h hy ys s| |c ca a| | h ha ar rm ma ac cy y

d de ea al ls s w wl lL Lh h L Lh he e p ph hy ys sl lc co oc ch he em ml lc ca al l p pr rl ln nc cl lp pl le es s u un nd de er rl ly yl ln ng g L Lh he e d de ev ve el lo op pm me en nL L o of f a a s su uc cc ce es ss sf fu ul l d do os sa ag ge e
f fo or rm m
h hy ys s| |c ca a| | h ha ar rm ma ac cy y
n n a ar re ea a o of f p ph ha ar rm ma ac cy y L Lh ha aL L d de ea al ls s w wl lL Lh h L Lh he e q qu ua an nL Ll lL La aL Ll lv ve e a an nd d L Lh he eo or re eL Ll lc ca al l p pr rl ln nc cl lp pl le es s o of f s sc cl le en nc ce es s a as s
L Lh he ey y a ap pp pl ly y L Lo o L Lh he e p pr ra ac cL Ll lc ce e o of f p ph ha ar rm ma ac cy y
D DI IM ML LN NS SI IC CN NS S A AN ND D U UN NI I1 1S S
l lu un nd da am me en nL La al l d dl lm me en ns sl lo on ns s
e en ng gL Lh h
, ,a as ss s
@ @l lm me e
J Jl lL Lh h d de ef fl ln nl lL Le e o oo ol lt t a an nd d a a t te ef fe et te eo oc ce e s st to oo oJ Jo ot tJ J

r ra ac ct t| |o on ns s a an nd d M Mu u| |t t| |p p| |e es s o of f U Un n| |t ts s
,ulLlples reflx Symbol
10
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@era @
10
9

Clga C
10
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,ega ,
10

kllo k
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,llll m
10
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,lcro
10
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nano n
10
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lco p
D De er r| |v ve ed d d d| |m me en ns s| |o on ns s
r re ea a ( ( % %
I Io ol lu um me e ( (I I% %
e en ns sl lL Ly y ( (p p% %
I Ie el lo oc cl lL Ly y ( ( % %
c cc ce el le er ra aL Ll lo on n ( (o o% %
l lo or rc ce e ( (f f % %
r re es ss su ur re e ( (p p% %
A A 1 1L Lk k 2 2
8 8l ln n l ln nC C l lC C8 8C CL LS S 8 8L L@ @J JL LL Ln n , ,C C L LC Cu u L LS S
I In nt te er r] ]I In nt tr ra a m mo o| |e ec cu u| |a ar r f fo or rc ce es s
l ln n@ @8 8 m mo ol le ec cu ul la ar r f fo or rc ce es s w wl lL Lh hl ln n L Lh he e m mo ol le ec cu ul le e
l ln n@ @L L8 8m mo ol le ec cu ul la ar r f fo or rc ce es s b be eL Lw we ee en n m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s L Lo o e ex xl ls sL Ls s a as s a ag gg gr re eg ga aL Le es s l ln n g ga as se es s l ll lq qu ul ld ds s a an nd d
s so ol ll ld ds s
C CC CP PL LS Sl lC Cn n o or r a aL LL Lr ra ac cL Ll lo on n o of f l ll lk ke e m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s
P PL LS Sl lC Cn n o or r a aL LL Lr ra ac cL Ll lo on n o of f u un nl ll lk ke e m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s

k kL L U UL LS SI IV VL L A AN ND D A A1 11 1k kA A 1 1I IV VL L C Ck k L LS S
k kL L U UL LS SI IV VL L C Ck k L LS S

r rl ls se e w wh he en n d dl lp po ol la ar r m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s a ap pp pr ro oa ac ch h o on ne e a an no oL Lh he er r c cl lo os se e e en no ou ug gh h p po os sl lL Ll lv ve e L Lo o p po os sl lL Ll lv ve e" " o or r
n ne eg ga aL Ll lv ve e L Lo o n ne eg ga aL Ll lv ve e" " L Lh he el lr r e el le ec cL Lr ro on n c cl lo ou ud d l ln nL Le er rp pe en ne eL Lr ra aL Le e
@ @ L LS S C Cl l l ln n@ @L L8 8, ,C C L LC Cu u 8 8 l lC C8 8C CL LS S C Cl l @ @@ @8 8 C C@ @l lC Cn n
V VA AN N D DL Lk k W WA AA AL LS S C Ck k L LS S
J Je ea ak k f fo or rc ce es s L Lh ha an n c co ov va al le en nL L b bo on nd d ( (3 30 0 L Lo o 1 10 00 0 k kc ca al l/ /m mo ol le e% % a an nd d l lo on nl lc c b bo on nd d ( (f fr ro om m 1 10 00 0 L Lo o 1 10 00 00 0
k kc ca al l/ /m mo ol le e% %
, ,o ol le ec cu ul la ar r l ln nL Le er ra ac cL Ll lo on ns s l ln nv vo ol lv ve ed d l ln n s so ol lu ub bl ll ll lL Ly y c co om mp pl le ex xa aL Ll lo on n a an nd d n nu um me er ro ou us s o oL Lh he er r p ph hy ys sl lc ca al l
b bo on nd dl ln ng g p ph he en no om me en na a
L Lx xl ls sL L b be eL Lw we ee en n a al ll l a aL Lo om ms s a an nd d m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s
C Cr rl lL Ll lc ca al ll ly y d de ep pe en nd de en nL L o on n L Lh he e s se ep pa ar ra aL Ll lo on n d dl ls sL La an nc ce e o of f L Lh he e a aL Lo om ms s o or r m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s f fr ro om m e ea ac ch h o oL Lh he er r
g gr ro ou up ps s o of f v va an n d de er r W Wa aa a| |s s f fo or rc ce es s
1 1 l lp po ol le e d dl lp po ol le e l ln nL Le er ra ac cL Ll lo on n ( (k ke ee es so om m f fo or rc ce es s% %
8 8e eL Lw we ee en n p po ol la ar r m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s
L Ln ne er rg gy y o of f a aL LL Lr ra ac cL Ll lo on n l ls s 1 1 L Lo o 7 7 k kc ca al l/ /m mo ol le e
L Lx xa am mp pl le es s o of f s su ub bs sL La an nc ce es s w wl lL Lh h p pe er rm ma an ne en nL L d dl lp po ol le es s l ln nc cl lu ud de e w wa aL Le er r h hy yd dr ro oc ch hl lo or rl lc c a ac cl ld d a al lc co oh ho ol l
a ac ce eL Lo on ne e a an nd d p ph he en no ol l
ermanenL parLlal charges
2 2 D D| |p po o| |e e | |n nd du uc ce ed d d d| |p po o| |e e | |n nt te er ra ac ct t| |o on n ( (D De eb by ye e | |n nd du uc ct t| |o on n f fo or rc ce es s) )
p po ol la ar r m mo ol le ec cu ul le e c ca an n p pr ro od du uc ce e a a L Le em mp po or ra ar ry y e el le ec cL Lr rl lc c d dl lp po ol le e l ln n n no on np po ol la ar r m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s L Lh ha aL L a ar re e e ea as sl ll ly y
p po ol la ar rl lz za ab bl le e
L Ln ne er rg gy y o of f a aL LL Lr ra ac cL Ll lo on n l ls s 1 1 L Lo o k kc ca al l/ /m mo ol le e
L La as sl ll ly y p po ol la ar rl lz ze ed d m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s l ln nc cl lu ud de e e eL Lh hy yl la ac ce eL La aL Le e m me eL Lh hy yl le en ne e c ch hl lo or rl ld de e a an nd d e eL Lh he er r
Permanent partial positive w/ partial negative
I In nd du uc ce ed d d d| |p po o| |e e | |n nd du uc ce ed d d d| |p po o| |e e | |n nt te er ra ac ct t| |o on n ( (L Lo on nd do on n f fo or rc ce es s) )
C Cr rl lg gl ln na aL Le e f fr ro om m m mo ol le ec cu ul la ar r l ln nL Le er rn na al l v vl lb br ra aL Ll lo on ns s l ln n n no on np po ol la ar r m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s L Lo o p pr ro od du uc ce e a aL LL Lr ra ac cL Ll lo on n L Lh ha aL L
a ar rl ls se es s b be ec ca au us se e o of f s sy yn nc ch hr ro on nl lz ze ed d f fl lu uc cL Lu ua aL Ll ln ng g d dl lp po ol le es s l ln n n ne el lg gh hb bo or rl ln ng g a aL Lo om ms s
@ @h he es se e f fo or rc ce es s a ar re e L Le em mp po or ra ar ry y
8 8e es sp po on ns sl lb bl le e f fo or r L Lh he e l ll lq qu ue ef fa ac cL Ll lo on n o of f g ga as se es s
@ @h he e e en ne er rg gy y o of f L Lh hl ls s a aL LL Lr ra ac cL Ll lv ve e f fo or rc ce e l ls s 0 0 3 3 L Lo o 1 1 k kc ca al l/ /m mo ol le e
L Lx xh hl lb bl lL Le ed d b by y o or rg ga an nl lc c c co om mp po ou un nd ds s l ll lk ke e c ca ar rb bo on n s su ul lf fl ld de e c ca ar rb bo on n L Le eL Lr ra ac ch hl lo or rl ld de e a an nd d h he ex xa an ne e
Partial positive with partial negative charges

