Networking

NETWORKING CONCEPTS AND COMPONENTS

Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A network of
computer is a group of interconnected system sharing resources and interacting
using a shared communication link.
Networking is nothing but the connections of two or more computers
connected in a group or by cable or other media. They can share information.
Networks made sharing data much easier and more efficient for user. The shared
resources can be data, a printer, fax modem messages or a service such as a
database or an e-mail system. The individual system must be connected through a
pathway called the transmission medium i.e. used to transmit the resource or service
between computers. All system on the pathway must follow a set of communication
routes for data to arrive at destination and fro sending – receiving system to
understand each other the rules governed by the computer communication are called
protocols.
1. All networks must have following resources to share.
2. A pathway to transfer data.
3. A set of rules to govern how to communicate (protocols).

The two main reasons for computer network are to

provide services and to reduce equipment cost.
Following are the specific region for networking:-
1. Sharing files.
2. Sharing printers and other devices.
3. Enabling centralized administration and security of the resource within the
system.
4. Supporting network application such as e-mail and database services.

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Network components include :

1. Server –
It is a powerful computer that provides services to other computer
connected at network.
a) File server : Stores and retriused files
b) Database server : Handle user database request and responses.
c) Archive server : The system i.e. used to back up and archive files on
the network.
d) Print server : A system that print job sends (fired) user on the
networks.

2. Client –
A computer that use services that a server Provides.

3. Media –
It is a physical connection between the
devices on the network.

4. Users –
Any person that uses a client to access the resources on a network.

5. Shared resources and peripherals –

These are the devices that are available to the users on the networks.
Example- Printer, Storage devices.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
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There are three network topologies.

1> Bus Topology
2> Ring Topology
3> Star Topology

1) Bus Topology :-

N1 N2 N3 N4

Terminator Terminator
T - Connector

Fig. : Bus Topology

In bus topology, all computers are connected in a linear manner. All
stations are attached with appropriate hardware, interfacing directly to a linear
transmission area. Bus topology is used multipoint connects.
Bus network is typically used when only a few micro-computers are
to be linked together. This arrangement is common in system for electronic mail or
for sharing data stored on different micro-computers.

Advantages :
1. Simple, reliable and easy to use.
2. Requires the least amount of cables.
3. Cheaper when compared with other topology.

Disadvantages :

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1. Can be used only in relatively small networks.

2. All computers shared the same bus. Hence, an increase in number of
computers degrades the performance of the networks after a certain
limit.
3. A cable break or loose connector will cause reflection and bring down
the entire network.

2) Ring Topology :-
N1 N2

Connector
N4 N3

Fig : Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer
and last one is connected to the first to form a ring of computer.
The physical structure is a circular topology or a close loop of point – to –
point links. Ring network passes a token. There is no central file servers or
computers. Messages are passed around the ring until they reach the correct
destination.
Token :-
It is a short message with the electronic address of receiver. Each network
interface card is given an unique address, which is used to identify the computer on
the network.

Advantages :
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1. No signal loss as in bus topology, since the token is regenerate at each node.
2. No terminator required.
Disadvantages :
1. Difficult to troubleshoot.
2. Adding and removing computers disturb the entire network.
3. Expensive when compared with other topology.

3) Star Topology :-

N1

N2 HUB N3

N4

Fig : Star Topology

In star topology, all the cables are run from to a centrally located
device called HUB. Star topology network requires a central point of connection
between media segment. These central points are referred to as a HUB. HUB’s are
special repeaters that overcome the electromechanical limitations of a media. Each
computer on a star network communicates with central HUB that resend the
message either to all the computers or only to the destination computer.

Advantages :

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1. Easy to modify and add new computers by simply adding a new cable,
without disturbing the rest of network.
2. Easy to diagnose network fault.
3. Single computer failure does not affect the network.
4. Accommodated multiple cable type (Unshielded twisted pair cable,
Shielded twisted pair cables and others).
5. Ready telephone cable can be used for this type.

Disadvantages :
1. Failure of the central HUB bring the entire network down.

TYPES OF NETWORK
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1. Local Area Network :-

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned
networks. They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in
company offices and factories to share resources (e.g. printer) and exchange
information. LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case
transmission time is bounded and known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it
possible to use certain kinds of designs that would not otherwise be possible. It also
simplifies network management. Various topologies are possible for broadcast
LAN's. Figure shows two of them. a) Bus b) Ring.

