Ch-3 1

Chapter 3 p-n junctions

3.1. Processing and classification of p-n junctions (diodes)

1. Processing techniques Alloying Diffusion Ion implantation Epitaxial growth using CVD and MBE 2. Junction interfacial profiles Abrupt (Step function) Graded (Linear grading; Complementary error function; Gaussian function) 3. Junction depths Shallow junctions (for high speed and high frequency devices) can be fabricated using low energy ion implantation, low-temperature CVD, or MBE. Deep junction (conventional for high reverse bias voltage uses)

3.2.

Electrostatic analysis - potential diagrams

In this section, we will show how to use the Poisson equation and current density equations to calculate the

built-in electric field, , the potential band bending, , and the width of the depletion layer, xd. 3.2.1. Depletion approximation

(1) In the space charge region adjacent to the junction interface, there are only uncompensated donor and acceptor ions, ND+ and NA+, but not free carriers, n and p, i.e., all carriers have been depleted --- a so-called depletion layer. (2) At the boundaries of the space charge region, the charge density is abruptly changed. 3.2.2. Equilibrium conditions - p-n junction under zero bias

Using the depletion approximation, we have n << ND+ and p << NA-. Under an equilibrium condition the current density passing through a p-n junction is equal to zero, i.e.,

r kT p j p = q p ( pE ) = 0. q x
Hence, we find

(3.2.1)

Ex =

kT 1 p d = q px dx

(3.2.2)

Integrating the above equation over the entire junction region,

d =
p

kT q

pn

pp

dp , p

(3.2.3)

we obtain

(n p ) =

kT pn ln q pp

(3.2.4)

Ch-3 2

Because of ni = nn pn = pp np, and assuming a full ionization, i.e., pp NA, and nn ND, we find
2

np = ni2/ ND, pn = ni2/ NA.

Therefore,

(3.2.5) (3.2.6)

Vb = ( n p ) =
and

kT N A ( x p ) N D ( x n ) E g kT N A N D + ln ln = , q q q Nv Nc ni2

(3.2.7)

nn / np = pp / pn = exp(qVb/kT),
where Vb is called the built-in voltage.

(3.2.8)

Fig. 3.1.1 Built-in voltage for one-side abrupt junction in Ge, Si, and GaAs.

3.2.3.

Non-equilibrium conditions - p-n junction under bias

In this case, the minority carrier density should be presented using the quasi-Fermi level. For holes at the nside of a junction we have

p(xn) = Nv exp{-[EFp - Ev(xn)]/kT},

and for electrons at the p-side we have

(3.2.9)

n(xp) = Nc exp{-[ Ec(xp)- EFn]/kT}.

(3.2.10)

The energy difference between the two quasi-Fermi levels for electrons and holes, respectively, is given by

EFn - EFp = Vb - VB ,
where VB is the external bias voltage.

(3.2.11)

3.2.4.

Distribution of the electric field, and potential in the space charge region

In the space charge region, the relationships among the charges, built-in electric field, and potentials are represented by Poissons equation. For an abrupt p-n junction, if we only consider a 1-D case, we have

Ch-3 3

( x) d 2 ( x) = . 2 dx 0
In a general case, if all dopants are ionized, we can write the charge neutrality as below,

(3.2.12)

(x) = q( ND - NA +p - n)
By using the depletion approximation, we find

(3.2.13)

qN A ( x ) = qN D 0
(1) Solution for the electric field

xp x 0 0 x xn x x p and x x n

(3.2.14)

Substituting the charge density solution into Poissons equation gives the equations to be solved for the electric field.

qN A / ( 0 ) d 2 = qN d / ( 0 ) dx 2 0

xP x 0 0 x xn x x n and x x n

(3.2.15)

Integrating from the depletion region edge to an arbitrary point x, one obtains the p-side of the depletion region

E ( x) =

qN d ( x ) = ( A x + A) dx 0

-xp x 0

(3.2.16)

Using the boundary condition E(-xp) = - d(x)/dx = 0, we obtain

A=
Hence

qN A

xp qN A

(3.2.17)

E ( x) =
Similarly, we obtain

0
qN D

( x p + x)

-xp x 0

(3.2.18)