@ @ L LS S C Cl l l ln n@ @L L8 8, ,C C L LC Cu u 8 8 l lC C8 8C CL LS S C Cl l @ @@ @8 8 C C@ @l lC Cn n
8 8 l lC Cn n l lC Cn n l lC Cn n l l C C L L n n l lC Cn n l ln n u uC CL L l l C C L L l lC C8 8C CL LS S
C C @ @P PL L P P 8 8C CC CL Ln n 8 8C Cn n
L Lx xl ls sL L b be eL Lw we ee en n m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s c co on nL La al ln nl ln ng g h hy yd dr ro og ge en n a aL Lo om m a an nd d a a s sL Lr ro on ng gl ly y e el le ec cL Lr ro on ne eg ga aL Ll lv ve e e el le em me en nL L
S S@ @ @ @L LS S C Cl l , , @ @@ @L L8 8
CSLS
,olecules Lravel ln random and rapld moLlon
Caseous molecules exhlblL pressure wlLhln conflned sysLem (exptesseJ lo Jyoes/cm
2
mmnq ooJ
otm%
Iolume of gases ls Lhe ume of Lhe conLalner lnLo whlch lL ls conflned (exptesseJ lo l ooJ cm
J

ot ml%
INL1I MCLLULAk 1LCk
Cases are composed of parLlcles called ,CLCuLS
arLlcles of gases do noL aLLracL one anoLher buL raLher move wlLh compleLe lndependence
arLlcles exhlblL conLlnuous random moLlon owlng Lo Lhelr klneLlc energy
@he molecules exhlblL perfecL elasLlclLy
@PL lL CS LCu@lCn
@he lnLerrelaLlon among volume (I% pressure (% and Lhe absoluLe LemperaLure (@%

I n8@ ot I (g/,J%8@
where n ls Lhe number of moles (g/,J% and k ls Lhe molar gas consLanL (008203
aLm/molek%
Mo|ar Gas onstant k

@o obLaln Lhe numerlcal value of 8
8 I/n@
8 (1 aLm x 22414 % / (1 mole x 2716 k%
k 008205 Lotm/mek
8 ln energy unlLs ( lv/1)
8 (101 x 10
6
dynes/cm

x 22414 cm

% / 2716 k
k 8l14 x 10
7
erqs/mek r
8l14 jues/mek
8 (814 [oules/moledeg% / (4184 [oules/cal%
k 1987 co/medeq

AkMALU1IAL GASLS INLUDL
nesLheLlc gases (nlLrous oxlde and haloLhane%
Compressed gases (Cxygen for Lherapy nlLrogen Carbon dloxlde%
lqueflable gases used as propellanLs ln aerosol producLs
LLhylene oxlde used Lo sLerlllze or dlslnfecL heaLlablle ob[ecLs
IC8lZ@lCn phase change from ||qu|d to gaseous state
xomples
LLher haloLhane and meLhoxyflurane used as lnhalaLlon anesLheLlcs
myl nlLrlLe used as vasodllaLor
SU8LIMA1ICN solld Lransform dlrecLly Lo gaseous/vapor sLaLe wlLhouL passlng Lhrough Lhe llquld
sLaLe
LCSl@lCn condensaLlon lnLo solld sLaLe
Lx compbot loJloe
lotetmolecolot fotces of otttoctloo lo qoses ote lttoolly ooo exlsteot ot toom tempetotote
LIULA1ICN C GASLS
lC@C8S llLC@lnC @PL @8nSl@lCn Cl CS @C lCul S@@L
1LMLkA1UkL
low temp qos loses lt kloetlc eoetqy lo tbe fotm of beot ooJ tbe eloclty of tbe molecoles
Jecteoses
kI1IAL 1LMLkA1UkL
LemperaLure above whlch a llquld can no longer exlsL
C@ of waLer ls 74 C or 647 k
2 8LSSu8L
ressure applled Lo gas molecules are broughL wlLhln Lhe sphere of van der Jaals forces and
pass lnLo Lhe llquld sLaLe
kI1IAL kLSSUkL
ressure requlred Lo llquefy a gas aL lLs crlLlcal LemperaLure
@he hlghesL vapor pressure LhaL Lhe llquld can have
C of waLer ls 218 aLm
C@ and C of Pe 32 k and 226 aLm
Methods of Ach|ev|ng L|quefact|on
ubject qos t intense cd
l uslng freezlng mlxLures
ll Coollng effecLs produced by gas expanslon
o 4diobotic exponsin
an ldeal gas ls allowed Lo expand so rapldly LhaL no heaL enLers Lhe sysLem
b lue1hmsn effect
a hlghly compressed nonldeal gas expands lnLo a reglon of low pressure
precoollng of Lhe gas may be necessary before allowlng lL Lo expand
llquld oxygen and llquld alr are obLalned uslng Lhls meLhod
ALkCSCL
lLs preparaLlon ls based on Lhe prlnclple of llpoefoctloo of qoses
llquld mlxLure of producL concenLraLe and propellanL are malnLalned under blqb ptessote and
below tbe ctltlcol tempetotote

,eLhods of fllllng
(a% Cold fllllng
(b% ressure fllllng
l lC Cu ul l
l ln n@ @L L8 8, ,C C L LC Cu u 8 8 l lC C8 8C CL LS S C Cl l @ @@ @8 8 C C@ @l lC Cn n
I Ia an n d de er r J Ja aa al ls s f fo or rc ce es s
P Py yd dr ro og ge en n 8 8o on nd dl ln ng g