Fig. Two broadcast networks a) Bus b) Ring

LAN is a communication network that interconnects a variety of devices
and provides a means for information exchange among those devices. LAN’s come
in a number of different configurations.

The most common are :

a) Switched LANs
b) Wireless LANs

a) Switched LANs :-
The most common switched LAN is a switched Ethernet LAN, which
may consist of a single switch with a number of attached devices, or a number of

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interconnected switches. Two other prominent examples are ATM LAN’s, which
simply use an ATM network in a local area, and Fibre Channel.

b) Wireless LANs :-
Wireless LAN use a variety of wireless transmission technologies and
organizations.
LAN is a group of computers and a network communication device
interconnected with a geographically limited area such as a building or a campus. A
computer communication technology is classified as a local area network if it
provides a way to interconnect multiple computers across short distance. Local area
networks are inexpensive, highly reliable and convenient to install and manage.
Local area network are characterized by following :
1. They transfer data at high speed (higher bandwidth).
2. They exist in a limited geographical area such as a building or campus.
3. The connecting lines linking more than one computer cover a small area upto
10 km. Thus data on network does not travel long distance.
4. If one computer connected to a LAN is down, other computers can still
communicate.
5. LAN permits sharing of data, hardware and software between all computers
connected to it.

LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three

characteristics:
1. their size
2. their transmission technology
3. their topology

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2. Wide Area Network :-

Wide area networks generally cover a large geographical area, require
the crossing of public right-of-ways, and rely at least in part on circuits provided by
a common carrier. Typically, a WAN consists of a number of interconnected
switching nodes. A transmission from any one device is routed through these
internal nodes to the specified destination device. These nodes(including the
boundary nodes) are not concerned with the content of data; rather, their purpose is
to provide a switching facility that will move the data from node to node until they
reach their destination.

Fig : Relation between hosts on LAN's and the subnet

Traditionally, WANs have been implemented using one of two

technologies: circuit switching and packet switching. More recently, frame relay
and ATM networks have assumed major rules.
Wan contains a collection of machines intended for running user
programs. We follow traditional usage and call these machine hosts. The host are
connected by communication subnet, or just subnet for short. The host are owned by
customers (e.g. peoples personal computers), whereas the communication subnet is
typically owned and operated by a telephone company or Internet service provider.
The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone
system carries words from speaker to listener.

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The wide area network interconnects local area networks. A wide area
network can be located entirely within a state or a country. It can be interconnected
around the world. A way to build a network that connects multiple computers across
a large geographic distance called wide area network. Wide area network are
characterized by following :
1. They exist in an unlimited geographical area.
2. They usually interconnect multiple local area network.
3. They often transfer at low speed(lower bandwidth).
4. Connectivity and resources- Specially the transmission media usually
managed by a third particular such as a telephone or a cable company.
Wide area network can be further classified into two categories :-
a) Enterprise WAN
b) Global WAN

a) Enterprise WAN –
An enterprise WAN connects widely separated computer resources of
a single organization.

b) Global WAN -
A global WAN interconnects network of several corporation or
organization.

3) Metropolitan Area Network :-

As the name suggests, a MAN occupies a middle ground between
LANs and WANs. Interest in MANs has come about as a result of a recognition that
the traditional point-to-point and switched network techniques used in WANs may
be inadequate for the growing need of organizations. While frame relay and ATM
promise to meet a wide range of high-speed needs, there is a requirement now for
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both private and public networks that provide high capacity at low costs over a large
area. A number of approaches have been implemented, including wireless networks
and metropolitan extensions to Ethernet.
The primary market for MANs is the customer that has high capacity
needs in a metropolitan area. A MAN is intended to provide the required capacity at
lower cost and greater efficiency than obtaining an equivalent service from the local
telephone company.
The term metropolitan is referred to as city i.e. it covers a city.
The best known example of a MAN is the cable television network available in
many cities. This system grew from earlier community antenna systems used in
areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In this early systems, a large
antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to the
subscribers’ houses.
Starting when the Internet attracted a mass audience, the cable TV
network operators began to realize that with some changes to the system, they could
provide two-way Internet service in unused parts of the spectrum. To a first
approximation, a MAN might look something like the system shown in fig. below.
In this figure we see both television signals and Internet being fed into the
centralized head end for subsequent distribution to people’s homes. This network
covers a large geographic area limited within a city or a town. It provides a
communication between different business house or bank branches located at
different area.

