LSM2251 Ecology & the Environment

LSM3251 Ecology & Environmental Processes

Part I: Introduction to biomes & The Terrestrial environment & The Terrestrial Environment Part II: The Aquatic Environment
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill.
Chapters 2 & 3: Life on Land, Life in Water

Most general biology or ecology textbooks

Objectives
To learn about the terrestrial environment by

understanding the factors that affect their geographic distribution and biomes

briey surveying the diversity of terrestrial

Terrestrial biomes

Tundra Boreal forest (Taiga) Temperate forest Temperate grassland Mediterranean woodland & shrubland Desert Tropical savanna Tropical dry forest Tropical rain forest Mountains

Increasing latitude

Questions

What changes would you experience when moving north of south of the equator?

Temperature? Seasonality? Precipitation?

Which are the warmest biomes?

Pattern?

Which are the coldest? Which are the wettest? Which are the driest?
1. Tropical Rainforest 2. Tropical Dry Forest (Monsoon Forest) 3. Tropical Savanna 4. Desert 5. Mediterranean Woodland & Shrubland 6. Temperate Grassland
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7. Temperate Forest 8. Boreal Forest 9. Tundra 10. Mountains

Scope
Part I: Introduction to biomes & The Terrestrial Environment
1. What is responsible for climatic variation? 2. A brief look at soil. 3. What are biomes? Terrestrial biomes & Ecoregions

1. What is responsible for climatic variation?

There are predictable large-scale climatic patterns, e.g.:

Average temperature lower & more seasonal in temperate zones compared to tropics. Precipitation more constant in some regions, more seasonal in others.

Large-scale spatial and temporal variation in climate are fundamental to terrestrial ecology. Terrestrial biomes inuenced by climate, especially temperature and precipitation.
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Communities and Ecosystems. Macmillan, New York, p. 385.

Whittaker, R.H., 1975.

What affects patterns of climatic variation?

Uneven heating of earths surface by the sun. Atmospheric circulation

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1.1 The Earth is tilted (axial tilt)

blame Theia (impactor on proto-Earth)!

Uneven heating of earths surface by the sun.

Spherical shape of earth + Tilt of earths axis (23.5) = Regular shift in latitude where sun is directly overhead leads to the seasons.

Leads to variation in temperature & day length.

Signicant at middle to high latitudes (temperate). Slight at lower latitudes (tropics).

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Wikipedia: Axial Tilt

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Variation in temperature & day length Signicant at middle to high latitudes (temperate). Slight at lower latitudes (tropics). Northern winter Northern summer

N S
Southern summer

N S
Southern winter
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2.2 Atmospheric circulation.

!

Heating of earths surface and atmosphere. and rotation of the earth. Leads to variation in precipitation.

Warm, moist air rises condensation - cool, dry air sinks Heavy rainfall in tropics near equator. Desert formation in subtropics at ca. 30 latitude. Heavy precipitation in temperate regions at ca. 60 latitude.

Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill

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Three atmospheric circulation cells:

Low latitudes: air circulating between equator and 30 latitude Middle latitudes: air circulating between 30 and 60 latitude High latitudes:! air circulating between 60 latitude and poles
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill

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Observed winds do not move directly north/south.

! ! ! !

NE & SE tradewinds - Tropics Westerlies - Temperate region Polar easterlies - High latitudes Coriolis effect - phenomenon caused by the rotation of the earth, which causes deection of winds clockwise in Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in Southern Hemisphere.

Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill

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Predictable large-scale climatic patterns inuenced by climate, especially temperature and precipitation.

Whittaker, R.H., 1975.

Communities and Ecosystems. Macmillan, New York, p. 385.

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2. Soil

Complex mixture of living (organic/biotic) and nonliving (inorganic/abiotic) material.

O A B C
Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill

Soil profile based on vertical layering (soil horizons) that merge into one another at transition zones.