E ( x) =
Discussion:

( xn x)

0 x xn

(3.2.19)

(i) At the junction interface, the continuity of the electric field is found to require NA xp = ND xn (3.2.20) (ii) At the junction interface, E(x=0) = Emax = - qNA xp/(0). Therefore, the continuity of the electric field ensures qNA xp = qND xn, which indicates that the numbers of positive or negative charges at both sides of the space charge region are equal. (iii) The electric field is linearly decayed from the junction interface to the edge of the depletion region. E(x) = Emax(1 - x/xp ) = [qNA /(0)](x - xp). (3.2.21)

Ch-3 4

(2) Solution for the potential Integrating Eq. 3.2.16, once again, the electrostatic potential can be obtained,

( x) =

qN A 2 qN A x + x x+C. 2 0 0 p

-xp x 0
2

(3.2.22)

By setting the arbitrary reference potential equal to 0 at x = xp, i.e., (xp) = 0, C = qNA xp /(20). Hence,

( x) =

qN A ( x p + x) 2 2 0

-xp x 0

(3.2.23)

Similarly, on the n-side of the junction, using a boundary condition (xn) = Vb , we obtain

( x ) = Vb
Discussion:

qN D

( xn x) 2

0 x xn

(3.2.24)

(i) The versus x dependence is quadratic in nature, with a concave curvature on the p-side of the junction, and a convex curvature on the n-side. (ii) The continuity of the electrostatic potential at x = 0 is found to require

qN A

x 2 = Vb p

qN D

2 xn

(3.2.25)

(iii) The potential difference between p- and n sides is

[( xn-(-xp)] = ( xn) - (-xp) =

(3) Solution for the width of the depletion layer The total width of a depletion layer is

q 2 0

2 ( N A x 2 + N D x n ) = Vb p

(3.2.26)

xm = xn - (-xp).
Following Eq. 3.1.20, we find

(3.2.27)

xn = xm NA /( NA + ND) , xp = xm ND /( NA + ND) .

(3.2.28) (3.2.29)

Inserting these results into Eq. 3.2.26, while considering an external bias such that Vb Vb - VB, we obtain
2 qN A N D x m . 2 0 ( N A + N D )

Vb - VB
Therefore,

(3.2.30)

2 0 N + ND xm = (Vb VB ) A N A ND q

1/ 2

(3.1.31)

For single side p-n junctions, e.g., p+-n junctions where NA >> ND, we thus have

Ch-3 5

2 0 (Vb V B ) xm xn = qN D
Similarly, for n +- p junctions, we find

1/ 2

(3.1.32)

2 0 (Vb V B ) xm x p = . qN A

1/ 2

(3.1.33)

It indicates that the depletion only occurs at the lowly doped side for the abrupt single side junctions. The results of the electric field and electrostatic potential as a function of position for an abrupt p-n junction are shown in Fig. 3.2.1..

Fig. 3.2.1 Step junction solution. Depletion approximation based quantitative solution for the electrostatic variables in a pn step junction under equilibrium conditions (VB = 0). (a) Step junction profile, (b) charge density, (c) electric field, and (d) electrostatic potential as a function of position.

Ch-3 6

(4) In case of a linearly graded doping profile across the junction interface The linearly graded profile is a more realistic approximation for junction formed by deep diffusion into moderate or heavily doped substrates. As shown in Fig. 3.2.2, the linearly graded profile is mathematically modeled by N(x) = ND - NA = x . (3.1.34) Hence, we have the built-in voltage across a linearly graded p-n junction,

Vb = 2

kT x m ln( ). q 2ni

(3.1.35)

Fig. 3.2.2 Linearly graded solution. Depletion approximation based quantitative solution for the electrostatic variables in a linearly graded junction under equilibrium conditions (VB = 0). (a) linear graded profile, (b) charge density, (c) electric field, and (d) electrostatic potential as a function of position.