S SI I A AL L k kC C L Lk k1 1I IL LS S C C L LI I U UI ID D S S1 1A A1 1L L
V VA A C Ck k k kL LS SS SU Uk kL L l lo oc ct te eo os se es s w wl lt tb b t tl ls sl lo oq q t te em mp pe et to ot to ot te e
L LA A1 1 C C V VA A C Ck kI I2 2A A1 1I IC CN N
L Lh he e h he ea aL L a ab bs so or rb be ed d w wh he en n l ll lq qu ul ld d p pa as ss se ed d l ln nL Lo o v va ap po or r s sL La aL Le e
I Ia ar ry y w wl lL Lh h L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e ( (l lo or r w wa aL Le er r a aL L 1 10 00 0 C C 3 3 9 9 c ca al l/ /g g o or r a ab bo ou uL L 9 97 72 20 0 c ca al l/ /m mo ol le e a aL L 1 18 80 0 C C
4 47 78 8 c ca al l/ /g g% %
C C u uS Sl lu uS S C C L L 8 8C Cn n L LC Cu u @ @l lC Cn n
L Lx xp pr re es ss se es s L Lh he e r re el la aL Ll lo on ns sh hl lp p b be eL Lw we ee en n L Lh he e v va ap po or r p pr re es ss su ur re e a an nd d L Lh he e a ab bs so ol lu uL Le e L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e o of f a a
l ll lq qu ul ld d
8 8C CI IL LI IN NG G C CI IN N1 1 L Lh he e L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e a aL L w wh hl lc ch h L Lh he e v va ap po or r p pr re es ss su ur re e l ls s e eq qu ua al ls s L Lh he e e ex xL Le er rn na al l o or r
a aL Lm mo os sp ph he er rl lc c p pr re es ss su ur re e
s s p pt te es ss so ot te e J Je ec ct te eo os se es s t tb be e b bo ol ll ll lo oq q p po ol lo ot t l lo ow we et ts s
8 8 o of f w wa aL Le er r a aL L 7 76 60 0 m mm mP Pg g 1 10 00 0 C C 7 70 00 0 m mm mP Pg g 9 97 7 7 7 C C 1 17 7 3 3 m mm mP Pg g 2 20 0 C C
S SU Uk k A A L L 1 1L LN NS SI IC CN N
S S L LC CW W k kC C L Lk k1 1I IL LS S] ]V VI IS S C CS SI I1 1
S S C C l l S S
- - @ @h he e l ln nL Le er rm mo ol le ec cu ul la ar r f fo or rc ce es s o of f a aL LL Lr ra ac cL Ll lo on n a ar re e s sL Lr ro on ng ge er r L Lh ha an n l ln n l ll lq qu ul ld ds s o or r g ga as se es s
- - S So ol ll ld ds s a ar re e e el lL Lh he er r c cr ry ys sL La al ll ll ln ne e o or r a am mo or rp ph ho ou us s
C C8 8 S S@ @ l ln nL L S SC C l l S S
- - U Un n| |t ts s a ar re e a ar rr ra an ng ge ed d | |n n f f| |x xe ed d g ge eo om me et tr r| |c c p pa at tt te er rn ns s o or r | |a at tt t| |c ce es s
S SI Ik k D DI IS S1 1I IN N 1 1 k k S S1 1A AL L S S S S1 1L LM M
- - C Cu u8 8l lC C S So od dl lu um m c ch hl lo or rl ld de e
- - @ @L L@ @8 8 C CC Cn n u ur re ea a
- - P PL Lx x C CC Cn n l lo od do of fo or rm m
- - 8 8P PC C, ,8 8l lC C l lo od dl ln ne e
- - , ,C Cn nC CC C l ln nl lC C S Su uc cr ro os se e
- - @ @8 8l lC C l ln nl lC C 8 8o or rl lc c a ac cl ld d
8 8U UI IL LD DI IN NG G U UN NI I1 1S S C C k k S S1 1A AL LS S
I I A A1 1C CM MS S
- - P Pe el ld d L Lo og ge eL Lh he er r b by y c co ov va al le en nL L b bo on nd ds s
- - L Lx xa am mp pl le es s a ar re e d dl la am mo on nd d a an nd d g gr ra ap ph hl lL Le e
I II I M MC CL LL L U UL LL LS S
- - S So ol ll ld d c ca ar rb bo on n d dl lo ox xl ld de e P PC Cl l a an nd d n na ap ph hL Lh ha al le en ne e
I II II I I IC CN NS S
- - S So od dl lu um m c ch hl lo or rl ld de e
M ML LL L1 1I IN NG G C CI IN N1 1 o on nd d L LA A1 1 C C U US SI IC CN N o of f c cr ry ys st ta a| || || |n ne e s so o| || |d ds s
- - , ,e el lt tl lo oq q p po ol lo ot t l ls s L Lh he e L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e a aL L w wh hl lc ch h L Lh he e c cr ry ys sL La al l l la aL LL Ll lc ce e b br re ea ak ks s d do ow wn n
- - l lo on nl lc c a an nd d a aL Lo om ml lc c c cr ry ys sL La al ls s h ha av ve e b bl lq qb b m me el lL Ll ln ng g p po ol ln nL Ls s d du ue e L Lo o s sL Lr ro on ng ge er r f fo or rc ce es s o of f a aL LL Lr ra ac cL Ll lo on n
b be eL Lw we ee en n l lo on ns s o or r a aL Lo om ms s
- - , ,o ol le ec cu ul la ar r c cr ry ys sL La al ls s h ha as s l lo ow w m me el lL Ll ln ng g p po ol ln nL Ls s I Ia an n d de er r J Ja aa al ls s f fo or rc ce es s o on nl ly y
- - l lo ot te eo ot t n ne eo ot t o of f f fo os sl lo oo o l ls s L Lh he e h he ea aL L a ab bs so or rb be ed d w wh he en n a a g gr ra am m o of f a a s so ol ll ld d m me el lL Ls s o or r L Lh he e h he ea aL L l ll lb be er ra aL Le ed d
w wh he en n l lL L f fr re ee ez ze es s
J Ja aL Le er r a aL L 0 0 C C 8 80 0 c ca al l/ /g g ( (1 14 4 6 6 c ca al l/ /m mo ol le e% %

