Insights into Composting

By Salman Zafar

The composting process is a complex interaction between the waste and the microorganisms within the waste. The microorganisms that carry out this process fall into three groups: bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. Actinomycetes are a form of fungilike bacteria that break down organic matter. The first stage of the biological activity is the consumption of easily available sugars by bacteria, which causes a fast rise in temperature. The second stage involves bacteria and actinomycetes that cause cellulose breakdown. The last stage is concerned with the breakdown of the tougher lignins by fungi. The composting plants consist of some or all of the following technical units: bag openers, magnetic and/or ballistic separators, sieves, shredders, mixing and homogenization equipment, turning equipment, aeration systems, bio-filters, scrubbers, control systems etc. The composting process occurs when biodegradable waste is piled together with a structure allowing for oxygen diffusion and with a dry matter content suiting microbial growth. The temperature of the biomass increases due to the microbial activity and the insulation properties of the piled material. The temperature often

reaches 650C to 750C within a few days and then declines slowly. This high temperature hastens the elimination of pathogens and weed seeds. Composting Strategies

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into compost or manure in presence of air and can be of different types. The most common is the Heap Method, where organic matter needs to be divided into three different types and to be placed in a heap one over the other, covered by a thin layer of soil or dry leaves. This heap needs to be mixed every week, and it takes about three weeks for conversion to take place. The process is same in the Pit Method, but carried out specially constructed pits. Mixing has to be done every 15 days, and there is no fixed time in which the compost may be ready. Berkley Method uses a labor-intensive technique and has precise requirements of the material to be composted. Easily biodegradable materials, such as

The methodology of composting can be categorized into three major segmentsanaerobic composting, aerobic composting, and vermincomposting. In anaerobic composting, the organic matter is decomposed in the absence of air. Organic matter may be collected in pits and covered with a thick layer of soil and left undisturbed six to eight months. The compost so formed may not be completely converted and may include aggregated masses. Aerobic composting is the process by which organic wastes are converted

grass, vegetable matter, etc., are mixed with animal matter in the ratio of 2:1. Compost is usually ready in 15 days. Vermicomposting involves use of earthworms as natural and versatile bioreactors for the process of conversion. It is carried out in specially designed pits where earthworm culture also needs to be done. Vermicomposting is a precision-based option and requires overseeing of work by an expert. It is also a more expensive option (O&M costs especially are high). However, unlike the above two options, it is a completely odorless process making it a preferred solution in residential areas. It also has an extremely high rate of conversion, so quality of the end product is very high with rich macro and micronutrients. The end product also has the advantage that it can be dried and stored safely for a longer period of time. Composting Systems The traditional turned aerobic windrow method of composting is the predominant method of composting. Within the identification of aerobic and anaerobic systems, four main methods are: ? Turned/static aerobic windrow compostingaerobic and biological; Static pilesaerobic and biological; In-vessel aerobic windrow compostingaerobic and biological; Mechanical breakdownnonbiological;

least technologically advanced and the oldest form of controlled

available and the composition of the material. Either air is blown into the windrow or an accelerator is added. After the windrow has reached the required time temperature profile, it is removed for maturation. In-Vessel Composting In-vessel composting uses slightly more advanced technologies than open windrows to ensure that the materials are composted effectively under more controlled conditions. The mixed feedstock materials are placed into the vessel. Conditions are controlled by altering the flow of air into and out of the system. Any malodors are removed as air is drawn out of the system. In-vessel composting technologies are often used to help get the material through the early stages of composting when odors and process control are most critical, and the material is then moved into a windrow or static pile system for the later stages of decomposition and curing. In-vessel composting can be classified into three categories: vertical, horizontal, and rotating composting reactors. Vertical composting reactors are generally over 4 meters high and can be housed in silos or other large structures. The height of these reactors makes process control difficult due to the high rates of airflow required per unit of distribution surface area. Horizontal composting reactors avoid the high temperature, oxygen, and moisture gradients of vertical reactors by maintaining a short airflow pathway. They come in a wide range of configurations, including static and agitated, pressure, and/or vacuum-induced aeration. Rotating drum composting reactors retain the material for only a few hours or days. While the tumbling action can help homogenize and shred materials, the short residence time usually means the processing is more physical than biological. Static Piles Static piles can be shaped much like windrows or in an elongated pile or bed but are not mechanically agitated. Once constructed by conveyor, loader, or truck, the piles remain in place until decomposition slows.

composting. The operation of turned aerobic facilities can take place either in the open or under cover. This factor influences the time taken for the materials to compost, the investment required for the site and the importance of environmental issues such as odor and leachate. The most basic method is to use front-end loaders and conventional agricultural machinery. The alternative is to go for a more sophisticated system, which involves permanent windrow bays, and machinery that turns the windrow in-situ by traveling along the bay wall.