Ch-3 7

Poissons equations:

d 2 q x / ( 0 ) = dx 2 0
The electric filed
2 xm 2 q 2 x E ( x) = , 2 0

xm / 2 x xm / 2 x x m / 2 and x x m / 2

(3.2.36)

-xm/2 x xm /2

(3.2.37)

and the maximum electric field at the junction interface

2 q x m E max ( x = 0) = . 8 0

(3.2.38)

By setting reference zero potential at xp = -xm/2, we find the electrostatic potential distribution

( x) =

xm 2 q x m 3 3 2 ( ) + ( ) x x . 2 6 0 2

-xm/2 x xm /2

(32.39)

The voltage drop across the depletion region is equal to

Vb VB =

2q x m 3 ( ) . 3 0 2
1/ 3

(3.2.40)

Finally, we obtain the width of the depletion region

12 0 xm = (Vb V B ) q

(3.2.41)

Fig. 3.2.3 Depletion-layer width and depletion capacitance per unit area as a function of doping for one-side abrupt junction in Si.

(5) Comments on the depletion approximation

Ch-3 8 (i) The depletion approximation is a good description only for a symmetrical p-n junction, i.e., NA ND, and under a high reverse bias. It is not suitable for single-side abrupt junctions. In those cases, the space charge effect due to free carriers should be taken into account (ii) There are actually no abrupt changes at the boundaries of the space charge region. Thin boundary layers exist between the depletion region and neutral layers, which are characterized as the Debye radius

L2 = dn L2 = dp

2 0 kT , q2 ND 2 0 kT , q2 N A

(3.2.42)

(3.2.43)

Ldp and Ldp are in the order of 10-6 cm at room temperature. 3.2.5.*

Space charge effect

For asymmetrical abrupt p-n junctions (n+-p or p+-n), due to accumulation of free carriers there is an inversion layer at the junction interface close to the lowly doped side. To solve the problem, the free carrier, p and n, must be taken into account during calculations. In this case the charge densities in the space charge region are

(x<0) = q(- NA + p - n), (x>0) = q( ND + p - n).

According to Eq. 3.2.2, we have

p-side n-side

(3.2.44a) (3.2.44b)

d kT 1 dp kT 1 d ln p = = . dx q p dx q p dx kT p ln . q C

(3.2.45)

By integrating the above equation, we find

(3.2.46)

C can be determined, if we take a reference zero potential at a place where p = NA. Therefore,

p = NA exp(-q/kT).

(3.2.47)

With an external bias, we have

pn = NcNv exp[-(Ec-Ev+Efp-Efn)/kT] = ni2exp(-VB/kT)= NDNA exp[-(Vb-VB)/kT] ,

(3.1.48)

Therefore,

n = NDNA exp[-(Vb-VB)/kT] / p = ND exp[-(Vb-VB-)/kT]. Vb V B d 2 q ) (p-side) N A + N A exp( ) N D exp( 2 = kT kT dx 0 2 Vb V B d q (n-side) N D + N A exp( ) N D exp( 2 = kT kT dx 0

(3.1.49)

The Poisson equations can thus be written as (3.2.50)

(3.2.51)

Using the boundary conditions E(=0) = E(=Vb-VB) = 0

2 kT q q N D q q (V b V B ) E p ( x < 0) = 1 exp( ) + exp 1 exp L D p q kT kT N A kT kT (3.2.52a)
1/ 2

Ch-3 9
2 kT q q (Vb VB ) N A q q (Vb VB ) ) + ) (Vb VB ) 1 exp( exp( kT ) exp( LDn q kT kT kT ND
1/ 2

En ( x > 0) =

(3.2.52b) where, Ldp and Ldp are the Debye radius, i.e., Ldn =
2

2 0 kT 2 0 kT 2 and Ldp = . 2 q ND q2 N A

Fig. 3.2.4 Space charge effect for a strongly asymmetrical junction. (a) Energy band, (b) electric field distribution, and (c) space charge distribution.

Because the electric field must be continuous at the junction interface (x = 0), we can then obtain the maximum electric filed and the electrostatic potential at this point.

