bargain as everything is standardized, standard output, standard working conditions, standard time etc. This further weakens trade unions, creates a rift between efficient & in efficient workers according to their wages. Over speeding the scientific management lays standard output, time so they have to rush up and finish the work in time. These have adverse effect on health of workers. The workers speed up to that standard output, so scientific management drives the workers to rush towards output and finish work in standard time.

Employers Viewpoint
1.

Expensive - Scientific management is a costly system and a huge investment is required in establishment of planning dept., standardization, work study, training of workers. It may be beyond reach of small firms. Heavy food investment leads to increase in overhead costs.

2.

3.

Time Consuming Scientific management requires mental revision and complete reorganizing of organization. A lot of time is required for work, study, standardization & specialization. During this overhauling of organization, the work suffers. Deterioration of Quality

Basis Human aspect

Taylor Taylor disregards human elements and there is more stress on improving men, materials and methods

Fayol Fayol pays due regards on human element. E.g. Principle of initiative, Spirit De Corps and Equity recognizes a need for human relations of

Status

Father of Father scientific management management principles

Efficiency & Stressed administrati efficiency on Approach

on Stressed on general administration It has macroapproach and discuses general principles of management which are applicable in every field of management.

It has microapproach because it is restricted to factory only

Scope of These These are principles principles are applicable in all restricted to kinds of production organization activities regarding their management affairs Achievemen t Scientific management Administrative management

Q. Explain the planning function of management Planning means looking ahead and chalking out future courses of action to be followed. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. Planning is a detailed programmed regarding future courses of action. It is rightly said Well plan is half done. Therefore planning takes into consideration available & prospective human and physical resources of the organization so as to get effective co-ordination, contribution & perfect adjustment. It is the basic management function which includes formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources. According to Urwick, Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses. Planning is deciding best alternative among others to perform different managerial functions in order to achieve predetermined goals. According to Koontz & ODonnell, Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go. It makes possible things to occur which would not otherwise occur. Q. What are the different steps in planning function?

Answer Planning function of management involves following steps:Establishment of objectives a.Planning requires a systematic approach. b.Planning starts with the setting of goals and objectives to be achieved. c. Objectives provide a rationale for undertaking various activities as well as indicate direction of efforts. d.Moreover objectives focus the attention of managers on the end results to be achieved. e.As a matter of fact, objectives provide nucleus to the planning process. Therefore, objectives should be stated in a clear, precise and unambiguous language. Otherwise the activities undertaken are bound to be ineffective. f. As far as possible, objectives should be stated in quantitative terms. For example, Number of men is working, wages given, units produced, etc. But such an objective cannot be stated in quantitative terms like performance of quality control manager, effectiveness of personnel manager. g.Such goals should be specified in qualitative terms.

h.Hence objectives should be practical, acceptable, workable and achievable. Establishment of Planning Premises i. Planning premises are the assumptions about the lively shape of events in future. j. They serve as a basis of planning. k. Establishment of planning premises is concerned with determining where one tends to deviate from the actual plans and causes of such deviations. l. It is to find out what obstacles are there in the way of business during the course of operations. m. Establishment of planning premises is concerned to take such steps that avoid these obstacles to a great extent. n. Planning premises may be internal or external. Internal includes capital investment policy, management labor relations, philosophy of management, etc. Whereas external includes socioeconomic, political and economical changes. o.Internal premises are controllable whereas external are non- controllable. Choice of alternative course of action p.When forecast are available and premises are established, a number of

alternative course of actions have to be considered. q.For this purpose, each and every alternative will be evaluated by weighing its pros and cons in the light of resources available and requirements of the organization. r. The merits, demerits as well as the consequences of each alternative must be examined before the choice is being made. s. After objective and scientific evaluation, the best alternative is chosen. t. The planners should take help of various quantitative techniques to judge the stability of an alternative. Formulation of derivative plans u.Derivative plans are the sub plans or secondary plans which help in the achievement of main plan. v. Secondary plans will flow from the basic plan. These are meant to support and expedite the achievement of basic plans. w. These detail plans include policies, procedures, rules, programmers, budgets, schedules, etc. For example, if profit maximization is the main aim of the enterprise, derivative plans will

include sales maximization, production maximization, and cost minimization. x.Derivative plans indicate time schedule and sequence of accomplishing various tasks. Securing Co-operation y.After the plans have been determined, it is necessary rather advisable to take subordinates or those who have to implement these plans into confidence. z. The purposes behind taking them into confidence are :i. Subordinates may feel motivated since they are involved in decision making process. ii. The organization may be able to get valuable suggestions and improvement in formulation as well as implementation of plans. iii. Also the employees will be more interested in the execution of these plans. Follow up/Appraisal of plans aa. After choosing a particular course of action, it is put into action. bb. After the selected plan is implemented, it is important to appraise its effectiveness.

cc. This is done on the basis of feedback or information received from departments or persons concerned. dd. This enables the management to correct deviations or modify the plan. ee. This step establishes a link between planning and controlling function. ff. The follow up must go side by side the implementation of plans so that in the light of observations made, future plans can be made more realistic. Q. Explain organizing function of management.
Answer Organizing is the function of management which follows planning. It is a function in which the synchronization and combination of human, physical and financial resources takes place. All the three resources are important to get results. Therefore, organizational function helps in achievement of results which in fact is important for the functioning of a concern. According to Chester Barnard, Organizing is a function by which the concern is able to define the role positions, the jobs related and the co- ordination between authority and responsibility. Hence, a manager always has to organize in order to get results.

A manager performs organizing function with the help of following steps:-

1.

2.

3.

Identification of activities - All the activities which have to be performed in a concern have to be identified first. For example, preparation of accounts, making sales, record keeping, quality control, inventory control, etc. All these activities have to be grouped and classified into units. Departmentally organizing the activities - In this step, the manager tries to combine and group similar and related activities into units or departments. This organization of dividing the whole concern into independent units and departments is called departmentation. Classifying the authority - Once the departments are made, the manager likes to classify the powers and its extent to the managers. This activity of giving a rank in order to the managerial positions is called hierarchy. The top management is into formulation of policies, the middle level management into departmental supervision and lower level management into supervision of foremen. The clarification of authority helps in bringing efficiency in the running of a concern. This helps in achieving efficiency in the running of a concern. This helps in avoiding wastage of time, money, effort, in

4.

avoidance of duplication or overlapping of efforts and this helps in bringing smoothness in a concerns working. Co-ordination between authority and responsibility Relationships are established among various groups to enable smooth interaction toward the achievement of the organizational goal. Each individual is made aware of his authority and he/she knows whom they have to take orders from and to whom they are accountable and to whom they have to report. A clear organizational structure is drawn and all the employees are made aware of it.