C C , ,C C8 8 P Pl lS S, ,
l ls s L Lh he e c co on nd dl lL Ll lo on n w wh he er re el ln n s su ub bs sL La an nc ce es s c ca an n e ex xl ls sL L l ln n m mo or re e L Lh ha an n o on ne e c cr ry ys sL La al ll ll ln ne e f fo or rm m
o ol ly ym mo or rp ph hs s m ma ay y d dl lf ff fe er r l ln n
1 1 , ,e el lL Ll ln ng g p po ol ln nL Ls s
2 2 x x r ra ay y d dl lf ff fr ra ac cL Ll lo on n p pa aL LL Le er rn ns s
S So ol lu ub bl ll ll lL Ll le es s
D Dr ru ug gs s t th ha at t e ex xh h| |b b| |t t p po o| |y ym mo or rp ph h| |s sm m
1 1 1 1h he eo ob br ro om ma a o o| || |
p po ol ly ym mo or rp ph ho ou us s n na aL Lu ur ra al l f fa aL L m me el lL Ls s a aL L 4 4 6 6 C C
P Pa as s 4 4 p po ol ly ym mo or rp ph hl lc c f fo or rm ms s
a a @ @h he e u un ns sL La ab bl le e g ga am mm ma a f fo or rm m m me el lL Ls s a aL L 1 18 8 C C
b b @ @h he e a al lp ph ha a f fo or rm m m me el lL Ls s a aL L 2 22 2 C C
c c @ @h he e b be eL La a p pr rl lm me e f fo or rm m m me el lL Ls s a aL L 2 28 8 C C
d d @ @h he e s sL La ab bl le e b be eL La a m me el lL Ls s a aL L 4 4 3 3 C C
* *l lf f c co oc co oo o b bo ot tt te et t l ls s b be eo ot te eJ J t to o J J5 5 c c o oo oc cl le el l o of f t tb be e s st to ob bl le e b be et to o c ct ty ys st to ol ls s o ot te e J Je es st tt to oy ye eJ J o oo oJ J t tb be e m mo os ss s J Jo oe es s
o oo ot t c ct ty ys st to ol ll ll lz ze eJ J o oo ot tl ll l l lt t l ls s s so op pe et tc co oo ol le eJ J t to o o ob bo oo ot t 1 15 5 c c
2 2 L Ls st tr ro og ge en ns s f fo or rm m c cr ry ys sL La al ll ll ln ne e s so ol lv va aL Le es s
S Sp pl lp pe er ro on ne e w wl lL Lh h L Lw wo o p po ol ly ym mo or rp ph hs s
4 4 P Pa al lo op pe er rl ld do ol l a an nd d b br ro om mp pe er rl ld do ol l
3 3 @ @a am mo ox xl lf fe en n c cl lL Lr ra aL Le e
6 6 C Ca ar rb ba am ma az ze ep pl ln ne e
S SC C I I @ @L LS S
- - C Cr ry ys sL La al ls s c co on nL La al ln nl ln ng g s so ol lv ve en nL L m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s
- - S So om me eL Ll lm me es s c ca al ll le ed d p ps se eo oJ Jo op po ol ly ym mo ot tp pb bs s
c cb bo oo oq qe es s t tb bo ot t p po ol ly ym mo ot tp pb bl lc c f fo ot tm ms s m mo oy y o oo oJ Je et tq qo o
( (1 1% % L Ln na an nt t| |o ot tr ro op p| |c c L Lh he e c ch ha an ng ge e f fr ro om m o on ne e f fo or rm m L Lo o a an no oL Lh he er r l ls s r re ev ve er rs sl lb bl le e
( (2 2% % M Mo on no ot tr ro op p| |c c L Lr ra an ns sl lL Ll lo on n L La ak ke es s p pl la ac ce e l ln n o on ne e d dl lr re ec cL Ll lo on n o on nl ly y
L Lx xa am mp pl le e m me eL La as sL La ab bl le e L Lo o s sL La ab bl le e f fo or rm m
A AM MC Ck k C CU US S S SC CL LI ID DS S
- - , ,o ol le ec cu ul le es s a ar re e n no oL L p pa ac ck ke ed d l ln n a a r re ep pe ea aL Ll ln ng g l lo on ng g r ra an ng ge e o or rd de er re ed d f fa as sh hl lo on n
- - @ @h he ey y d do o n no oL L h ha av ve e d de ef fl ln nl lL Le e m me el lL Ll ln ng g p po ol ln nL Ls s
- - @ @h he ey y L Le en nd d L Lo o f fl lo ow w w wh he en n s su ub b[ [e ec cL Le ed d L Lo o s su uf ff fl lc cl le en nL L p pr re es ss su ur re e o ov ve er r a a p pe er rl lo od d o of f L Ll lm me e
l le el ld d v va al lu ue e f fo or rc ce e b be el lo ow w w wh hl lc ch h L Lh he e b bo od dy y s sh ho ow ws s e el la as sL Ll lc c p pr ro op pe er rL Ll le es s
l ls so oL Lr ro op pl lc c a as s w we el ll l a as s c cu ub bl lc c c cr ry ys sL La al ls s
L Lx xa am mp pl le es s l ln nc cl lu ud de e p pl la as sL Ll lc cs s g gl la as ss s p pl lL Lc ch h
G GL LA AS SS S 1 1k kA AN NS SI I1 1I IC CN N 1 1L LM M L Lk kA A1 1U Uk kL L
@ @g g c ch ha ar ra ac cL Le er rl ls sL Ll lc c L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e a aL L w wh hl lc ch h L Lh he er re e l ls s a a m ma a[ [o or r c ch ha an ng ge e l ln n p pr ro op pe er rL Ll le es s
8 8e el lo ow w @ @g g g gl la as ss sy y s sL La aL Le e s sa am mp pl le e l ls s b br rl lL LL Ll le e
b bo ov ve e @ @g g s sa am mp pl le e l ls s r ru ub bb be er ry y
l la as sL Ll lc cl lz ze er r l lo ow we er rs s @ @g g ( (e e g g w wa aL Le er r% % L Lh hu us s g gl lv vl ln ng g g gr re ea aL Le er r m mo ob bl ll ll lL Ly y o of f L Lh he e g gl la as ss sy y m mo ol le ec cu ul le e
S Su ub bs st ta an nc ce es s c ch ha ar ra ac ct te er r| |z ze ed d b by y b bo ot th h a am mo or rp ph ho ou us s a an nd d c cr ry ys st ta a| || || |n ne e p pr ro op pe er rt t| |e es s
- - 8 8e ee es sw wa ax x a an nd d p pa ar ra af ff fl ln n
p pp pe ea ar r a am mo or rp ph ho ou us s b bu uL L a as ss su um me e c cr ry ys sL La al ll ll ln ne e a ar rr ra an ng ge em me en nL L w wh he en n h he ea aL Le ed d a an nd d a al ll lo ow wd d L Lo o
c co oo ol l
e eL Lr ro ol la aL Lu um m
C Co on nL La al ln ns s b bo oL Lh h c cr ry ys sL La al ll ll ln ne e a an nd d a am mo or rp ph ho ou us s c co on ns sL Ll lL Lu ue en nL Ls s
C Cl la as ss s
, ,a ay y c cr ry ys sL La al ll ll lz ze e a af fL Le er r l lo on ng g s sL La an nd dl ln ng g
l lC Cu ul l C C8 8 S S@ @ l ln nL L S S@ @ @ @L L
@ @h he e 4 4
L Lh h
s sL La aL Le e o of f m ma aL LL Le er r
C Ch ha ar ra ac cL Le er rl ls sL Ll lc cs s o of f m mo ol le ec cu ul le es s
C Cr rg ga an nl lc c
L Ll lo on ng ga aL Le ed d a an nd d r re ec cL Ll ll ll ln ne ea ar r