E max
and

q (0) N D q (0) 2 kT q (0) q (Vb V B ) 1 exp = E (0) = 1 exp( ) + exp L Dp q kT kT N A kT kT (3.2.53)

1/2

(0) =

N A N D kT ND (Vb V B ) + ( ) N A + ND q NA + ND

q (Vb V B ) ) . 1 exp( kT

(3.2.54)

The fact that at x = 0, (0) 0 indicates that there is a charge accumulation at the junction interface. In an extreme case, when NA >> ND,

(0) kT/q.
Insert this result into Eq.3.2.47, we find

(3.2.55)

p(0) = NA exp[-q(0)/kT] NA exp(-1) 0.368 NA,

(3.2.56)

Ch-3 10 indicating that the hole concentration at x = 0 has been very close to the doping concentration (NA) at the heavily doped side and must be much larger than that (ND) at the lowly doped side. Therefore, a larger number of holes will be accumulated at the n-side of the junction to form a p-type inversion layer . Such a charge accumulation changes the value of the built-in voltage, i.e., Vb Vb + n kT/q (n = 1-2). The resulted change of the width of the space charge region is

xm =

2 0 nkT (Vb VB ) qN B q

(3.2.53)

= LD 2

[ (V

VB ) n ,

(3.2.54)

where, = q/(kT), and LD is the Debye radius.

3.3.

DC analysis (I-V characteristics)

In this section, we will show how to use the current density equations and continuity equations to calculate the I-V characteristics of a p-n junction. 3.3.1. Ideal junction equations

(1) Assumptions for an ideal p-n junction: (i) Low resistance in the p- and n- regions, i.e., all voltage can be applied on the space charge region. (ii) The length of p- or n-region is larger than the diffusion length of minority carriers, i.e., pn(x=W) = pn0. (iii) No any generation-recombination processes occur within the space charge region. (iv) np or pn << n or p (low injection condition). (v) No surface recombination. (2) Basic equation: In the section 2.6, we have derived the following equations

j p ( x ) = q pn E x qD p

pn x
.

(3.3.1)

p n 1 j p p n pn 0 = t q x p
Inset Eq. 3.3.1 into 3.3.2, we find

(3.3.2)

pn p n pn 0 pn 2 pn = Dp 2 p E x x p t x 2 p n pn p n 0 Dp = 0, p x2
or

(3.3.3)

By applying the first assumption, and also under a forward bias condition the 2nd term at the right side of the above equation is very small, we can re-writhe Eq. 3.3.3 at the steady state, i.e., p/t=0, (3.3.4)

2 pn pn p n 0 = x2 L2p
where Lp =

(3.3.5)

D p p is the diffusion length.

(3) Under forward bias (VB = VF > 0)

Ch-3 11

The solution of the Eq 3.3.5 is

pn - pn0 = Aexp[(x-xn)/Lp]+Bexp[-(x-xn)/Lp]
We have known at x = xn at x = Wn p = pn0exp[qVF/(kT)] P = Pn0, (the second assumption)

(3.3.6)

(3.3.7a) (3.3.7b)

where, VF is the forward bias voltage. Hence, we have

pno{exp[qVF/(kT)]-1} = A + B, A exp(Wn/Lp) + B exp(-Wn/Lp) = 0.

(3.3.8a) (33.8b)

Fig. 3.3.1 Energy band diagram, intrinsic Fermi level (), quasi-Fermi level, and carrier distributions under (a) forward bias, and (b) reverse bias conditions.

We obtain

pn 0 (1 exp A=

aV F W xn ) exp( n ) kT Lp , Wn x n 2 Sh( ) Lp

(3.3.9a)

pn 0 (1 exp B=

aV F W xn ) exp( n ) kT Lp . Wn x n 2 Sh( ) Lp

(3.3.9b)

Therefore, we find

Ch-3 12

p = pn pno = pn 0 (1 exp

aVF Sh (Wn x n ) / L p ) . kT Sh(Wn + Ln )

= qD p pno Lp Cth( Wn x n qV ) exp( F ) 1 , Lp kT

(3.3.10)

The hole current density can then be written as

j p j pD = qD p

pn x

x = xn

(3.3.11)

Fig. 3.3.2 Ideal I-V characteristics of a diode. (a) Linear plot and (b) semilog plot.