Q. Explain the staffing function of management and nature of staffing function. The managerial function of staffing involves manning theA organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal and development of the personnels to fill the roles assigned to the employers/workforce. According to Theo Haimann, Staffing pertains to recruitment, selection, development and compensation of subordinates. Nature of Staffing Function
1.

Staffing is an important managerial function- Staffing function is the most

important managerial act along with planning, organizing, directing and controlling. The operations of these four functions depend upon the manpower which is available through staffing function. Q. What are the steps involved in staffing.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Manpower requirements- The very first step in staffing is to plan the manpower inventory required by a concern in order to match them with the job requirements and demands. Therefore, it involves forecasting and determining the future manpower needs of the concern. Recruitment- Once the requirements are notified, the concern invites and solicits applications according to the invitations made to the desirable candidates. Selection- This is the screening step of staffing in which the solicited applications are screened out and suitable candidates are appointed as per the requirements. Orientation and Placement- Once screening takes place, the appointed candidates are made familiar to the work units and work environment through the

5.

6.

7.

orientation programmers. Placement takes place by putting right man on the right job. Training and Development- Training is a part of incentives given to the workers in order to develop and grow them within the concern. Training is generally given according to the nature of activities and scope of expansion in it. Along with it, the workers are developed by providing them extra benefits of in depth knowledge of their functional areas. Development also includes giving them key and important jobs as a test or examination in order to analyze their performances. RemunerationIt is a kind of compensation provided monetarily to the employees for their work performances. This is given according to the nature of jobskilled or unskilled, physical or mental, etc. Remuneration forms an important monetary incentive for the employees. Performance Evaluation- In order to keep a track or record of the behavior, attitudes as well as opinions of the workers towards their jobs. For this regular assessment is done to evaluate and supervise different work units in a concern. It is basically concerning to know the development cycle and growth patterns of the employees in a concern.

8.

Promotion and transfer- Promotion is said to be a non- monetary incentive in which the worker is shifted from a higher job demanding bigger responsibilities as well as shifting the workers and transferring them to different work units and branches of the same organization. obstacles in manpower

Q. What are the planning?

Answer Following are the main obstacles that organizations face in the process of manpower planning: der Utilization of Manpower: The biggest obstacle in case of manpower planning is the fact that the industries in general are not making optimum use of their manpower and once manpower planning begins, it encounters heavy odds in stepping up the utilization.

Degree of Absenteeism: Absenteeism is quite high and has been increasing since last few years. 2. Lack of Education and Skilled Labour: The extent of illiteracy and the slow pace of development of the skilled categories account for low productivity in employees. Low productivity has implications for manpower planning. 3. Manpower Control and Review:
1.

a.Any increase in manpower is considered at the top level of management b.On the basis of manpower plans, personnel budgets are prepared. These act as control mechanisms to keep the manpower under certain broadly defined limits. c. The productivity of any organization is usually calculated using the formula: Productivity = Output / Input . But a rough index of employee productivity is calculated as follows: Employee Productivity Production / Total employees
d.

= Total no. of

Exit Interviews, the rate of turnover and rate of absenteeism are source of vital information on the satisfaction level of manpower. For conservation of Human Resources and better utilization of men studying this condition, manpower control would have to take into account the data to make meaningful analysis. e.Extent of Overtime: The amount of overtime paid may be due to real

shortage of men, ineffective management or improper utilization of manpower. Manpower control would require a careful study of overtime statistics. Few Organizations do not have sufficient records and information on manpower. Several of those who have them do not have a proper retrieval system. There are complications in resolving the issues in design, definition and creation of computerized personnel information system for effective manpower planning and utilization. Even the existing technologies in this respect are not optimally used. This is a strategic disadvantage. Q. What are the t ypes of recruitment? Recruitment is of 2 types
1.

Internal Recruitment is a recruitment which takes place within the concern or organization. Internal sources of recruitment are readily available to an organization. Internal sources are primarily three - Transfers, promotions and Re-employment of exemployees. Re-employment of exemployees is one of the internal sources of recruitment in which employees can be invited and appointed to fill vacancies in the concern. There are situations when ex-

employees provide applications also.

unsolicited

Internal recruitment may lead to increase in employees productivity as their motivation level increases. It also saves time, money and efforts. But a drawback of internal recruitment is that it refrains the organization from new blood. Also, not all the manpower requirements can be met through internal recruitment. Hiring from outside has to be done. Internal sources are primarily 3
a. b.

c.

Transfers Promotions (through Internal Job Postings) and Re-employment of ex-employees - Reemployment of ex-employees is one of the internal sources of recruitment in which employees can be invited and appointed to fill vacancies in the concern. There are situations when ex-employees provide unsolicited applications also. External Recruitment - External sources of recruitment have to be solicited from outside the organization. External sources are external to a concern. But it involves lot of time and money. The external sources of recruitment include Employment at factory gate,

2.

advertisements, employment exchanges, employment agencies, educational institutes, labor contractors, recommendations etc. a. Employment at Factory Level - This a source of external recruitment in which the applications for vacancies are presented on bulletin boards outside the Factory or at the Gate. This kind of recruitment is applicable generally where factory workers are to be appointed. There are people who keep on soliciting jobs from one place to another. These applicants are called as unsolicited applicants. These types of workers apply on their own for their job. For this kind of recruitment workers have a tendency to shift from one factory to another and therefore they are called as badly workers. b. Advertisement - It is an external source which has got an important place in recruitment procedure. The biggest advantage of advertisement is that it covers a wide area of market and scattered applicants can get information from advertisements. Medium used is Newspapers and Television.

c.

d.

e.

f.

Employment Exchanges - There are certain Employment exchanges which are run by government. Most of the government undertakings and concerns employ people through such exchanges. Now-a-days recruitment in government agencies has become compulsory through employment exchange. Employment Agencies - There are certain professional organizations which look towards recruitment and employment of people, i.e. these private agencies run by private individuals supply required manpower to needy concerns. Educational Institutions - There are certain professional Institutions which serve as an external source for recruiting fresh graduates from these institutes. This kind of recruitment done through such educational institutions is called as Campus Recruitment. They have special recruitment cells which help in providing jobs to fresh candidates. Recommendations There are certain people who have experience in a particular area. They enjoy goodwill and a stand in the company. There are

g.

certain vacancies which are filled by recommendations of such people. The biggest drawback of this source is that the company has to rely totally on such people which can later on prove to be inefficient. Labour Contractors - These are the specialist people who supply manpower to the Factory or Manufacturing plants. Through these contractors, workers are appointed on contract basis, i.e. for a particular time period. Under conditions when these contractors leave the organization, such people who are appointed have to also leave the concern. directing function of

Q.