8 8l lg gl ld d
o os ss se es ss s s sL Lr ro on ng g d dl lp po ol le es s a an nd d e ea as sl ll ly y p po ol la ar rl lz za ab bl le e g gr ro ou up ps s
2 2 , ,a al ln n @ @y yp pe es s
S S, ,L LC C@ @l lC C ( ( S So oa ap p o or r C Cr re ea as se e l ll lk ke e% %
, ,o ol le ec cu ul le es s a ar re e m mo ob bl ll le e l ln n L Lw wo o d dl lr re ec cL Ll lo on ns s a an nd d c ca an n r ro oL La aL Le e a ab bo ou uL L o on ne e a ax xl ls s
h ha as se e L Lh ha aL L f fo or rm ms s l ln n L Le er rn na ar ry y m ml lx xL Lu ur re es s
2 2 n nL L, , @ @l lC C ( (@ @h hr re ea ad d l ll lk ke e% %
, ,o ol le ec cu ul le e r ro oL La aL Le e l ln n o on ne e a ax xl ls s b bu uL L a ar re e m mo ob bl ll le e l ln n L Lh hr re ee e d dl lr re ec cL Ll lo on ns s
s sp pe ec cl la al l c ca as se e o of f n ne em ma aL Ll lc c c cr ry ys sL La al l l ls s c ch ho ol le es sL Le er rl lc c c cr ry ys sL La al l
l lC Cu ul l C C8 8 S S@ @ l lC C8 8, , @ @l lC Cn n
P Pe ea aL Ll ln ng g o of f s so ol ll ld ds s @ @P PL L8 8, ,C C@ @8 8C C l lC C l lC Cu ul l C C8 8 S S@ @ S S
c cL Ll lo on n o of f c ce er rL La al ln n s so ol lv ve en nL Ls s o on n s so ol ll ld ds s C C@ @8 8C C l lC C l lC Cu ul l C C8 8 S S@ @ S S
8 8C C L L8 8@ @l lL LS S C Cl l l lC Cu ul l C C8 8 S S@ @ S S
L Lx xh hl lb bl lL L f fl lo ow w p pt to op pe et tt tl le es s
o os ss se es ss s p pr ro op pe er rL Ly y o of f b be el ln ng g b bl lt te ef ft tl lo oq qe eo ot t
n na aL Lu ur ra al ll ly y C Cc cc cu ur rr rl ln ng g l lq qu ul ld d C Cr ry ys sL La al ls s
l ln n l ll lp po ol ld da al l f fo or rm ms s f fo ou un nd d l ln n n ne er rv ve es s b br ra al ln n L Ll ls ss su ue es s a an nd d b bl lo oo od d v ve es ss se el ls s
t tb be et to os sc cl le et to os sl ls s m mo oy y b be e t te el lo ot te eJ J t to o t tb be e l lo oy yl lo oq q J Jo ow wo o o of f l ll lp pl lJ J l lo o t tb be e l ll lp po ol lJ J c ct ty ys st to ol ll ll lo oe e s st to ot te e o oo o t tb be e
w wo ol ll ls s o of f t tb be e b bl lo oo oJ J e es ss se el ls s
8 8l ll le e ( (c ch ho ol le es sL Le er ro ol l b bl ll le e a ac cl ld d w wa aL Le er r% % a a s sm me ec cL Ll lc c m me es so op ph ha as se e
, ,o oy y b be e l lo o o ol l e eJ J l lo o t tb be e f fo ot tm mo ot tl lo oo o o of f q qo ol ll ls st to oo oe es s
u us se es s/ / p pp pl ll lc ca aL Ll lo on ns s o of f l lq qu ul ld d C Cr ry ys sL La al ls s l ln n h ha ar rm ma ac cy y
@ @o o d de eL Le ec cL L a ar re ea as s o of f e el le ev va aL Le ed d L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e d du ue e L Lo o c co on ns sl ls sL Le en nL L c co ol lo or r c ch ha an ng ge e w wl lL Lh h L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e
l ln n d de ev ve el lo op pl ln ng g d dl ls sp pl la ay y s sy ys sL Le em m o oe em mo ot tl lc c t ty yp pe e
l ln n L Lh he e s so ol lu ub bl ll ll lz za aL Ll lo on n o of f w wa aL Le er r l ln ns so ol lu ub bl le e m ma aL Le er rl la al ls s s sm me ec cL Ll lc c m me es so op ph ha as se e
S Su u L L8 8C C8 8l l@ @l lC C l l u ul l
m me es so op ph ha as se e f fo or rm me ed d f fr ro om m g ga as se eo ou us s s sL La aL Le e w wh he er re e L Lh he e g ga as s l ls s h he el ld d u un nd de er r c co om mb bl ln na aL Ll lo on n o of f
L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re es s a an nd d p pr re es ss su ur re es s L Lh ha aL L e ex xc ce ee ed d L Lh he e c ct tl lt tl lc co ol l p po ol lo ot t o of f a a s su ub bs sL La an nc ce e
P Pa av ve e p pr ro op pe er rL Ll le es s l ln nL Le er rm me ed dl la aL Le e L Lh ho os se e o of f l ll lq qu ul ld ds s a an nd d g ga as se es s
e er rm me ea aL Le e s so ol ll ld d s su ub bs sL La an nc ce es s ( (g ga as s l ll lk ke e% %
P Pl lg gh h d de en ns sl lL Ll le es s L Lh ha aL L c ca an n b be e r re eg gu ul la aL Le ed d b by y p pr re es ss su ur re e ( (l ll lq qu ul ld d l ll lk ke e% %

S Su up pe er rc cr rl lL Ll lc ca al l f fl lu ul ld d a ap pp pl ll lc ca aL Ll lo on ns s
L Lx xL Lr ra ac cL Ll lo on n C Cr ry ys sL La al ll ll lz za aL Ll lo on n a an nd d r re ep pa ar ra aL Ll lo on n o of f f fo or rm mu ul la aL Ll lo on ns s
r re ep pa ar ra aL Ll lo on n o of f p po ol ly ym me er r m ml lx xL Lu ur re es s
l lo or rm ma aL Ll lo on n o of f m ml lc cr ro o a an nd d n na an no o p pa ar rL Ll lc cl le es s
d dv va an nL La ag ge es s o of f s su up pe er rc cr rl lL Ll lc ca al l f fl lu ul ld d o ov ve er r L Lr ra ad dl lL Ll lo on na al l m me eL Lh ho od ds s
o ow we er r L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e e ex xL Lr ra ac cL Ll lo on ns s a an nd d p pu ur rl lf fl lc ca aL Ll lo on n o of f c co om mp po ou un nd ds s
S So ol lv ve en nL L v vo ol la aL Ll ll ll lL Ly y u un nd de er r a am mb bl le en nL L c co on nd dl lL Ll lo on ns s
S Se el le ec cL Ll lv vl lL Ly y o of f L Lh he e e ex xL Lr ra ac cL Le ed d c co om mp po ou un nd ds s
o ow we er r e en ne er rg gy y r re eq qu ul lr re em me en nL Ls s
o ow we er r v vl ls sc co os sl lL Ly y L Lh ha an n s so ol lv ve en nL Ls s
8 8e ed du uc ce ed d L Lo ox xl lc cl lL Ly y o of f g ga as se es s
8 8e ed du uc ce ed d n ne ee ed d f fo or r h ha az za ar rd do ou us s s so ol lv ve en nL Ls s L Lh ha aL L r re eq qu ul lr re e e ex xp pe en ns sl lv ve e d dl ls sp po os sa al l
1 1 L L A AS SL L k kU UL LL L
u us se ef fu ul l d de ev vl lc ce e f fo or r r re el la aL Ll ln ng g L Lh he e e ef ff fe ec cL L o of f L Lh he e l le ea as sL L n nu um mb be er r o of f l ln nd de ep pe en nd de en nL L v va ar rl la ab bl le es s ( (e e q q
t te em mp pe er ro ot tu ur re e p pr re es ss su ur re e o oo oJ J c c n nc ce en nt tr ro ot ti i n n% % u up po on n L Lh he e v va ar rl lo ou us s p ph ha as se es s ( (s so ol ll ld d l ll lq qu ul ld d a an nd d g ga as s% % L Lh ha aL L
c ca an n e ex xl ls sL L l ln n e eq qu ul ll ll lb br rl lu um m s sy ys sL Le em m c co on nL La al ln nl ln ng g a a g gl lv ve en n n nu um mb be er r o of f c co om mp po on ne en nL Ls s
l lo or rm mu ul la aL Le ed d b by y l l w wi i o or rd d 6 6i ib bb bs s
+ + 2 2