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Fig: A Metropolitan area network based on cable TV

Characteristics :
1. The scope of network covers a large geographic area including different
branches of a particular bank in a metropolitan city.
2. Since it connect different location, the set up is comparatively complex as
compared to LAN.
3. It has ability to connect various LAN’s in the city.

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PROTOCOLS
The networking protocol starts the communication process between
computers. A protocol is a set of rule created for the process of communication with
another computer or with an operating system. Protocol exists at several levels in
the OSI communication model. Network protocol govern the way actual
transmission is handled. In the world of networking and data communication,
different types of computer communicate with each other with the help of different
protocols.
A protocol is a set of rules or convention that govern the generation,
formatting, control and interpretation of information i.e. transmitted through a
network or i.e. stored in a database. Basically, a protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is send, when it is transmitted. Syntax, semantics, and timing
are the key protocol elements. Syntax describes the order structure or format of the
data.
Semantics refers to the meaning of a structured block of bits. Timing
describes when data should be send and at what rate.

REFERENCE MODELS :
There are two important network architectures :-
1) OSI reference model.
2) TCP/IP reference model.

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THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The OSI model helps computer communicate with other computers over
different networks without any error and allows systematic reduction of complexity.
In 1977,the ISO developed the OSI model for computer communication. The OSI
model can be used to understand the complex interaction that take place between
various devices on a network. The OSI model is a theoretical model. It does not
function in the communication process. The appropriate hardware and software do
the actual work. The models simply define which protocol will handle those task.
The protocols associated with the OSI model are rarely used any more, the
model itself is actually quite general and valid, and the features discussed at each
layer are very important. The OSI model is shown in fig. This model is based on a
proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step
toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers by
Day and Zimmermann in 1983. It was revised in 1995 by Day. This model is called
the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals
with connecting open systems - that is, systems that are open for communication
with other systems. It is called the OSI model in short.
The OSI model breaks down the task of communication into seven
independent function performed by seven independent layers. Each layer talk to the
neighbouring layer. It is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture i.e. flexible and robust. Those seven layers are:-
1> The Physical Layer
2> The Data Link Layer
3> The Network Layer
4> The Transport Layer
5> The Session Layer
6> The Presentation Layer
7> The Application Layer
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Fig: The OSI reference model

The principles that were applied to arrive at these seven layers is summarized as
follows :
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow
across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not
be thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that
the architecture does not become unwieldy.

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Now, we will discuss each layer of the model in turn, starting at the bottom
layer. Actually, the OSI model itself is not a network architecture because it does
not specify the exact services and protocols to be used in each layer. It just tells
what each layer should do. However, ISO has also produced standards for all the
layers, although these are not part of the reference model itself. Each one has been
published as a separate international standard.

1> The Physical Layer

The physical layer is the lowest layer of the model and is responsible for
sending bits (Binary digits) physically from one computer to another.
This layer deals with only the physical characteristics of the network and
with transmitting and receiving transmission signals.
It defines the physical and electrical details such as what 1 and 0 represent,
how data will synchronize and when the network interface may or may not transmit
the data. The devices in physical layers are :
i) HUB’s
ii) Connectors
iii)Cable
iv) Multiplexer

The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a

communication channel. The design issues have to do with making sure that when
one side sends a one bit, it is received by the other side as a one bit, not as a zero
bit. Typical questions here are :
i) How many volts should be used to represent a one and how many for a zero.
ii) How many nanoseconds a bit lasts.
iii) Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions.

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iv) How the initial connection is established and how it is torn down when both
sides are finished.
v) How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for.
The design issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing
interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical
layer.

2> The Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for ensuring error free and reliable
transmission of data to the immediate link.
It accepts packets from the network layer, packages the information into
data units called frames and send them to the physical layer for transmission.
The data link layer at control information such as frame type and
segmentation information to the data being send.
This layer provides error free transfer of frame from one computer to
another. It also request fro retransmission of frame in case of disturbance in the
transmission. The devices in data link layer are:
ii) Bridges
ii) Intelligent HUB’s

The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility
into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. It
accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data into data
frames (typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmit the frame
sequentially. If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each
frame by sending back an acknowledgement frame.
Another issue that arises in the data link layer(and most of the higher layers as
well) is how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some

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traffic regulation mechanism is often needed to led the transmitter know how much
buffer space the receiver has at the moment. Frequently, this low regulation and the
error handling are integrated.
Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how to
control access to the shared channel. A special sub layer of the data link layer, the
medium access control sub layer deals with this problem.