Explain the management.

Answer

DIRECTING is said to be a process in which the managers instruct, guide and oversee the performance of the workers to achieve predetermined goals. Directing is said to be the heart of management process. Planning, organizing, staffing has got no importance if direction function does not take place. Directing initiates action and it is from here actual work starts. Direction is said to be consisting of human factors. In simple words, it can be described as providing guidance to

workers is doing work. In field of management, direction is said to be all those activities which are designed to encourage the subordinates to work effectively and efficiently. According to Human, Directing consists of process or technique by which instruction can be issued and operations can be carried out as originally planned Therefore, Directing is the function of guiding, inspiring, overseeing and instructing people towards accomplishment of organizational goals. Direction has got following characteristics:
1.

2.

3.

4.

Pervasive Function - Directing is required at all levels of organization. Every manager provides guidance and inspiration to his subordinates. Continuous Activity - Direction is a continuous activity as it continuous throughout the life of organization. Human Factor - Directing function is related to subordinates and therefore it is related to human factor. Since human factor is complex and behavior is unpredictable, direction function becomes important. Creative Activity - Direction function helps in converting plans into performance. Without this function, people become

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6.

inactive and physical resources are meaningless. Executive Function - Direction function is carried out by all managers and executives at all levels throughout the working of an enterprise; a subordinate receives instructions from his superior only. Delegate Function Direction is supposed to be a function dealing with human beings. Human behavior is unpredictable by nature and conditioning the peoples behavior towards the goals of the enterprise is what the executive does in this function. Therefore, it is termed as having delicacy in it to tackle human behavior.

Q.

Explain the Importance of directing function. Answer Directing or Direction function is said to be the heart of management of process and therefore, is the central point around which accomplishment of goals take place. A few philosophers call Direction as Life spark of an enterprise. It is also called as on actuating function of management because it is through direction that the operation of an enterprise actually starts. Being the central character of

enterprise, it provides many benefits to a concern which are as follows:1.

2.

3.

It Initiates Actions - Directions is the function which is the starting point of the work performance of subordinates. It is from this function the action takes place, subordinates understand their jobs and do according to the instructions laid. Whatever are plans laid, can be implemented only once the actual work starts. It is there that direction becomes beneficial. It Ingrates Efforts - Through direction, the superiors are able to guide, inspire and instruct the subordinates to work. For this, efforts of every individual towards accomplishment of goals are required. It is through direction the efforts of every department can be related and integrated with others. This can be done through persuasive leadership and effective communication. Integration of efforts bring effectiveness and stability in a concern. Means of Motivation - Direction function helps in achievement of goals. A manager makes use of the element of motivation here to improve the performances of subordinates. This can be done by providing incentives or compensation, whether monetary or non - monetary,

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5.

which serves as a Morale booster to the subordinates Motivation is also helpful for the subordinates to give the best of their abilities which ultimately helps in growth. It Provides Stability - Stability and balance in concern becomes very important for long term sun survival in the market. This can be brought upon by the managers with the help of four tools or elements of direction function - judicious blend of persuasive leadership, effective communication, strict supervision and efficient motivation. Stability is very important since that is an index of growth of an enterprise. Therefore a manager can use of all the four traits in him so that performance standards can be maintained. Coping up with the changes - It is a human behavior that human beings show resistance to change. Adaptability with changing environment helps in sustaining planned growth and becoming a market leader. It is directing function which is of use to meet with changes in environment, both internal as external. Effective communication helps in coping up with the changes. It is the role of manager here to communicate the nature and contents of changes very clearly to the subordinates. This helps in clarifications, easy

6.

adaptations and smooth running of an enterprise. Efficient Utilization of Resources Direction finance helps in clarifying the role of every subordinate towards his work. The resources can be utilized properly only when less of wastages, duplication of efforts, overlapping of performances, etc. dont take place. Through direction, the role of subordinates become clear as manager makes use of his supervisory, the guidance, the instructions and motivation skill to inspire the subordinates. This helps in maximum possible utilization of resources of men, machine, materials and money which helps in reducing costs and increasing profits.

From the above discussion, one can justify that direction, surely, is the heart of management process. Heart plays an important role in a human body as it serves the function pumping blood to all parts of body which makes the parts function. In the similar manner, direction helps the subordinates to perform in best of their abilities and that too in a healthy environment. The manager makes use of the four elements of direction here so that work can be accomplished in a proper and right manner. According to Earnest Dale, Directing is what has to be done and in what manner through dictating the procedures and policies for accomplishing performance standards. Therefore, it is

rightly said that direction is essence of management process. Q. Explain the role of a supervisor. Supervisor has got an important role to play in factory management. Supervision means overseeing the subordinates at work at the factory level. The supervisor is a part of the management team and he holds the designation of first line managers. He is a person who has to perform many functions which helps in achieving productivity. Therefore, supervisor can be called as the only manager who has an important role at execution level. There are certain philosophers who call supervisors as workers. There are yet some more philosophers who call them as managers. But actually he should be called as a manager or operative manager. His primary job is to manage the workers at operative level of management. A supervisor plays multiplinary role at one time like 1.

2.

3.

As a Planner - A supervisor has to plan the daily work schedules in the factory. At the same time he has to divide the work to various workers according to their abilities. As a Manager - It is rightly said that a supervisor is a part of the management team of an enterprise. He is, in fact, an operative manager. As a Guide and Leader - A factory supervisor leads the workers by guiding them the way of perform their

4.

5.

6.

daily tasks. In fact, he plays a role of an inspirer by telling them. As a Mediator - A Supervisor is called a linking pin between management and workers. He is the spokesperson of management as well as worker. As an Inspector - An important role of supervisor is to enforce discipline in the factory. For this, the work includes checking progress of work against the time schedule, recording the work performances at regular intervals and reporting the deviations if any from those. He can also frame rules and regulations which have to be followed by workers during their work. As a Counselor - A supervisor plays the role of a counselor to the workers problem. He has to perform this role in order to build good relations and cooperation from workers. This can be done not only by listening to the grievances but also handling the grievances and satisfying the workers.

Therefore, we can say that effective and efficient supervision helps in serving better work performance, building good human relations, creating a congenial and co-operative environment. This all helps in increasing productivity. Q. What are supervisor? the different functions of a

Answer Supervisor, being the manager in a direct contact with the operatives, has got multifarious function to perform. The objective behind performance of these functions is to bring

stability and soundness in the organization which can be secured through increase in profits which is an end result of higher productivity. Therefore, a supervisor should be concerned with performing the following functions 1.