l l l ls s L Lh he e n nu um mb be er r o of f d de eg gr re ee es s o of f f fr re ee ed do om m
@ @e em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e r re es ss su ur re e C Co on nc ce en nL Lr ra aL Ll lo on n
C C l ls s L Lh he e n nu um mb be er r o of f c co om mp po on ne en nL Ls s
l ls s L Lh he e s sm ma al ll le es sL L n nu um mb be er r o of f c co on ns sL Ll lL Lu ue en nL Ls s b by y w wh hl lc ch h L Lh he e c co om mp po os sl lL Ll lo on n o of f e ea ac ch h p ph ha as se e l ln n L Lh he e s sy ys sL Le em m
a aL L e eq qu ul ll ll lb br rl lu um m c ca an n b be e e ex xp pr re es ss se ed d l ln n L Lh he e f fo or rm m o of f a a c ch he em ml lc ca al l f fo or rm mu ul la a o or r e eq qu ua aL Ll lo on n
l ls s L Lh he e n nu um mb be er r o of f p ph ha as se es s p pr re es se en nL L
h ho om mo og ge en no ou us s p ph hy ys sl lc ca al ll ly y d dl ls sL Ll ln nc cL L p po or rL Ll lo on n o of f a a s sy ys sL Le em m L Lh ha aL L l ls s s se ep pa ar ra aL Le ed d f fr ro om m o oL Lh he er r p po or rL Ll lo on ns s o of f
L Lh he e s sy ys sL Le em m b by y b bo ou un nd dl ln ng g s su ur rf fa ac ce es s
L Lk kA AM M L LL LS S
J Ja aL Le er r v va ap po or r c co on nf fl ln ne ed d L Lo o a a p pa ar rL Ll lc cu ul la ar r v vo ol lu um me e
( ( l l 1 1 1 1+ +2 2 2 2% %
l lq qu ul ld d w wa aL Le er r l ln n e eq qu ul ll ll lb br rl lu um m w wl lL Lh h l lL Ls s v va ap po or r
( ( l l 1 1 2 2+ +2 2 1 1% %
C Co oo ol l l ll lq qu ul ld d w wa aL Le er r + + l lL Ls s v va ap po or r u un nL Ll ll l l lc ce e s se ep pa ar ra aL Le es s o ou uL L
( (l l 1 1 + +2 2 0 0% %
l lq q w wa aL Le er r l ll lq q e eL Lh hy yl l a al lc c a an nd d v va ap po or r m ml lx xL Lu ur re e
( (l l 2 2 2 2+ +2 2 2 2% %
l lq qu ul ld d w wa aL Le er r l ll lq qu ul ld d b be en nz zy yl l a al lc co oh ho ol l a an nd d v va ap po or r m ml lx xL Lu ur re e
( (l l 2 2 + +2 2 1 1% %
o on nd de en ns se ed d S Sy ys st te em m
S Sy ys sL Le em ms s l ln n w wh hl lc ch h L Lh he e v va ap po or r p ph ha as se e l ls s l lg gn no or re ed d a an nd d o on nl ly y s so ol ll ld d a an nd d/ /o or r l ll lq qu ul ld d p ph ha as se es s a ar re e c co on ns sl ld de er re ed d
@ @w wo o c co om mp po on ne en nL L s sy ys sL Le em ms s c co on nL La al ln nl ln ng g l ll lq qu ul ld d p ph ha as se es s
@ @w wo o c co om mp po on ne en nL L s sy ys sL Le em ms s c co on nL La al ln nl ln ng g s so ol ll ld d l ll lq qu ul ld d p ph ha as se es s D D1 1 c c1 1l lc c , ,l l\ \1 1D D

W WA A1 1L Lk k L LN NC CL L S S S S1 1L LM M
p pa ar rL Ll la al ll ly y m ml ls sc cl lb bl le e s sy ys sL Le em m
@ @w wo o p ph ha as se e l ll lq qu ul ld d e ex xl ls sL L a aL L 1 11 1 p ph he en no ol l l ln n w wa aL Le er r L Lo o 6 6 p ph he en no ol l l ln n w wa aL Le er r a aL L 3 30 0 C C
S Sl ln ng gl le e l ll lq qu ul ld d p ph ha as se e e ex xl ls sL L w wh he en n L Lh he e c co on nc ce en nL Lr ra aL Ll lo on n e ex xc ce ee ed ds s 6 6 a aL L 3 30 0 C C
l ll l c co om mb bl ln na aL Ll lo on ns s o of f p ph he en no ol l w wa aL Le er r a ab bo ov ve e 6 66 6 8 8 C C a ar re e c co om mp pl le eL Le el ly y m ml ls sc cl lb bl le e a an nd d y yl le el ld d o on ne e p ph ha as se e
l ll lq qu ul ld d s sy ys sL Le em m
c ct tl lt tl lc co ol l s so ol lo ot tl lo oo o o or r D Dp pp pe et t c co oo os so ol lo ot te e t te em mp pe et to ot to ot te e L Lh he e m ma ax xl lm mu um m L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e a aL L w wh hl lc ch h L Lh he e
L Lw wo o p ph ha as se e r re eg gl lo on n e ex xl ls sL L

L LU U1 1L Lk kI IA A
p ph he en no om me en no on n L Lh ha aL L r re es su ul lL Ls s L Lo o l ll lq qu ue ef fa ac cL Ll lo on n w wh he en n L Lw wo o s so ol ll ld ds s a ar re e c co om mb bl ln ne ed d/ /m ml lx xe ed d d du ue e L Lo o L Lh he e
l lo ow we er rl ln ng g o of f L Lh he el lr r m me el lL Ll ln ng g p po ol ln nL Ls s
L Lx xa am mp p| |e es s o of f e eu ut te ec ct t| |c c m m| |x xt tu ur re es s
1 1 S Sa al lo ol l L Lh hy ym mo ol l e eu uL Le ec cL Ll lc c p po ol ln nL L o oc cc cu ur rs s w wl lL Lh h s sy ys sL Le em ms s c co on nL La al ln nl ln ng g 4 4 L Lh hy ym mo ol l l ln n s sa al lo ol l a aL L 1 1 C C
2 2 S Sa al lo ol l c ca am mp ph ho or r e eu uL Le ec cL Ll lc c p po ol ln nL L o oc cc cu ur r w wl lL Lh h s sy ys sL Le em m c co on nL La al ln nl ln ng g 3 36 6 b by y w we el lg gh hL L o of f s sa al lo ol l l ln n c ca am mp ph ho or r a aL L
6 6 C C
C Ca am mp ph ho or r @ @h hy ym mo ol l , ,e en nL Lh ho ol l
4 4 r rl ll lo oc ca al ln ne e l ld do oc ca al ln ne e f fo or rm m a a 1 1 1 1 m ml lx xL Lu ur re e a aL L 1 18 8 C C
L LU U1 1L L 1 1I I C CI IN N1 1
l ls s L Lh he e l lo ow we es sL L L Le em mp pe er ra aL Lu ur re e a aL L w wh hl lc ch h L Lh he e e ex xl ls sL Le en nc ce e o of f L Lh he e l ll lq qu ul ld d p ph ha as se e l ls s p po os ss sl lb bl le e

CP@L8 3
8CL8@lLS Cl 8uC ,CLCuLS ln SCu@lCn
O l@lIL 8CL8@lLS
O epend on Lhe LoLal conLrlbuLlon of aLoms ln Lhe molecules or on Lhe sum of Lhe
properLles of Lhe consLlLuenLs ln a soluLlon
O ,ass ,olar 8efracLlon
O CCnS@l@u@lIL 8CL8@lLS
O epend on Lhe arrangemenL and Lo a lesser exLenL on Lhe klnd of aLoms wlLhln a
molecule

O CpLlcal 8oLaLlon 8efracLlve lndex
O CClC@lIL 8CL8@lLS
O epend malnly on Lhe number of parLlcles ln a soluLlon

