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PART (1): PROPERTIES OF SOUND

Prior to world war II , sound navigation and ranging (sonar) ,the technique of sending sound waves through water and observing the returning echoes to characterize submerged objects, inspired early ultrasound investigators to explore ways to apply the concept to medical diagnosis. In 1929 and 1935, Sokolov studied a pattern for using ultrasonic waves , using two transducers to detect flows in solids. The Sound Spectrum Sound is a mechanical form of energy; a vibrating source is responsible for the production of sound. The number of vibrations per unit time, called the frequency of vibrations, determines the quality of the sound produced. Frequency is expressed in units called hertz, abbreviated Hz. I Hz = 1 vibration per second. The sound spectrum can be conveniently divided into three distinct parts. Audible sounds are those which can be perceived by the human ear. There are some differences between individuals in their ability to perceive sound frequencies. In most humans, the audible frequency range is approximately 20 Hz - 20.000 Hz.

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Sound which has a frequency below the normal hearing range

or less than 20Hz is referred to as Infrasound. It is produced by natural phenomena like earth quake waves and atmospheric pressure changes; it can also be produced mechanically such as by a blower in a ventilator system. While frequency range above 20KHz is called ultrasound, and should not be confused with supersonic which refers to velocities faster than the velocity of sound in a medium.

Types of Waves A wave is any disturbance from an equilibrium condition that travels (or propagates) with time from one region of space to another. We can distinguish different kinds of waves by considering how the motions of the particles of the waves themselves. (a) Transverse Waves

- A wave is a disturbance with a regularly repeating pattern, which travels from one point to another. - A simple and familiar example is a wave on the surface of a pond caused by a stone being thrown into the water (Figure1a).

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- water displaced by the stone causes a local change in the height of the water, which causes a change in height in the water immediately adjacent to it and so on. - An important aspect of the nature of this wave is that it is only the disturbance which travels across the pond, and not the water. - The surface of the water at each point in the pond, as shown by a floating (Figure1b) - Energy is transported across the pond from the stone to the shore. - This type of wave on the surface of water is described as a transverse wave because the local movement of the water surface is at 90 (transverse), perpendicular, to the direction of travel .

Fig.(1): Waves on the surface of a pond: (a) waves on the surface of a pond travel out from the point of entry of a stone; (b) only the disturbance travels across the \ pond. The water surface simply goes up and down.

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b) Sound Waves - The sound waves used to form medical images are longitudinal waves, which propagate (travel) through a physical medium (usually tissue or liquid). - The particles of the medium oscillate backwards and forwards along the direction of propagation of the wave (Figure 2). - Where particles in adjacent regions have moved towards each other, a region of compression (increased pressure) results, but where particles have moved apart, a region of rarefaction (reduced pressure) results. - As in the transverse wave case, there is no net movement of the medium. Only the disturbance and its associated energy are transported. - The most familiar sound waves are those that travel in air from a source of sound, e.g. a musical instrument or a bell, to the human ear. - The surface of a bell vibrates when it is struck. The oscillating motion of the surface pushes and pulls against the air molecules adjacent to it. Neighbouring air molecules are then set in motion, which displace their neighbours and so the disturbance travels through the air as a sound wave. - When the sound wave reaches the listeners ear, it causes the eardrum to vibrate, giving the sensation of sound.

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- Energy from the bell is transported by the wave to the eardrum, causing it to move.

Fig. (2): In a longitudinal wave, particle motion is aligned with the direction of travel, resulting in bands of high and low pressure.

Propagation of ultrasound 1- Transfer of Energy - The propagation of ultrasonic energy requires a material medium it cannot take place in empty space. - A source of ultrasound in contact with a medium transfers the mechanical disturbance to the medium, initiating vibrations in the "particles" of the medium. The term "particle" as used here is not uniquely defined. It is often equated to the molecules of the material medium. A particle may be representing as a very small volume of matter within the medium, in which all the atoms

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contained in that volume respond uniformly to a physical stimulation. - A vibrating particle performs microscopic to-and-fro movement about its mean position within the medium. Through these tiny vibration movements, neighbouring particles are similarly affected, setting them in motion by direct transfer of energy from one particle to another. - It is i mportant to underst and t hat pro pagatio n of t he ultraso ni c energy does not ent ai l actu al mi gratio n o f parti cl es acro ss t he mediu m: t he parti cl es merel y

oscill at e about t heir mean po sit io ns.