2.

3.

4.

Planning and Organizing - Supervisors basic role is to plan the daily work schedule of the workers by guiding them the nature of their work and also dividing the work amongst the workers according to their interests, aptitudes, skills and interests. Provision of working conditions - A supervisor plays an important role in the physical setting of the factory and in arranging the physical resources at right place. This involves providing proper sitting place, ventilation, lighting, water facilities etc. to workers. His main responsibility is here to provide healthy and hygienic condition to the workers. Leadership and Guidance - A supervisor is the leader of workers under him. He leads the workers and influences them to work their best. He also guides the workers by fixing production targets and by providing them instruction and guidelines to achieve those targets. Motivation - A supervisor plays an important role by providing different incentives to workers to perform better.

There are different monetary and nonmonetary incentives which can inspire the workers to work better. 5. Controlling - Controlling is an important function performed by supervisor. This will involve i. Recording the actual performance against the time schedule. ii. Checking of progress of work. iii. Finding out deviations if any and making solutions iv. If not independently solved, reporting it to top management. 6. Linking Pin - A supervisor proves to be a linking pin between management and workers. He communicates the policies of management to workers also passes instructions to them on behalf of management. On the other hand, he has a close contact with the workers and therefore can interact the problems, complaints, suggestions, etc to the management. In this way, he communicates workers problems and brings it to the notice of management. 7. Grievance Handling - The supervisor can handle the grievances of the workers effectively for this he has to do the following things :i. He can be in direct touch with workers.

ii. By winning the confidence of the workers by solving their problems. iii. By taking worker problems on humanitarian grounds. iv. If he cannot tackle it independently, he can take the help and advice of management to solve it. 8. Reporting - A supervisor has got an important role to report about the cost, quality and any such output which can be responsible for increasing productivity. Factors like cost, output, performance, quality, etc can be reported continually to the management. 9. Introducing new work methods - The supervisor here has to be conscious about the environment of market and competition present. Therefore he can innovate the techniques of production. He can shift the workers into fresh schedules whenever possible. He can also try this best to keep on changing and improving to the physical environment around the workers. This will result in i. Higher productivity, ii. High Morale of Workers, iii. Satisfying working condition, iv. Improving human relations, v. Higher Profits, and vi. High Stability

10.

Enforcing Discipline - A supervisor can undertake many steps to maintain discipline in the concern by regulating checks and measures, strictness in orders and instructions, keeping an account of general discipline of factory, implementing penalties and punishments for the indiscipline workers. All these above steps help in improving the overall discipline of the factory.

Q.

Explain the controlling function of management. Controlling consists of verifying whether everything occurs in conformities with the plans adopted, instructions issued and principles established. Controlling ensures that there is effective and efficient utilization of organizational resources so as to achieve the planned goals. Controlling measures the deviation of actual performance from the standard performance, discovers the causes of such deviations and helps in taking corrective actions According to Brech, Controlling is a systematic exercise which is called as a process of checking actual performance against the standards or plans with a view to ensure adequate progress and also recording such experience as is gained as a contribution to possible future needs.

Controlling has got two basic purposes 1.It facilitates co-ordination 2.It helps in planning Features of Controlling Function Following are the characteristics of controlling function of management1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Controlling is an end function- A function which comes once the performances are made in conformities with plans. Controlling is a pervasive functionwhich means it is performed by managers at all levels and in all type of concerns. Controlling is forward looking- because effective control is not possible without past being controlled. Controlling always looks to future so that follow-up can be made whenever required. Controlling is a dynamic process- since controlling requires taking reviewable methods; changes have to be made wherever possible. Controlling is related with planningPlanning and Controlling are two in

separable fun ctions of management. Without planning, controlling is a meaningless exercise and without controlling, planning is useless. Planning presupposes controlling and controlling succeeds planning. Q. Explain the process of controlling.
Answer Controlling as a management function involves following steps:
1.

Establishment of standards- Standards are the plans or the targets which have to be achieved in the course of business function. They can also be called as the criterions for judging the performance. Standards generally are classified into twoa.Measurable or tangible - Those standards which can be measured and expressed are called as measurable standards. They can be in form of cost, output, expenditure, time, profit, etc. b.Non-measurable or intangible- There are standards which cannot be measured monetarily. For exampleperformance of a manager, deviation of workers, their attitudes towards a concern. These are called as intangible standards.

Controlling becomes easy through establishment of these standards because controlling is exercised on the basis of these standards.
2.

Measurement of performance- The second major step in controlling is to measure the performance. Finding out deviations becomes easy through measuring the actual performance. Performance levels are sometimes easy to measure and sometimes difficult. Measurement of tangible standards is easy as it can be expressed in units, cost, money terms, etc. Quantitative measurement becomes difficult when performance of manager has to be measured. Performance of a manager cannot be measured in quantities. It can be measured only bya.Attitude of the workers, b.Their morale to work, c. The development in the attitudes regarding the physical environment, and d.Their communication with the superiors. It is also sometimes done through various reports like weekly, monthly, quarterly, yearly reports.

3.

Comparison of actual and standard performance- Comparison of actual performance with the planned targets is very important. Deviation can be defined as the gap between actual performance and the planned targets. The manager has to find out two things here- extent of deviation and cause of deviation. Extent of deviation means that the manager has to find out whether the deviation is positive or negative or whether the actual performance is in conformity with the planned performance. The managers have to exercise control by exception. He has to find out those deviations which are critical and important for business. Minor deviations have to be ignored. Major deviations like replacement of machinery, appointment of workers, quality of raw material, rate of profits, etc. should be looked upon consciously. Therefore it is said, If a manager controls everything, he ends up controlling nothing. For example, if stationery charges increase by a minor 5 to 10%, it can be called as a minor deviation. On the other hand, if monthly production decreases continuously, it is called as major deviation.

4.

Taking remedial actions- Once the causes and extent of deviations are known, the manager has to detect those errors and take remedial measures for it. There are two alternatives herea.Taking corrective measures for deviations which have occurred; and b.After taking the corrective measures, if the actual performance is not in conformity with plans, the manager can revise the targets. It is here the controlling process comes to an end. Follow up is an important step because it is only through taking corrective measures, a manager can exercise controlling.