@LS Cl SCu@lCnS
SCLU1L SCLVLN1 LkAMLL
Cas Cas lr
lquld Cas JaLer ln oxygen
Solld Cas lodlne vapor ln alr
Cas lquld CarbonaLed waLer
lquld lquld lcohol ln waLer
Solld lquld q naCl soluLlon
Cas Solld Pydrogen ln palladlum
lquld Solld ,lneral oll ln paraffln
Solld Solld Cold

ommon|y Used oncentrat|on Lxpress|ons for So|ut|on
onc express|on Def|n|t|on]Un|ts
ercent we|ght Grams of so|ute]100 g of so|ut|on
ercent vo|ume mL of so|ute per 100 mL of so|ut|on
ercent w]v Gram of so|ute]100 mL of so|ut|on
Norma||ty Gram eqwe|ghts of so|ute]L of so|ut|on
Mo|ar|ty Mo|es of so|ute per L of so|ut|on
Mo|a||ty Mo|es of so|ute]1000 g of so|vent
Mo|e ract|on kat|o of the mo|es of one component (eg
so|ute) of a so|ut|on to the tota| mo|es of a||
components (so|ute and so|vent)
mLq]L|ter M||||gram eqwts of so|ute]L of so|ut|on
Csmo|ar|ty *Csmo|es of a so|ute]||ter of so|ut|on
Csmo|a||ty *Csmo|es of a so|ute]1000 g of so|vent

lC@C8S llLC@lnC SCu8ll@ Cl 8uCS
1 hyslcochemlcal properLles of Lhe soluLe and Lhe solvenL
2 @emperaLure
ressure
4 pP of Lhe soluLlon
3 resence of oLher subsLance Lo ald solublllLy

ColllgaLlve roperLles of soluLlon
epend malnly on Lhe number of parLlcles ln soluLlon
1 CJL8lnC Cl IC8 8LSSu8L

ccordlng Lo 8aoulL's aw Lhe vapor pressure of a solvenL over a dlluLe soluLlon ls
equal Lo Lhe vapor pressure of Lhe pure solvenL mulLlplled by Lhe mole fracLlon of
solvenL ln soluLlon
2 LLI@lCn Cl 8CllnC Cln@
8CllnC Cln@ ls Lhe LemperaLure aL whlch Lhe vapor pressure equals an exLernal pressure
of 760 mmPg
A1
b
k
b
m
A1
b
bolllng polnL elevaLlon
k
b
molal elevaLlon consLanL or ebullloscoplc consLanL

L8LSSlCn Cl l8LLZlnC Cln@
l8LLZlnC Cln@ ls Lhe LemperaLure aL whlch Lhe solld phase of Lhe pure solvenL and Lhe llquld
phase of Lhe soluLlon are ln equlllbrlum under a pressure of 1 aLm
A1
f
k
f
m
A1
f
freezlng polnL depresslon
k
f
molal depresslon consLanL or cryoscoplc consLanL
4 CPnCL ln CS,C@lC 8LSSu8L
CS,C@lC 8LSSu8L ls Lhe pressure LhaL musL be applled Lo Lhe soluLlon Lo prevenL Lhe flow of
pure solvenL lnLo Lhe concenLraLed soluLlon
Ian'L Poff LquaLlon for CsmoLlc ressure
xI n8@
Jhere x osmoLlc pressure
I volume ln llLers
8 ,olar gas consLanL
@ bsoluLe LemperaLure

AID8ASL LUILI8kIA
1 rrhenlus dlssoclaLlon Lheory
n ac|d ls a subsLance LhaL llberaLes P
+
ln aqueous soluLlon base ls a subsLance
LhaL llberaLes hydroxyl (CP

% ln aqueous soluLlon
2 8ronsLedowry @heory
n ocid ls a subsLance (charged or uncharged% LhaL ls capable of donaLlng a proLon
bose ls a subsLance (charged or uncharged% capable of accepLlng a proLon from an acld
@he dlssoclaLlon of an acld (P% always produces a base (

%
A
+
+ A


O P and are cnjuqote ocidbose (an acld and a base LhaL exlsL ln equlllbrlum and dlffer ln
sLrucLure by a proLon%
O @he proLon of an acld does noL exlsL free ln soluLlon buL comblnes wlLh Lhe solvenL
O ln waLer Lhe hydraLed proLon ls a hydron|um |on (P

C
+
%

ewls Lheory
n acld ls a molecule or lon LhaL accepLs an elecLron palr from anoLher aLom and a base ls a
subsLance LhaL donaLes an elecLron palr Lo be shared wlLh anoLher aLom

+
concentrat|on
O Lxpressed ln exponenLlal noLaLlon as pP
pn is the qorithm f the reciprco f the n
+
in cncentrotin
pP log P
+

P
+
10
pP

O s pP decreases P
+
concenLraLlon lncreases exponenLlally

DISSCIA1ICN CNS1AN1
(1% lor weak aclds
lssoclaLlon ln waLer ls expressed as

P P
+
+

Lqulllbrlum expresslon for Lhe dlssoclaLlon of a weak acld ls
k
a
P
+

P
@he acld dlssoclaLlon consLanL ls
pk
a
log k
a

(2% lor weak bases
O lssoclaLlon may also be expressed wlLh Lhe k
a
expresslon for Lhe cnjuqote ocid f the
bose
8P
+
P
+
+ 8
lssoclaLlon consLanL for Lhls reacLlon ls
k
a
P
+
8
8P
+

O bose dissciotin cnstont ls LradlLlonally deflned for a weak base
8 + P
2
C CP + 8P
+

lssoclaLlon consLanL for Lhls reacLlon ls
k
b
CP 8P+
8
@he base dlssoclaLlon consLanL ls
pk
b
logk
b

lonlzaLlon of polyproLlc elecLrolyLes
O 9prtic eectrtes aclds capable of donaLlng 2 or more proLons and bases capable of
accepLlng 2 or more proLons
O lproLlc lonlzes ln Lwo sLages(Carbonlc acld P
2
SC
4
%
O P
2
CC

+ P
2
CP

C
+
+ PCC

O PCC

+ P
2
C P

C
+
+ CC

2

O @rlproLlc lonlzes ln Lhree sLages (hosphorlc acld%
P

C
4
+ P
2
C P

C
+
+ P
2
C
4

P
2
C
4

+ P
2
C P

C
+
+ PC
4
2

PC
4
2
+ P
2
C P

C
+
+ C
4

,PC@LS
O Specles LhaL funcLlon elLher as an acld or as a base
O ln a polyproLlc sysLem all specles are amphoLerlc excepL Lhe parenL acld and Lhe
n

O mlno aclds and proLelns are examples of ampholyLes

+
nP

CP
2
CCCP + P
2
C
+
nP

CP
2
CCC

+ P

C
+

+
nP

CP
2
CCC

+ P
2
C nP
2
CP
2
CCC

+ P

C
+

+
nP

CP
2
CCC

+ P
2
C
+
nP

CP
2
CCCP + CP
O @he specles
+
nP

CP
2
CCC

ls omphteric
O @he amphoLerlc specles
+
nP

CP
2
CCC

ls called a wl11klON
O Carrles boLh a poslLlve and a negaLlve charge and Lhe enLlre molecule ls
neuLral
O @he pP aL whlch zwlLLerlon concenLraLlon ls a maxlmum ls known as
lSCLLC@8lC Cln@


CP@L8 9 8ullL8L n lSC@CnlC SCu@lCnS

8ULkS
P re compounds or mlxLure of compounds LhaL by Lhelr presence ln soluLlon reslsL changes ln pP
upon Lhe addlLlon of small quanLlLles of acld or alkall

8ullL8 C@lCn
P8eslsLance Lo a change ln pP
Mechan|sm of buffer act|on

P SLrong aclds are buffered by weak base
P SLrong bases are buffered by weak acld
P CL@lC ClSClu, CL@@L 8ullL8 l8
S CP