Similarly, we obtain the electron current density at p-side

jn

qDn n po Ln

Cth(

Wp x p qV ) exp( F ) 1 . Ln kT

(3.3.12)

Therefore, the total current density passing through a p-n junction is

qD p pno qDn n po Wp x p W xn qV )+ ) exp( F ) 1 J F = j p + jn = Cth( Cth( n Lp Ln Ln kT Lp qVF = J s exp( ) 1 . (3.3.13) kT

where, J s =

qD p pno Lp

Cth(

qDn n po Wp x p Wn x n )+ Cth( ) is called the saturation current. Lp Ln Ln

Discussion:

(i) When Wn << Lp, Wp << Ln,

Ch-3 13

JF = (

qD p pno Wn x n

qDn n po qV qV ) exp( F ) 1 = J s* exp( F ) 1 . (3.3.14) Wp x p kT kT

(ii) When Wn >> Lp, Wp >> Ln,

JF = (

qD p pno Lp

qDn n po qV qV ) exp( F ) 1 = J s** exp( F ) 1 . (3.3.15) Ln kT kT

(4) Under reverse bias (VB = VR < 0) Because VB = VR < 0, exp[qVR/(kT)] 0. Therefore, we find

JR = - J s
The Eqs 3.3.13 and 3.3.16 are called (Shockley) ideal diode equations.

(3.3.16)

3.3.2

Real I-V characteristics We will discuss non-ideal effects which influence the measured diode I-V characteristics.

(1) Generation-recombination process According to the carrier recombination theory, at the steady state the carrier net recombination rate is

np ni2 U R = R Gth = . p (n nt ) + n ( p pt )

(3.3.17)

To facilitate the discussion, we have made the following assumptions: (i) The analysis is restricted at the boundary where there is an equality of the electron and hole densities, i.e., n = p, and np = ni2 exp[qVF/(kT)] within the space charge region. (ii) The life time of electrons is the same as that of holes, i.e., t = n = p. (iii) The energy level of the recombination center is located close to the middle of the bandgap. We thus have nt pt ni, and nt = ni exp[(Et - Ei)/(kT)]. For the forward bias: Following the assumption (i), we can simplify Eq. 3.1.17 as

qVF ni exp( kT 1) . UR qVF 2t 1) exp( 2 kT

When VF > 2kT/q, the above equation can be further simplify as

(3.3.18)

UR

ni qV exp( F ) . 2t 2 kT qni qV n qV qV 0 exp( F )dx = qxm i exp( F ) = J RG exp( F ) . 2 t 2 kT 2 t 2 kT 2 kT

(3.3.19)

Hence, the recombination current density in the space charge region is

J RG = qU R dx =
xm

xm

(3.3.20)

The total forward current density is a sum of the diffusion current density and the recombination current density within the space charge region, i.e.,

Ch-3 14

J F = J D + J RG = J s exp(

qV F qV 0 ) + J RG exp( F ) 2 kT kT

(3.3.21)

In practice, it is frequently more convenient to use an empirical formula

J F = J s eff exp(

qV F ), nkT

(3.3.22)

where n is an ideality factor. For the reverse bias: VB = VR < 0, there is only generation current, we thus obtain
0 J R = J s + J RG = J s +

qx m ni . 2 t

(3.3.23)

(2) Surface recombination effects (i) Surface recombination current, ISG .

ISR = qASp[ pn(x=0) - pn0]

(3.3.24)

(ii) Leakage current due to a surface inversion layer, Ii. (iii) Surface leakage current due to absorption of water vapor and ions, etc., Is. (3) Ccurrent due to defect assisted tunneling processes as reverse bias If there are some defects (in particular dislocations) at the junction interface. Some defect states can be introduced at energy positions close to the middle of the bandgap. Electrons and holes can thus tunnel through the junction via these states under reverse bias, forming a tunneling current, ITu. Therefore, the current terms for a real p-n junction should be expressed as P+ JF = JD + JRG + JSG + Ji + Js JR = Js0 + JRG0 + Jtu (4) High current injection condition (pn nn) At low injection we have (3.3.25) (3.3.26) n(x) nn pn xn
Fig. 3.3.3 High current injection

p(x)

Wn

p(xn)nn = ni2 exp[qVF/(kT)].