Q. What is the relationship between planning and controlling?


Answer Planning and controlling are two separate functions of management, yet they are closely related. The scope of activities if both is overlapping to each other. Without the basis of planning, controlling activities becomes baseless and without controlling, planning becomes a meaningless exercise. In absence of controlling, no purpose can be served by. Therefore, planning and controlling reinforce each other. According to Billy Goetz,

"Relationship between the two can be summarized in the following points

Planning proceeds controlling and controlling succeeds planning. 2. Planning and controlling are inseparable functions of management. 3.Activities are put on rails by planning and they are kept at right place through controlling. 4.The process of planning and controlling works on Systems Approach which is as follows :
1.

Planning e Action

Results

Correctiv

5.Planning and controlling are integral parts of an organization as both are important for smooth running of an enterprise. 6. Planning and controlling reinforce each other. Each drives the other function of management. Q. Explain the requirements of a sound organization? Or Main characteristics of organization? 1. It has well defined and agreed common purpose. 2. It involves assignment of task and activities.

3.

This involves dividing the work which enhances both efficiency & proficiency. It has clearly defined roles, responsibilities & authorities at all levels. informal channels

4.

5. It has formal & communication within it.

6. Co-ordination & co-operation are very basic elements of Organization & process involved in it. 7. There are rules & regulations governing people & process. Q. What is culture? Answer The attitude, traits and behavioral patterns which govern the way an individual interacts with others is termed as culture. Culture is something which one inherits from his ancestors and it helps in distinguishing one individual from the other. Q. What is organization culture? Every human being has certain personality traits which help them stand apart from the crowd. No two individuals behave in a similar way. In the same way organizations have certain values, policies, rules and guidelines which help them create an image of their own.

Organization culture refers to the beliefs and principles of a particular organization. The culture followed by the organization has a deep impact on the employees and their relationship amongst themselves. Every organization has a unique culture making it different from the other and giving it a sense of direction. It is essential for the employees to understand the culture of their workplace to adjust well. Organization A In organization A, the employees are not at all disciplined and are least bothered about the rules and regulations. They reach their office at their own sweet time and spend their maximum time gossiping and loitering around. Organization B This organization follows employee friendly policies and it is mandatory for all to adhere to them. It is important for the employees to reach their workplace on time and no one is allowed to unnecessarily roam around or spread rumors. Which organization do you feel would perform better? Obviously organization B The employees follow a certain culture in organization B making it more successful than organization A. No two organizations can have the same culture. The values or policies of a non-profit organization would be different from that of a profit making entity or employees

working in a restaurant would follow a different culture as compared to those associated with education industry or a manufacturing industry. Broadly there are two types of organization culture:

Strong Organization Culture: Strong organizational culture refers to a situation where the employees adjust well, respect the organizations policies and adhere to the guidelines. In such a culture people enjoy working and take every assignment as a new learning and try to gain as much as they can. They accept their roles and responsibilities willingly. Weak Organization Culture: In such a culture individuals accept their responsibilities out of fear of superiors and harsh policies. The employees in such a situation do things out of compulsion. They just treat their organization as a mere source of earning money and never get attached to it.

Normative Culture: In such a culture, the norms and procedures of the organization are predefined and the rules and regulations are set as per the existing guidelines. The employees behave in an ideal way and strictly adhere to the policies of the organization. No employee dares to break the rules and sticks to the already laid policies.

Pragmatic Culture: In a pragmatic culture, more emphasis is placed on the clients and the external parties. Customer satisfaction is the main motive of the employees in a pragmatic culture. Such organizations treat their clients as Gods and do not follow any set rules. Every employee strives hard to satisfy his clients to expect maximum business from their side. Academy Culture: Organizations following academy culture hire skilled individuals. The roles and responsibilities are delegated according to the back ground, educational qualification and work experience of the employees. Organizations following academy culture are very particular about training the existing employees. They ensure that various training programmers are being conducted at the workplace to hone the skills of the employees. The management makes sincere efforts to upgrade the knowledge of the employees to improve their professional competence. The employees in an academy culture stick to the organization for a longer duration and also grow within it. Educational institutions, universities, hospitals practice such a culture. Baseball team Culture: A baseball team culture considers the employees as the most treasured possession of the organization. The employees are the true assets of the organization who have a major role in its successful functioning. In such a culture, the individuals always have an upper edge and they do not bother much about their organization. Advertising agencies, event management companies, financial institutions follow such a culture. Club Culture: Organizations following a club culture are very particular about the employees they recruit. The

individuals are hired as per their specialization, educational qualification and interests. Each one does what he is best at. The high potential employees are promoted suitably and appraisals are a regular feature of such a culture. Fortress Culture: There are certain organizations where the employees are not very sure about their career and longevity. Such organizations follow fortress culture. The employees are terminated if the organization is not performing well. Individuals suffer the most when the organization is at a loss. Stock broking industries follow such a culture. Tough Guy Culture: In a tough guy culture, feedbacks are essential. The performance of the employees is reviewed from time to time and their work is thoroughly monitored. Team managers are appointed to discuss queries with the team members and guide them whenever required. The employees are under constant watch in such a culture. bet your company Culture: Organizations which follow bet your company culture take decisions which involve a huge amount of risk and the consequences are also unforeseen. The principles and policies of such an organization are formulated to address sensitive issues and it takes time to get the results. Process Culture: As the name suggests the employees in such a culture adhere to the processes and procedures of the organization. Feedbacks and performance reviews do not matter much in such organizations. The employees abide by the rules and regulations and work according to the ideologies of the workplace. All government organizations follow such a culture.

Organizational Culture Defined Organizational culture comprises the attitudes, experiences, Beliefs, and values of the organization, acquired through Social learning that control the way individuals and groups In the organization interact with one another and with parties outside it. A standard typology refers to communal, networked, mercenary, and fragmented cultures. Numerous other typologies exist. Nevertheless, the necessary notion to grasp is that organizational culture is determined by sundry factors that find expression in organizational structure, making structure itself an important culture-bearing mechanism. Strong and Weak Cultures Organizational culture varies more than any other corporate asset, including large and tangible information and communication technology infrastructure. It is said to be strong where employees respond to stimuli because of their alignment with it. Conversely, it is said to be weak where there is little alignment, and control is exercised with administrative orders. Organizational Culture and Change Regardless, if an organization is to succeed and thrive, a knowledge culture must develop to help it deal with its external environment. But organizational culture is hard to change in the

best circumstances. Employees need time to get used to new ways of organizing. Defensive routines pollute the system, more often than not unwittingly, and undermine it. The dynamics of culture change must be considered an evolutionary process at individual, group, organizational, and interorganizational levels, to be facilitated by psychologically attentive leaders who do not underestimate the value of selection, socialization, and leadership. People cannot hare knowledge if they do not speak a common language. And so there is a serious, oft-ignored need to root learning in human resource policies and strategies. Organizational Learning for Change Observers recognize a correlation between the orientations of organizational culture and organizational learning. Indeed, the inability to change organizational behavior is repeatedly cited as the biggest hindrance to knowledge management. For this reason, even if the need to take a hard look at an organizations culture extends the time required to prepare knowledge management initiatives, the benefits from doing so are likely to tell. Organizations that are more successful in implementing knowledge management initiatives embody both operations- and people-oriented attributes. Typically, a learning

culture is an organizational environment that enables, encourages, values, rewards, and uses the learning of its members, both individually and collectively. But many cultural factors inhibit knowledge transfer. The table below lists the most common frictions and suggests ways to overcome them. Most importantly, when sharing knowledge, the method must always suit the culture as that affects how people think, feel, and act.