2- Pressure Waves - The mechanical movements of a source of ultrasound may be compared to the action of a piston moving rapidly in confined space. - In the forward direction, the piston compresses the medium particles in front of it, increasing their concentration per unit volume, hence creating increased pressure. This is referred to as the compression phase, sometimes also called the condensation phase.

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- When the piston moves in the reverse t he mediu m parti cl es are deco mpressed, gi vi ng ri se to a lo w p ressu re phase, kno wn as ra refa ction . - The perio di c mo vement of t he pi sto n t herefore creat es pressure waves i n fro nt of it alt ernati ng between hi gh and lo w pressure. - Si mil arl y, t he mechani cal vi brat io ns of a source o f ultrasou nd cr eat e alt ernati ng phases o f co mpressio n and rarefactio n i n t he parti cl es of t he pro pagati ng mediu m wit h whi ch it i s i n co nt act . - These pressure vari atio ns arc pro pagat ed t hrou g h t he transmi tti ng variatio ns. mediu m. Closel y Fi gu re(3 ) pa cked l ines illu strat es represent t hese t he

co mpression pha se , w h i l e regio ns o f lo w l i n e d e n s i t y represent rarefa ct ion.

Fig. (3): Pressure variations in the propagation of ultrasound

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3- Longitudinal P ropagation - In t he pro pagatio n of ul trasou nd, t he direct io n of di spl acement o f mediu m parti cl es is usu al l y t he same as the di rectio n of o scil latio n of t he sou rce o f ult rasou nd . Therefore, we can say t hat t he ultrasou nd wave i s pro pagat ed in t he same direct io n as t hat of t he

di stu rbance cau si ng it . Su ch waves are cal led longitudinal waves (Fi g.4). - When p ropagation of a wa ve t akes pl ace in a di rection that i s p erp endi cular to that of th e di stu rban ce cau sing it. t hen t he wave is referred to as a tra nsve rse wave. - Alt hou gh ul tra sound is usu all y propaga ted as

longitudinal wa ves , it shou l d be not ed t hat in bon es it may be p ropagat ed a s t ransverse wa ves .

Fig. (4): Longitudinal propagation of ultrasound.

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4- Simple wave parameters. The perio dic mo vements of mediu m parti cl es about thei r mean po sit io ns, and t he correspo ndi ng regu l ar flu ctu atio ns i n pressure, can he co nveni entl y represent ed as a si nusoi dal curve. (Fi g.5 )

Fig. (5):Variation of particle displacement in the direction of wave travel represented as sinusoidal wave

- The sine waveform is characterized by the wave parameters of amplitude and wavelength. The amplitude at a given moment is the magnitude of particle displacement from its mean position at that particular time. The peak amplitude represents the maximum particle displacement. It corresponds to the maximum change in pressure, and represents the vigour of vibrations, which, in turn, is related to the intensity of the ultrasound beam. - When the amplitude is plotted against distance, the wavelength is the distance between two consecutive, corresponding positions on the sine wave. It represents the distance travelled by the

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pressure wave during one complete wave cycle. Each complete wave cycle is attributed to one vibration of the source. - The number of vibrations per unit time is called the frequency of vibrations. The frequency also represents the number of times the wave is repeated per unit time. Therefore, the product of wavelength and frequency gives the total distance travelled by the wave in unit time, in other words, the velocity of the wave: wave le ngth x fre que nc y = wave ve loc ity xf=v - Ultrasound for medical imaging employs frequencies in the megahertz (MHz) range. 1 MHz = I million vibrations per second. - If in Fig (5) the amplitude were plotted against time, the period of the wave would be shown as the time for one complete wave cycle. The wave period is equal to the reciprocal of the frequency. T = (1/f)

5- Velocity of Ultrasound - The rate at which the ultrasound wave is propagated through a medium is called the wave velocity. This velocity varies from one