(3.3.27)

At high-injection, there is a large hole density injecting from the p+- to n-region. To keep the charge neutrality, the same amount of electron will also flow from the contact to n-region. We thus have

p(xn) - pn = n(xn) - nn

(3.3.28)

where pn is the equilibrium (minority) hole density in the n-region, which is very low, and can be ignored. Hence, we find

n(xn) = nn + p(xn).
Eq. 3.3.27 has thus to be re-written as p(xn)[ nn + p(xn)] = ni2 exp[qVF/(kT)], or

(3.3.29)

(3.3.30)

Ch-3 15 p(xn)[ 1 + p(xn)/ nn ] =( ni2/ nn )exp[qVF/(kT)]. Since p(xn)/ nn >> 1, we thus have

(3.3.31)

p(xn) = ni exp[qVF/(2kT)].
Therefore, we find at high injection

(3.3.32)

JF exp[qVF/(2kT)]
(4) Series-resistance

(3.3.33)

In this case, there are voltage drops across the series resistance, VR = IRs. The applied voltage across the depletion region is thus reduced to

VF = VB - IRs

(3.3.34)

Fig. 3.3.4 I-V characteristics of a practical diode. (a) Generation-recombination current region, (b) diffusion current region, (c) high injection region, (d) series resistance effect, and (e) reverse leakage current due to generation-recombination and surface effect.

3.4.
3.4.1

AC analysis
Small signal admittance For the practical uses, we need to add an AC modulation signal on the DC bias., V = V0 + V1 exp(it). (3.4.1)

Therefore, the hole density (in case of a p+-n junction) injecting to the n-region contains both AC and DC components. Assuming the AC signal is a sine or cosine function, we can write

p(x,t) = p0(x) + p1(x,t) = p0(x) + p1(x)exp(it),

and its derivative to the time is

(3.4.2)

Ch-3 16

p = i p1 t

(3.4.3)

Insert Eqs. 3.4.2 and 3.4.3 into the continuity equation 3.3.3, we can obtain two equations. One is dealing with the DC component, which has the same form as Eq. 3.3.4, and another is dealing with the AC component,

Dp
or

2 p1 p1 = i p1 , x2 p

(3.4.4)

2 p1 1 (1 i p ) p1 = 0 . x 2 L2p
The solution of the above equation is in the form of

(3.4.5)

p1 ( x ) = A1 exp ( x x n )(1 + i p ) 1/ 2 / L p + B1 exp ( x x p )(1 + i p ) 1/ 2 / L p (3.4.6).

We need to find the boundary conditions. It is evident at x = Following Eq. 3.4.1, the injecting hole density at x = xn is

, p1 = 0. How about anther one at x = xn.

(3.4.7)

p(xn,t) = pn exp{[ q( V0 + V1) exp(it)]/kT}.

For the small signal, the Eq. 3.4.7 can be extended as a series, and we only take the first-order term as an approximation, we thus find

p(xn,t) = pn exp[ qV0 /(kT)] [(1+q V1)/(kT) exp(it)] = p0(xn) + p1(xn)exp(it),

i.e., (3.4.8)

p1(xn) = pn [qV1/(kT)] exp[qV0 /(kT)].

Using two boundary conditions at x = xn, and x =, respectively, we obtain

(3.4.9)

A1 = pn [qV1/(kT)] exp[qV0 /(kT)], B1 = 0.

Therefore, the solution 3.4.6 becomes

(3.4.10a) (3.4.10b)

p1 ( x ) = pn

( x xn )(1 + i p )1/ 2 qV1 qV exp( o ) exp kT kT Lp

(3.4.11)

The AC component of the hole (diffusion) current density passing through the junction is thus written as

jF = jp = qD p

[ p1 ( x ) exp(i t )] x

Ch-3 17

( x x n )(1 + i p ) 1/ 2 qD p pno q qVo 1/ 2 = A exp( )(1 + i p ) exp V1 exp(i t ) . kT Lp L p kT

(3.4.12) Define the small signal admittance, Y, as

Y=

qD p pno q j F ( x xn ) qV q =A exp( o )(1 + i p ) 1/ 2 = I F (1 + i p ) 1/ 2 L p kT kT kT V1 exp(i t )

(3.4.13)

When (p)2 << 1,

p qI F (1 + i ), kT 2

(3.4.14)

and define Gd = qIF/(kT). Hence, we find

Y = G d + i G d (

p
2

),

(3.4.15)

where, Gd(p/2) is a value of the diffusion capacitance.