Q. What is the internal and external environment in an organization? Answer There are things, situations, and events that occur from within and outside the organization and affect the organization in either a positive or negative way. Some refer to them as driving forces, while others call them environmental scans. Internal driving forces refer to events that occur inside the organization and are by-and-large under the control of the organization. For example, does the organization have state of the art technology? If it does, it will impact on the organization in a positive way. If not, it will affect it in a negative way. Another might be appropriate organization of equipment or employee morale. External driving forces are those things that occur outside the organization and are by-and-large not under its control. These might include demographics, economy, competition, government regulations, etc. For example, if government regulations become very restrictive, it may have a negative affect on an organization. However, it could also have a positive impact if the regulations loosen trade barriers, taxes,etc. Whichever the case, informational resources on the internal and external environmental forces are critical to an organizations stability and survivability and all this data must be collected and analyzed from which to implement strategies and to maximize the organizations strengths and opportunities, while minimizing its weakness and threats.

Q. What makes a good leader? Answer Although there are some generic leadership qualities that all leaders need to develop, the leadership qualities that are required to make a good leader can vary in different companies, teams and situations. This can be illustrated in both art and modern leadership models. For example, the fact that leadership qualities are dependent on context is demonstrated in the play The Admirable Crichton and the film Twelve Oclock High. In "The Admirable Crichton", written in 1902, the Lord and butler swap their roles as leader and servant as the situation changes. On a desert island, the butler's practical skills are essential for survival, whereas the Lord's knowledge of English politics is of no value. In the film "Twelve Oclock High", produced in 1949, as a squadron starts to suffer increasing losses during the war, the leader's people-oriented approach starts to fail. He is replaced by a dictatorial bully who turns the squadron round and restores their pride (in a modern setting, such leadership behavior would often be regarded as unacceptable). Leadership Styles In theory, the ideal scenario is for a leader to have infinite flexibility. That means you are able to adapt your leadership style according to the situation and/or the state of the team - e.g.: to be an executive leader when a team is Forming but to be a participative leader when a team is

Performing (the different leadership styles for different situations are described on our leadership styles page). This need to change one's leadership style according to the circumstances is one of the fundamental principles underlying popular models such as Situational Leadership (develop by Blanchard and Hersey in the late 1960s). However, modern leadership theory has begun to realize that the perfect, flexible leader does not exist. Everyone has strengths and weakness, and there is a need to strike a balance using the individual's preferred styles and meeting the needs of the situation. The modern goal is to develop 'good enough' leadership. Perspective How you look to develop leadership qualities will depend on whether you are looking at the subject from the perspective of an organization or an individual. The former is driven by need, the latter by talent. Organizations need leaders who will support the organizational culture and aims. For them, therefore, leadership development involves:

identifying the leadership characteristics and/or profile of people who will enhance organizational performance selecting/recruiting individuals whose character, skills and potential closely match that profile

developing the particular skills/abilities within those individuals so they can fulfill their leadership potential within the organization

For example, leadership in the emergency services requires strong executive and management skills. However, if you, as an individual, are seeking to develop into a position of leadership then you need to build on your own natural talents - trying to be a type of leader that is unnatural for you can lead to stress, executive burnout and poor performance. That is, you need to:

discover your natural leadership style and qualities develop those qualities into tangible skills find a role or organization that matches your leadership talents, where what you have to offer will be valued

For example, leadership in a sports team requires physical fitness, sporting prowess and the ability to lead by example. To investigate this topic further, here are some further readings and resources:

A Leadership Qualities Checklist showing the common attributes required of all leaders A Leadership Styles and Qualities Questionnaire to help identify your individual leadership style, and match it against the leadership demands of various industries/disciplines. An article on the Difference Between Leadership and Management.

Q What are the different levels of leadership in an organization? Answer We can usefully analyze three levels of leadership within an organization:
1. People Leaders 2. Operational Leaders 3. Strategic Leaders

People leaders People leaders are the first official leaders in an organization. They are given a role that requires them to lead. This is different from the more informal leadership role that someone may choose to take within the organization. People leaders generally operate at a team level and their main responsibility is for the people who work in their team. Their focus is primarily on day-to day tactical accomplishments that they and their team are responsible for. People leaders need to spend a considerable amount of time coaching, training, developing, and influencing small groups and individuals. As the first line leaders in an organization they will also be required to inspire and motivate the people in their teams to improved levels of performance. People leaders are often the medium through which organizations communicate to their employees. Operational leaders

Operational leaders usually have responsibility for a departmental function or functions. They will often need to manage managers that are beyond their own functional area. Their focus is primarily on optimizing the processes & performance of their unit. Operational leaders need to balance short-term functional concerns with a longer view on sustaining and driving competitive advantage. Strategic leaders Strategic leaders operate at the senior levels in an organization and will have responsibility for a (sometimes wide) range of organizational functions. Their focus is on driving execution. Strategic leaders need to ensure alignment between organizational strategy and the capability of the organization. Strategic leaders as the name implies need to formulate future strategy.
Q. What are the principles of change management?
1.

2.

At all times involve and agree support from people within system (system = environment, processes, culture, relationships, behaviors, etc., whether personal or organizational). Understand where you/the organization is at the moment.

3.Understand where you want to be, when, why, and what the measures will be for having got there. 4.Plan development towards above No.3 in appropriate achievable measurable stages. 5.Communicate, involve, enable and facilitate involvement from people, as early and openly and as fully as is possible.