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medium to another depending on the elastic properties of the material. - Two physical properties of the medium are crucial in thi s respect. These are the density and the compressibility of the medium. (a) Density - Densi t y affect s t he mass co nt ent of mediu m parti cl es . - Denser mat erials t end to be co mpo sed of mo re massi ve parti cl es. - As t he pro pagatio n wit h of t he u ltrasou nd of wave is

asso ci at ed

perio dic

mo vement

mediu m

parti cl es. When t hese part i cl es are massi ve, greater force i s requi red to i niti at e part icle mo vement - The mo re massi ve a parti cl e i s, t he great er i ts i nerti a. The l arger force requi red to o verco me parti cl e i nerti a in denser mat eri al s l eadi ng to lo wer velo cit y o f t he ultrasou nd. The wave velocity should be lower in materials of high density. (b) Compressibility - Compressibility refers to the ease with which a medium can be mechanically deformed and reformed.

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- Other terms commonly used to describe this property are stiffness and rigidity. - There is a relationship between compressibility and density. - Materials of low density such as gas are easier to compress, because their particles are farther apart. They have high compressibility, in contrast, high density materials have low compressibility. - In a mat eri al of lo w comp ressib ili ty , su ch as bon e, t he clo seness of pa rti cl es to on e anoth er imp li es that onl y slight mo vement of part i cl es i s requ ired i n order to effect transfer of energy to t heir nei ghbours - t ransf er of energ y is more rapid . This predicts a higher wave velocity in materials of low compressibility.

- The wa ve vel oci ty as o bserved i n practi ce represen ts t he combin ed effect s One of med iu m may d en sit y pl ay t he and more

compressibil it y.

factor

predo mi nant rol e, o r t he effects o f t he t wo facto rs may mo derat e each ot her. - Tabl e(1) sho ws t he velo citi es o f ul trasou nd i n air, so ft tissu e (average)* and bo ne. Amo ng t hese mat eri als, t he velo cit y i s hi ghest i n bo ne, and lo west i n ai r. Whil e t he hi gher densit y o f bo ne predi cts reduced velo cit y o f

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ultrasou nd,

i ts

lower

co mpressi bilit y

i ncreases

t he

velo cit y to a great er ext ent . Co mpressi bili t y is t he more predo mi nant factor here.
Table (1): Velocity of Ultrasound in Air, Bone and Soft Tissue.

- Two other factors which in theory affect the velocity of ultrasound should be mentioned. - There is a slight variation of the velocity with beam frequency ( a phenomenon called dispersion). However, in the whole of the diagnostic frequency range from 1 MHz to 20 MHz, the variation is less than so this effect can be considered as insignificant. - The velocity also changes with medium temperature, but for a few degrees temperature shift, the velocity change is quite small. Since body temperature is under homeostatic control, the effect of temperature on velocity is negligible in clinical ultrasound.

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: Quiz 1 :

1- Suppose a periodic wave moves through some medium. If the period of the wave is increased, what happens to the wavelength of the wave assuming the speed of the wave remains the same? a) The wavelength increases b) The wavelength remains the same c) The wavelength decreases 2- The speed of sound in air is a bit over 300 m/s, and the speed of light in air is about 300,000,000 m/s. Suppose we make a sound wave and a light wave that both have a wavelength of 3 meters. What is the ratio of the frequency of the light wave to that of the sound wave? a) About 1,000,000. b) About 1,000. c) About 0.000001. 3- An automatic focus camera is able to focus on objects by use of an ultrasonic sound wave. The camera sends out sound waves that reflect off distant objects and return to the camera. A sensor detects the time it takes for the waves to return and then determines the distance an object is from the camera. If a sound wave (speed = 345 m/s) returns to the camera 0.115 seconds after leaving the camera, how far away is the object? 4- The speed of a sound wave depends upon the ______. a) frequency of the wave b) wavelength of the wave c) amplitude of the wave d) properties of the medium through which it moves 5- A sound wave is moving through air. The diagram below represents a snapshot of the air particles at a given instant in time. Several regions are labeled with a letter. Use the letters to identify the compressions and rarefactions.

Compressions:---------------------------- Rarefactions:----------------------------6- Give Reason (s) for the following: a. Ultrasound Velocity in bone is higher than in air b. The effect of temperature on velocity is negligible in clinical ultrasound. 7- State the difference between transverse and longitudinal wave propagation.