3.4.2

Diffusion capacitance

As we have discussed in the preceding section, the image part of the admittance actually represents the change of the minority carrier charge density within the diffusion length as a function of the external bias. The charge density in the diffusion region is increasing with increasing VB, and it in decreasing when VB is decreasing, which is similar to the charging and discharging processes of a capacitor. Therefore, we call is diffusion capacitance. In this section, we will give further discussion about the physical meaning of the diffusion capacitance. Following Fig. 3.4.1, the charge density in the diffusion region (x = xn Ln) is presented as

Q=

qV 1 AqL p pn 0 exp( o ) 1 . 2 kT

(3.4.16)

When changing the bias voltage, dV0, the change of the injecting hole density is

dQ =
Therefore,

qV 1 q AqL p pn 0 ( ) exp( o )dV0 2 kT kT

(3.4.17) p+

Ln xp xn

Lp n

Cdiff =

qV dQ 1 q = AqL p pn 0 ( ) exp( o ) dV0 2 kT kT qV q p AqD p pn 0 = ( )( ) exp( o ) kT 2 Lp kT

dQ

pn0

= (

p q p )( ) I F = Gd ( ) 2 kT 2

(3.4.18)
Fig. 3.4.1 Diffusion capacitance of a p+-n junction

Ch-3 18

3.4.3

Depletion capacitance

In the preceding sections, we discussed the capacitance introduced in the carrier diffusion region. On the other hand, the capacitance effect also exits in the depletion region, which is called depletion capacitance.

dQd 0 A = dVB xm where, xm = xn + xp . Cd =

(3.4.19)

Fig. 3.4.2 (a) Voltage-dependence of the differential conductance and (b) capacitance of a Si pn junction at zero frequency.

For an example, for a p+-n junction,

xm xn =
Hence, we find

2 0 (V VB ) qN D b

(3.4.20)

Ch-3 19

Cd = A

0 qN D
2(Vb VB )

(3.4.21)

The measurements of the depletion capacitance as a function of the bias voltage can be used to determine the doping concentration versus the junction depth. In this case, we shall re-write Eq. 3.4.21 as

Cd2 = A 2

0 qN D
2(Vb V B )
3 Cd

(3.4.22)

Differentiating the above equation with respect to V, we find

ND =

xm =

0
Cd

dCd q 0 A dV
2

(3.4.23)

A.

(3.4.24)

The dopant depth profile can then be obtained from the above two equations. For p-n junction with a linearly graded profile, the depletion capacitance should be present as

q ( 0 ) 2 Cd = A 12(Vb V B )

1/ 3

(3.4.25)

3.4.4

Small-signal equivalent circuit of a p-n junction

Cgeom = 0A/L

Fig. 3.4.3 Equivalent circuit of a p-n junction

3.5.

Transient response

The transient response between the switch-on (forward bias) and switch-off (reverse bias) states of a diode is an important characteristic to show whether the device can be used for the high speed (digital) circuits 3.5.1 Charge storage effect (ts) According to Fig. 3.5.1, at position 1, the diode is at the on-state

I1 = I F =

V F Von V F . RF RF

(3.5.1)

At position 2, the diode is at the off-state

Ch-3 20

I2 = I R =

VR + v A RR

0< t < t s

VR . RR

(3.5.2)

Where, ts is the charge storage time. For a p+-n junction, using the continuity equation, we have

Dp

d2p p p = + . x2 t p

(3.5.3)

Multiplying qAdx at the both sides of the Eq. 3.5.3, and integrating it over the entire n-region, we obtain

p qAD p x
or

x =Wn

p x

x =0 = t

Wn

qApn 0 dx +

Wn

qApn 0 dx

(3.5.4)

A J p (0) J p (Wn ) =

dQ p dt

Qp

(3.5.5)

If Wn >> Lp, Jp(Wn) 0. Therefore,

AJ p (0) =

dQ p dt

Qp

(3.5.6)

Fig. 3.5.1.The turn-off transient. (a) Idealized representation of the awitching circuit, (b) sketch and charaterization of the current-time transient, and (c) voltage-time transient.