Q. Explain, John P Kotter's 'eight steps to successful change' Answer American John P Kotter (b 1947) is a Harvard Business School professor and leading thinker and author on organizational change management. Kotter's highly regarded books 'Leading Change' (1995) and the follow-up 'The Heart of Change' (2002) describe a helpful model for understanding and managing change. Each stage acknowledges a key principle identified by Kotter relating to people's response and approach to change, in which people see, feel and then change. Kotter's eight step change model can be summarized as:
1.

2.

Increase urgency - inspire people to move, make objectives real and relevant. Build the guiding team - get the right people in place with the right emotional commitment, and the right mix of skills and levels.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Get the vision right - get the team to establish a simple vision and strategy focus on emotional and creative aspects necessary to drive service and efficiency. Communicate for buy-in - Involve as many people as possible, communicate the essentials, simply, and to appeal and respond to people's needs. De-clutter communications - make technology work for you rather than against. Empowers action - Remove obstacles, enable constructive feedback and lots of support from leaders - reward and recognize progress and achievements. Create short-term wins - Set aims that are easy to achieve - in bite-size chunks. Manageable numbers of initiatives. Finish current stages before starting new ones. Don't let up - Foster and encourage determination and persistence - ongoing change - encourage ongoing progress reporting - highlight achieved and future milestones. Make change stick - Reinforce the value of successful change via recruitment promotion, new change leaders. Weave change into culture.

. Q. Explain organizational change management. Answer Almost all people are nervous about change. Many will resist it - consciously or subconsciously. Sometimes those fears are well founded - the change really will have a negative impact for them. In many cases, however, the target population for the change will come to realize that the change was for the better. The pace of change is ever increasing - particularly with the advent of the Internet and the rapid deployment of new technologies, new ways of doing business and new ways of conducting one's life. Organizational change management seeks to understand the sentiments of the target population and work with them to promote efficient delivery of the change and enthusiastic support for its results. There are two related aspects of organizational change that are often confused. In Organizational Change Management we are concerned with winning the hearts and minds of the participants and the target population to bring about changed behavior and culture. The key skills required are founded in business psychology and require "people" people. Organizational Change Management issues are often underestimated or ignored entirely. In fact, people issues collectively account for the majority of project failures. Organizational Change Management is a vital aspect of almost any project. It should be seen as a discrete and

specialized work stream. Why then, you might ask, do we discuss it as part of the Project Management work. Unfortunately, it is common to find that the human component of the project is not recognized as a separate element of the work. The project management team frequently has to do their best to ensure that a technological change is successfully implanted into the business. In the worst-case scenario, the project leadership do not see this as part of their responsibility either and blame the organizations line management when their superb new technical solution is not fully successful when put to use.

Q. Explain the process of resistance to change. Answer By definition, people are affected by change. A few will comfortably accommodate any degree of change, but most people have a change journey to undertake. Part of the art of organizational change management is to:

understand what journey you want which populations to take (it may not be the same for everyone), assess what their attitude is likely to be, and

Use that knowledge to guide them in the right direction.

Many people will hide their negative feelings. It is not wise to be openly critical of your bosses and their new ideas. Some people will not even be aware of their own resistance which, nevertheless, affects their behavior sub-consciously. Understanding their position requires more than listening to what they say. Organizational Change Management specialists use an array of diagnostic tools to uncover the true characteristics and attitudes of the target populations. The most common response to impending change is a negative response where, initially at least, the target population sees the change as a bad or threatening thing. Psychologists have researched these "bad news" responses and found that there is a common emotional response. This chart shows how the individuals oscillate between inactivity and high emotion. Assuming the final outcome can represent a good thing from their perspective; the goal is to leave them in favor of the change and highly motivated to make it work. Try to surface issues and resistance earlier in the project so that there is time to get the target population engaged before any damage is caused. Some Organizational Change Management experts suggest that you should deliberately upset the target population early in the project so that you can guide them through the emotional curve and change their attitude. That may be taking the principle too far - but, if there is going to be resistance, try to deal with it early.

Using the right change style

The design of the project's approach should take into account the optimum style of addressing organizational change issues. In general, the target population will be more supportive of the changes if they have been part of the change process. The cynical view is that you should make them feel part of the process even if you prefer to ignore what they have to say. In fact, their active participation is likely to add to the quality of the solution it should be taken seriously. Conversely, if they feel their views were sought then ignored they are likely to become more resistant. Working with a broad selection of the target population adds time and cost to the project. The degree to which you involve them will depend on the magnitude of the change. A straightforward non-controversial change may require no previous contact. If, for example, you are simply introducing a new set of expense codes you can publish the message "with effect from 1st April, new codes must be used as per the attached book". Conversely, if you are making huge changes to the job and lifestyle of the target population you will need to work with them to gain their co-operation, for example, if you wish them to re-locate voluntarily and re-train for substantially altered jobs. Q. Explain some appropriate change styles.

Collaborative - The target population are engaged in the change process, typically through cascading workshops or meetings.

They will be kept up to date on the issues. Their views will be actively sought and acted upon. Feedback will demonstrate how their input has been acted upon. Consultative - The target population is informed about the changes and their views are sought. Directive - The workforce is informed about the changes and why those changes are important. Coercive - The workforce is told that they must obey the new instructions.

One of the main tools for promoting change is communication. Early in the project an initial approach to communication will be formulated. It has two main purposes:

To convey important information that the audience needs to know, and To promote organizational change.

Messages supporting the project's change objectives should be carefully constructed. The best media should be identified to convey the right messages to the right people at the right time. During the project, these messages and methods will be refined based upon achievements, feedback and the changing circumstances of the project.

Q. Explain the process of organizational change management during the project Answer Organizational Change Management at phase start For each phase the change management plan will be prepared in detail. Input and feedback from previous phases will inevitably lead to modifications to the overall approach. Update the Sponsorship Map to show who is involved at this stage and what is required of them. As part of the launch activities for the new phase, sponsors should be informed, briefed and reanimated. Their continuing support should be ensured. Often a new phase means new team members and new participants from the business. Make sure there is a good process to capture their support and enthusiasm. Organizational Change Management techniques fall into two main types:

input - analyzing the problem, and Output - inducing organizational change.

It may also be appropriate to couple these organizational issues and needs with the mainstream design work of the project; so that certain issues could be solved by the way the solution is designed. It may be easier to make the solution fit the people rather than the people fit the solution.

The input activities are essentially forms of fact-finding and analysis. Organizational Change Management experts have many specialized tools to:

Identify a population, assess that population's capabilities, attitude, behavior, culture, Define the change goals, and Determine what is required to bring about that change.

In the absence of an expert you would fall back on basic fact finding and analysis, coupled with common sense and experience. Output activities tend to communication, for example:

be

various

forms

of

Communicating messages Coaching Setting up sponsorship cascades Collaborative workshops.