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The turned aerobic windrow composting, in-vessel aerobic composting, and static piles may be considered conventional methods of composting. Static windrow composting is a newer idea still being tested that allows aerobic composting to take place without the need for turning. The mechanical breakdown approach is a more radical attempt to produce a low-cost useable product from non-green municipal solid waste and commercial waste but within the current legislation. Turned Windrows Aerobic windrow composting is the

Static Windrows Static windrowing can be undertaken in one of two ways. Air is artificially blown into the windrowthis requires that an aeration system be present. An accelerator can be added to the windrow, which speeds up the process and enables it to remain aerated. Both of these systems can be undertaken either open or enclosed. Static windrow composting works in the following manner: Feedstock material arrive onsite and is either normally shredded or macerated. This helps remove moisture and reduce particle size. Feedstock material containing the correct ratio of carbon and nitrogen is mixed together and formed into windrows. The size of the windrow will depend on space

Static piles are often outside and exposed to weather but can be covered with a roof to minimize the impacts of weather and provide an opportunity for odor capture and treatment. There are two methods of aerated static pile composting - active aerated pile and passively aerated pile. The active aerated method has already been discussed. The passively aerated system is the exact same design, with the exception of the air system. The pipe ends are left open on either side. Air flows into the pipes and through the pile because of the chimney effect created as hot air rises upward out of the pile. Mechanical Breakdown This system operates differently from the turned windrow and in-vessel systems already. It is a newer approach to process large volumes of non-green municipal solid and commercial wastes cost-effectively. The system is mechanical in its operation with no encouragement of the biological element associated with normal composting. The system uses proven technology and allows rapid processing of large volumes of material. This type of system works in the following basic way: ? Feedstock materials can be screened at the start to remove very large and some inorganic fractions of material. The feedstock material is passed through a set of either grinders or hammers to break down its particle size

mechanically. The processed materials can be screened again to remove further inorganic materials such as metals before being transported for application to land. The main advantage with this system is that it enables large volumes of non-green municipal waste and commercial waste to be processed rapidly and costeffectively.

tends to be less labor-intensive. Environmental Impacts Composting can be used as fertilizer for agricultural soils. This practice can be extremely important in order to decrease the amounts of chemical fertilizers used. Composting practices emit into the atmosphere different

Composting Costs Composting costs include site acquisition and development, regulatory compliance, facility operations, and marketing of the finished product. Additional requirements may include land for buffers around the compost facility, site preparation, and handling equipment such as shredders, screens, conveyors, and turners. Facilities and practice to control odors, leachate, and runoff are a critical part of any compost operation. The cost of constructing and operating a windrow composting facility will vary from one location to another. The operating costs depend on the volume of material processed. The use of additional feed materials, such as paper and mixed municipal solid waste, will require additional capital investment and materials processing labor. The capital costs of windrow or aerated piles are lower than in-vessel composting configuration. However, costs increase markedly when cover is required to control odors. In general, costs of windrow systems are the lowest compared to the other two techniques. The in-vessel system is more costly than other methods, mainly with respect to capital expenditures. In addition, it is more mechanized and more equipment maintenance is necessary; however, it

gases: greenhouse gases, volatile organic compounds, and odors. The main issues associated with composting are release of different greenhouse gases (volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide, and methane) and odors (ammonia, hydrogen sulfide). Volatile organic compounds increase the level of smog, which can modify the temperature structure of the atmosphere, leading to climate changes. In soils and water systems, the major concerns are due to deposition of salts and heavy metals. Pollution of soils is mainly due to the addition of salts, heavy metals, and different organic compounds. Some metals are present in composted soils in higher concentrations than in agricultural soil (e.g. lead, zinc, and copper), which can lead to the impairment of crops. The main pollutants of the water systems are caused by washout processes of soils treated with compost. Therefore, the contamination of water systems includes heavy metals, different organic compounds (e.g., phenols, PAHs, PCBs, etc.,) and salts (e.g., nitrate, ammonium, etc.).

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Salman Zafar is a Renewable Energy Advisor with expertise in biomass energy, waste-to-energy, cleantech, waste management and social entrepreneurship. Apart from managing his cleantech advisory firms BioEnergy Consult (www.bioenergyconsult.com ) and Cleantech Loops (www.cleantechloops.com), he is also involved in fostering sustainable energy systems and creating mass awareness on environmental issues worldwide. Being a prolific author, he has many popular publications to his credit in reputed journals, magazines, newsletters and blogs. Salman possesses Master's and Bachelor's degrees in Chemical Engineering from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (India) and can be reached at salman@bioenergyconsult.com