3> The Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for setting up an appropriate routine of
data throughout network. It also forwards the packet when the link between the two
networks is not direct link but has one or more intermediate link for the transport.
Network layer helps the transport layer and layer above it to send packet
without being concern about whether the destination is adjacent or away.
Network layer uses devices like a router and get way. The network layer
controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining how packets
are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static tables that are
“wired into” the network and rarely
changed. They can also be determined at the start of each conversation, for
example, a terminal session (e.g., a login to a remote machine). Finally they can be
highly dynamic, being determined a new for each packet, to reflect the
current network load.
If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in
one another’s way, forming bottlenecks. The control of such congestion also
belongs to the network layer. More generally, the quality of service provided (delay,
transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a network layer issue.
When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get its destination,
many problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network can be
different from the first one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because

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it is too large. The protocols may differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to
overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.
In broadcast networks, the routine problem is simple, so the network layer is
often thin or even nonexistent.

4> The Transport Layer

The transport layer ensure that packets are delivers error free in a
sequence, with no losses and duplication. The transport layer breaks large message
from the session layer into packets to be send in the destination computer and
reassembled packets into their origin form to be presented to the session layer.
The transport layer sends an acknowledgement to the originator for
packets that are received.
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split
it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that
the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done
efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper layer from the inevitable changes in
the hardware technology.
The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the
session layer, and ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of
transport connection is an error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages
or bytes in the order in which they were sent. However, other possible kinds of
transport service are the transporting of isolated messages, with no guarantee about
the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of messages to multiple destinations. The
type of service is determined when the connection is established. As an aside, an
error-free channel is impossible to achieve; what people really mean by this term is
that the error rate is low enough to ignore in practice.
The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, all the way from the source to
the destination. In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a

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conversation with a similar program on the destination machine, using the message
headers and control messages. In the lower layers, the protocols are between each
machine and its immediate neighbors, and not between the ultimate source and
destination machines, which may be separated by many routers. The difference
between layers one through three, which are chained, and layers four through seven,
which are end-to-end, is illustrated in above fig.

5> The Session Layer

The session layer is responsible for requesting a logical connection to be
established for the communication process. This shared connection is called a
session.
This layer provides for data synchronization between user’s task by placing
checkpoint so that, in the event of a network failure only the data send after the
point of failure needs to be resent.
Services such as name, look up, security, allowing two programs to find each
other and establishing the communication link are also provided by this layer. This
layer controls the dialogue between two processes, determine who can transmit and
who can receive at what point of time during the communication.
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions
between them. Sessions offer various services, including dialog control(keeping
track of whose turn it is to transmit), token management (preventing two parties
from attempting the same critical operation at the same time), and synchronization
(checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to continue from where they were
after a crash)

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6> The Presentation Layer

The presentation layer translates or format data to adapt to the needs of the
application layer and node at both the receiving and the sending ends of
communication process.
The presentation layer does the protocol conversions, data translation,
formatting, compression, encryption, and character set conversion. It also interprets
graphics command.
Unlike lower layers, which are mostly concerned with moving bits around,
the presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with different
data representations to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be
defined in an abstract way; along with a standard encoding to be used ”on the wire.”
The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and allows higher
level data structures(e.g., banking records), to be defined and exchanged.

7> The Application Layer

The application layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model and provide
user access to the network.
It provided services that directly support user application such as database
access e-mail and file transfer.
It allows application on one computer to communicate with application on
other computer as though the application were on the same computer.
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly
needed by users. One widely-used application protocol is HTTP(Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol), which is the basis of World Wide Web. When a browser wants
a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server using HTTP. The
server then sends the page back. Other application protocols are used for file
transfer, electronic mail, and network news.

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CONTENTS

Sr. Particulars Page

No. No.

1 Networking concepts and components 1

2 Network Topology 3
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Star Topology
3 Types of Network 7
 LAN
 WAN
 MAN
4 Protocols 13
5 The OSI reference model 14
 The Physical Layer
 The Data link Layer
 The Network Layer
 The Transport Layer
 The Session Layer
 The Presentation Layer
 The Application Layer

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