Ch-3 21

(1) t < 0 the p-n junction is at the steady state, i.e., I = I1, Qp/t = 0. Hence, we find

I1 =
(2) 0 < t < ts

Qp

(3.5.7)

i = - I2 = AJ p (0) =

dQ p dt

Qp

(3.5.8)

The solution of the above differential equation is

Qp(t) = - pI2 + C exp(-t/p).

Because at t = 0, Qp(0) = pI1, we obtain

(3.5.9)

C = p(I1 + I2).
Therefore, we find

(3.5.10)

Qp(t) = - pI2 + p(I1 + I2) exp(-t/p).

(3.5.11)

At t=ts, the stored charge is Qp(ts). Wishing to err on the conservative side (i.e., obtain an estimate of ts that is too large), we take Qp(ts) to be approximately zero. Therefore, we have

ts = p ln(1 + I1/ I2).

Remarks:

(3.5.12)

The charge storage time in a p-n junction is primary determined by (i) the minority carrier life time, p; (ii) the forward injection current, I1; and (iii) the reverse extraction current I2.

As a point of information, a more precise analysis, based on a complete pn(x,t) solution and properly accounting for the residual stored charge at t=ts, gives

erf (

ts

)=

1+

1 IR

(3.5.13)

IF

3.5.2

Reverse recovering time (tr = ts + tf) Define the reverse recovering time as

t r = t s + t f,

(3.5.14)

where, tf is called the fall time. The mathematics treatment for this part is very complicated. Here, only results are shown:

Ch-3 22

t s = p erf

erf

tf

I2 ), I1 + I 2 tf exp( ) (

(3.5.15)

tf

= 1 + 01( .

I2 ). I1

(3.5.16)

For a p+-n junction, when Wn >> Lp

ts + t f
when Wn << Lp

p I2
2 I1 (

) 1 ,

(3.5.17)

ts + t f

Wn I 2 1 ( ) . 2 Dp I1

(3.5.18)

3.6.

Junction breakdown (VR > VBR, IR )

The followings are three main breakdown mechanisms of p-n junctions.

1. Breakdown due to thermal dissipation

I R T 3 exp(
2.

E g0 kT

(3.6.1)

Breakdown due to the tunneling effect (Zener breakdown)

The meachanism of breakdown for Si and Ge junctions with breakdown voltages less than about 4Eg/q is found to be due to tunneling effect. The tunneling current density is given by

It =

r (2m pn ) 1/ 2 q 5/ 2 E av V A
1 h 2 E g/ 2

3 8 (2m pn ) 1/ 2 q 1/ 2 E g / 2 , r exp 3h E av

(3.6.2)

where, mpn is the reduced effective mass

mpn = 2(1/mn + 1/mlhp)-1,

and

(3.6.3)

r 1/ 2 r E max q (Vb V B ) N A N D E av = = 2 2 0 ( N A + N D )
Avalanche breakdown (due to impact ionization processes)

(3.6.4)

3.

Avalanche multiplication (or impact ionization) is the most important mechanism for junction breakdown, which sets an upper limit on the reverse bias for most diodes (VBR 4Eg/q). For abrupt (one-side) p-n junctions

Ch-3 23

VBR =

r E BR x m

0 E BR
2qN D

(3.6.5)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.6.1 Temperature-dependence of I-V characteristics of tunneling breakdown (a) and Avalanche braeakdown .

For linearly graded p-n junctions

V BR =
r

r 2 E BR

r 4 E BR

3/ 2

2 0 1/ 2 ) . q
r

(3.6.6)

It is evident that the junction is broken down , when the maximum electric field in the junction exceeds some critical value, E BR . For different semiconductors, the E BR values at 300 K are listed below.

Ge Si GaAs SiC

100 kV/cm 300 kV/cm 400 kV/cm 2300 kV/cm.

Ch-3 24

Fig. 3.5.2 Avalanche breakdown voltage vs. doping concetration for one-side junction in Ge, Si <100>oriented GaAs and GaP. The dashed line indicates the maximum doping beyond which the tunneling mechanism will dominates the breakdown characteristics.