Although the change management analysis, design and planning may be specialist tasks, much of the change output can be applied by other project team members. All team members will have opportunities to spread the right message. In many cases, the way they approach a given activity might have a significant affect on the target population - increasing or decreasing resistance. Non-specialist team members should be given the basic skills and understanding to promote organizational change.

They should also be guided by the specialists (if any) and by the project's change management approach and planning. Organizational Change Management at phase end The end of a phase is always a good time to review progress. Many organizational change activities are imprecise in their effect. It can be hard to measure whether the target population has now become sufficiently supportive for the project to succeed. The conclusions will be fed into the planning for the next phase of work. Organizational Change Management at project end The tests of change management are whether the new business solution can be launched successfully in as efficient and pain-free a manner as possible. The lead up to the transition is often the most intense period. In many cases it is the first time the affected populations really become aware of the changes (although, as you saw above, it is not wise to tackle change issues late in the project). Now they are confronted with changed jobs, new procedures, new skill requirements, training courses, and maybe even physical re-location. In some projects not all the current workforce will be required for the new solution. Dealing with the painful process of redundancy is normally left to the HR and line management functions. There are, however, two big issues for the Project Manager:

The redundant staff will be required to operate the current systems and processes until the new solution is ready - and maybe for some period of parallel running. Since it is a legal or contractual requirement in most countries to announce potential redundancies well in advance and to give individuals notice before their departure date, the question is how to ensure they give good service and do no damage to the organization or the new systems. There may also be implications for the survivors - those people who you are relying upon to deliver the new solution. They may be affected by the bad news concerning their colleagues. They may even go through a period of uncertainty when they do not know whether or not they themselves will be retained. What needs to be done to maintain their support and enthusiasm? Bear in mind that the same issues could confront project team members as well as the target population.

By this stage in a major change, there needs to be a substantial support mechanism for the target population. As the key messages are communicated, the project team needs to be ready to help and prepared for the inevitable issues. By this time, the sponsorship cascade should be complete and solid - often extending down to local champions carefully placed in the users' teams. Support

mechanisms will ease the users' troubles, for example with appropriate training at the right time, desk-side coaching, good help desk / call centre support. Organizational Change Management should not stop with the end of the project. During the Benefit Realization stage of the lifecycle, continuing emphasis will be needed to encourage the community to adapt to the new ways of working and get the most from the change.

Examples of Organizational Change 1. Missionary changes 2. Strategic changes 3. Operational changes (including Structural changes) 4. Technological changes 5. Changing the attitudes and behaviors of personnel As a multidisciplinary practice that has evolved as a result of scholarly research, Organizational Change Management should begin with a systematic diagnosis of the current situation in order to determine both the need for change and the capability to change. The objectives, content, and process of change should all be specified as part of a Change Management plan. Change Management processes may include creative marketing to enable communication between change audiences, but also deep social understanding about leaderships styles and group dynamics. As a visible track on transformation projects, Organizational Change

Management aligns groups expectations, communicates, integrates teams and manages people training. It makes use of performance metrics, such as financial results, operational efficiency, leadership commitment, communication effectiveness, and the perceived need for change to design appropriate strategies, in order to avoid change failures or solve troubled change projects. Successful change management is more likely to occur if the following are included: 1. Benefits management and realization to define measurable stakeholder aims, create a business case for their achievement (which should be continuously updated), and monitor assumptions, risks, dependencies, costs, return on investment, dis-benefits and cultural issues affecting the progress of the associated work. 2. Effective Communications that informs various stakeholders of the reasons for the change (why?), the benefits of successful implementation (what is in it for us, and you) as well as the details of the change (when? where? who is involved? how much will it cost? etc.). 3. Devise an effective education, training and/or skills upgrading scheme for the organization. 4. Counter resistance from the employees of companies and align them to overall strategic direction of the organization. 5. Provide personal counseling (if required) to alleviate any change related fears.

6. Monitoring of the implementation and fine-tuning as required.

Q. What is social responsibility? Answer Contrast the classical and socio-economic views of social responsibility. Discuss the role that stakeholders play in the four approaches to social responsibility Q. What is business ethics? Answer Business Ethics is a relatively new, but increasingly important, part of Business Studies. The question, or problem, is this: A business is expected to achieve its objectives, usually to make a decent profit for the owners/shareholders. In doing so, it may need to overlook the wishes of others. For example, it could lie about the benefits of its products in order to get more revenue. It could skip important safety checks to save costs. What should the business do? To some extent, this is an area already covered by Business Law. When society largely agrees, a law can be passed to

stop behavior the society disapproves of. For example, discrimination against women is illegal (it wasnt always so). Q. What Business Ethics Covers? Answer Business Ethics looks at areas that are too new, or too controversial, for society to agree on. For example, the medical business is increasingly controversial. The pharmaceutical businesses concentrate their (very expensive) research on illnesses that afflict rich people, because rich people (or the government of a rich country) can afford to buy these new treatments when they are launched on the market. This means too little research is done into illnesses (like malaria) that primarily affect poor people and poor governments. Is this right? So, we can have profit-maximizing businesses that dont worry too much about who gets in their way; or we can have ethical businesses that are very careful with people get in their way, but which dont make very much profit. This is the contrast, the trade-off that we are faced with. Or is it? Increasingly, there is thought about a middle way. Consumers in developed countries are increasingly aware of ethical issues, and some are prepared to pay for it. For example, Body Shop was one of the first businesses to build on this trend, and made their market niche largely out of the fact that their products are kinder to the world than are competing products. Why buy from Body Shop? Because their products arent tested on animals. So, the

ethical nature of the product becomes part of the unique selling point ("USP") of the product and central to the Marketing of that product. In other words, there is no conflict between ethics and profit, because an ethical stance is part of the profit-making process. Since then, many businesses in all sorts of markets have followed this line. Washing powders, for example. BP is trying to portray the oil business as environmentally friendly. Other businesses have been pushed in this direction by adverse publicity. Triumph, Swiss makers of bras, was forced to abandon an investment in Myanmar (Burma) because of widespread opposition to a dictatorial and unpleasant government. And Nike (and others) has been widely criticized for using cheap labor in developing countries, which is what you would expect from a profitmaximizing business. One difficult question is what sort of things count as ethical question? There is no agreement on this, hence the difficulty. Take the example above. Some people might say well-done to Nike for creating jobs in a very poor part of the world where jobs are desperately needed. But other people have said that it is unethical to exploit very poor people, and to make them work in poor conditions for low wages, especially when the business could afford to pay them more.

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