CCCP + CP

CP

CCC

+ P
2
C
S CP

CCC

+ P

C
+
CP

CCCP + P
2
C
P ,,Cnl,,Cnlu, CPC8lL 8ullL8 l8
S nP

+ P

C
+
nP
4
+
+ P
2
C
S nP
4
+
+ CP

nP

+ P
2
C

8ULk LUA1ICN Ck LNDLkSCNASSLL8AL LUA1ICN
Plor a weak acld and lLs salL
pP pk
a
+ log salL/acld
Plor a weak base and lLs salL
pP pk
w
pk
b
+ log base/salL

lC@C8S lnluLnClnC @PL pP Cl @PL 8ullL8 SCu@lCn
l@lCn Cl nLu@8 S@S @C 8ullL8S
S Changes Lhe pP of soluLlon by alLerlng Lhe lonlc sLrengLh
2 lu@lCn/l@lCn Cl J@L8
S ,ay cause a small poslLlve or negaLlve devlaLlon because lL alLers acLlvlLy coefflclenL
and waLer lLself can acL as a weak acld or base
P llotloo oloe ls Lhe change ln pP on dlluLlng Lhe buffer soluLlon Lo half lLs orlglnal sLrengLh
S oslLlve dlluLlon value pP rlses wlLh dlluLlon
S negaLlve dlluLlon value pP decreases wlLh dlluLlon
@L,L8@u8L
1empetotote coefflcleot of pn ls Lhe change ln pP wlLh LemperaLure
P ceLaLe buffers pP lncrease wlLh LemperaLure
P 8orlc acldSodlum boraLe buffers pP decrease wlLh LemperaLure
P @he LemperaLure coefflclenL of acld buffers was relaLlvely small Lhe pP of mosL baslc buffers
was found Lo change more markedly wlLh LemperaLure owlng Lo k
w

8ULk AAI1
Plso known as boffet efflcleocy boffet loJex ooJ boffet oloe
Pls Lhe magnlLude of reslsLance Lo pP changes
Pls Lhe number of gram equlvalenLs ln an acld or base LhaL changes Lhe pP of 1 buffer soluLlon by
1 unlL
P@he buffer capaclLy equaLlon (%
2 C k
a
+ P
+
/k
a
+ (P
+
%
2

S Jhere C ls Lhe LoLal buffer concenLraLlon (sum of Lhe molar concenLraLlons of Lhe acld and Lhe
salL%

Max|mum 8uffer capac|ty
P ,axlmum buffer capaclLy occurs when pP pk
a
and ls represenLed by

max
0376C
8lCCClC 8ullL8 SS@L,
P 8CC ls malnLalned aL a pP abouL 74 by Lhe
S 8l,8 8ullL8S (ln Lhe plasma%
Carbonlc acld/blcarbonaLe buffer sysLem
cld/alkall sodlum salLs of phosphorlc acld
lasma proLelns behaves as acld and can comblne wlLh bases and so acL as buffers
S SLCCn8 8ullL8S (ln Lhe eryLhrocyLes%
Pemoglobln/Cxyhemoglobln
cld/alkall poLasslum salLs of phosphorlc acld

8uffer capac|ty of the b|ood
P pP 70 Lo 78
S Pgb and oLher consLlLuenLs (excluslve of blcarbonaLe%
abouL 0023 gram equlvalenLs per llLer per pP unlL
S 8lcarbonaLe sysLem
000 gram equlvalenLs per llLer per pP unlL
S @oLal buffer capaclLy
0023 + 000 0028
P lL ls llfe LhreaLenlng lf Lhe pP of Lhe blood ls below 69 and above 78
C1Lk 8ICLCGIAL 8ULkS
P C8l, lul
S pP ls abouL 74 wlLh a range of 7 Lo 8 or sllghLly hlgher
S lound Lo have a greaL degree of buffer capaclLy
S llows dlluLlon of 113 wlLh neuLral dlsLllled waLer before alLeraLlon of pP ls noLlced
P u8lnL
S verage pP range ls 60 unlLs
S s low as 43 or as hlgh as 78
S pP below normal values hydrogen lons are excreLed by Lhe kldneys
S pP above normal values hydrogen lons are reLalned

AkMALU1IAL 8ULkS
P lmporLanL ln ophLhalmlc preparaLlon
P lso flnd appllcaLlon ln colorlmeLrlc deLermlnaLlon of pP
P Clfford's
S 8orlc acld + ,onohydraLed sodlum carbonaLe ln varlous proporLlons yleld soluLlons
wlLh pP values 3 Lo 9
P Sorensen's
S ,lxLure of salLs of sodlum phosphaLe of pP 6 Lo 8
S Sodlum chlorlde ls added Lo make lL lsoLonlc wlLh Lhe body flulds
P allLzsch Plnd and Coyan
S ConslsL of borlc acld sodlum boraLe and sufflclenL sodlum chlorlde Lo make mlxLure
lsoLonlc
S used for ophLhalmlc soluLlons ln Lhe pP range of 7 Lo 9
P Clarkubs ,lxLure
S PCl and kCl pP 12 Lo 22
S PCl and poLasslum hydrogen phLhalaLe pP 22 Lo 40
S naCP and poLasslum hydrogen phLhalaLe pP 42 Lo 38
S naCP and kP
2
C
4
pP 38 Lo 80
S P

8C

naCP and kCl pP 80 Lo 100

8ULkLD ISC1CNI SCLU1ICN
P harmaceuLlcal soluLlons LhaL are meanL for appllcaLlon Lo dellcaLe membranes should be
ad[usLed Lo approxlmaLely Lhe same osmoLlc pressure as LhaL of Lhe body flulds
P nasal ophLhalmlc and parenLeral soluLlons
ISC1CNI SCLU1ICNS
PCause no swelllng or conLracLlon of Lhe Llssues wlLh whlch Lhey come ln conLacL and produce no
dlscomforL when lnsLllled lnLo Lhe eye nasal LracL blood or oLher Llssues
C1CNI cause cells Lo swell waLer enLers Lhe cell resulLlng Lo bemolysls
Lk1CNI cause cells Lo shrlnk because of Lhe ouLward passage of waLer

Measurement of ton|c|ty
(1% PL,C@lC ,L@PC
S 8ased on Lhe appearance of 88C suspended ln Lhe varlous soluLlons of Lhe drug
S PypoLonlc soluLlon llberaLes oxyhemoglobln
(2% 8ased on any meLhods LhaL deLermlne colllgaLlve properLles

P l8LLZlnC Cln@ L8LSSlCn (Atf%
S @he Lf of human blood and Lears ls 032C Lhus Lhe Atf ls 032C
S @he Lf 09 naCl soluLlon ls 032C also Lhus ls |soton|c wlLh blood and Lears
S ypoton|c soluLlon has a Lf beLween 0 and 032C
S yperton|c soluLlon has a Lf below 032C

CSS l ,L@PCS
C8CSCClC ,L@PC
mounL of naCl needed .09 x 032ALf sol)J
ln 100 m 032
SClu, CPC8lL LCulILn@ ,L@PC
L naCl equlvalenL Lonlclc equlvalenL" ls Lhe amounL of naCl LhaL ls equlvalenL Lo 1 g of Lhe drug
L 17(
lso
/,J%
SLep 1 L x (amounL of drug ln soluLlon% x
SLep 2 (09 g/100 m% x I
solo
ln m
SLep x amounL of naCl needed
lf naCl ls noL Lo be used
SLep 4 mounL of naCl___ mounL of Lhe Lonlclc agenL
L of Lhe Lonlclc agenL
CSS ll ,L@PCS
lnvolve Lhe addlLlon of waLer Lo Lhe drug Lo make an lsoLonlc soluLlon followed by Lhe
addlLlon of an lsoLonlc dlluLlng vehlcle
P I .LJ x L)Jx 1111
JPl@LIlnCLn@ ,L@PC
S8CJ'S ,L@PC
I values (Sprowl's volume%
based on 1 floz (0 m% of a 1 soluLlon so Lhe welghL of Lhe drug (J% ls 0 g