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Soil horizons
O horizon (organic layer) (litter layer) Freshly fallen organic matter + fragmented/partially decomposed organic matter (action of macro/microdecomposers). Absent in? A horizon (mixed mineral/organic matter) (topsoil) Mixture of inorganic matter (minerals, clay, silt and sand) and organic matter (from O horizon; burrowers). B horizon (depositional layer) Distinctive banding from deposition/leaching of materials (e.g., mineral nutrients, humus) from A horizon by water. C horizon (parent material) (deepest layer) Weathered parent material (action of water, frost, roots). Source of smaller fragments from bedrock below.
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Biological activity

plant roots

3. Biomes & Ecoregions 3.1 What are biomes?

A biotic community characterised by the distinct life forms of the important climax species (plants).

Major divisions of the terrestrial environment (14) Distinguished by predominant plant formations and soil types. Associated with different climates.

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What is a Biome? Glossary (back of Molles)

Biomes: distinguished primarily by

Occur in different geographical regions. How many?

the predominant plants, and are associated with particular climates.

Lets see - Google Images, world biome

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http://www2.kpr.edu.on.ca/cdciw/biomes/research.htm
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http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/world_biomes.htm
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How many Biomes?

(Molles, Solomon)
1. Tropical Rainforest 2. Tropical Dry Forest (Monsoon Forest) 3. Tropical Savanna 4. Desert 5. Mediterranean Woodland & Shrubland 6. Temperate Grassland 7. Temperate Forest 8. Boreal Forest 9. Tundra 10. Mountains

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14 biomes

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Terrestrial Biomes of the World

1. Tropical & subtropical moist broadleaf forests 2. Tropical & subtropical dry broadleaf forests 3. Tropical & subtropical coniferous forests 4. Temperate broadleaf & mixed forests 5. Temperate coniferous forests 6. Boreal forests/Taiga 7. Tropical & subtropical grasslands, savannnas and shrublands 8. Temperate grasslands, savannnas and shrublands 9. Flooded grasslands, and savannnas 10. Montane grasslands, and savannnas 11. Tundra 12. Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub 13. Deserts & Xeric shrublands 14. Mangroves

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3.2 Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World

8 biogeographic realms 14 biomes 867 ecoregions

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e.g. Papua New Guinea

Previously - a single biotic
region

New map: 12 ecoregions 4 lowland, 4 montane alpine scrub, mangrove,

freshwater swamp, savannah-grassland

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Ecoregions

Olson et al. (2001) dened the biogeographic unit "ecoregions" as

relatively large units of land, containing a distinct assemblage of natural communities and species, with boundaries that approximate the original extent of natural communities prior to major land-use change.
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Helpful , how?
More accurately reects the distribution of species and communities. It provides:

a map with enough detail

global and regional conservation increase biogeographic literacy illustrate conservation issues around the world strategies and analyses

framework for

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Part II. Aquatic environments

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Objective & Scope

To learn about the hydrologic cycle and selected representative aquatic biomes.

1. Hydrologic cycle 2. Aquatic environments

2.1Characteristics 2.2 Oceans 2.3 Littoral shores 2.4 River, streams & Lakes

3. Tides
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1. Hydrologic cycle

Cycling of water across the biosphere. Over 71% of the earths surface is covered by water:

Turnover time.

Oceans: 97%. Polar ice caps; glaciers: 2%. Lakes; rivers; streams; ! ground water: <1%.

Atmosphere ! 9 days Rivers! ! Oceans! ! 12-20 days 3,100 years

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1. Hydrologic cycle = water cycle

Distribution of water is dynamic, not static:

Heat from the sun (solar energy) Evaporation Clouds Precipitation

Evaporation Consumed by organisms Groundwater Surface water

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USGS: US Dept Interior

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2.1Aquatic Environments: Characteristics

Go through Molles (2007), tabulate characteristics of each type of water body Easiest parameter to remember, = salinity

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2. Aquatic Environments: Characteristics

Heterogenous - diverse in character or content Specic areas have specic inuences

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How does the West and East Coast of Malaysia differ from each other? What ecosystems dominate in each?

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2.2 Oceans

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Oceans: Structure

Intertidal Zone, then: Distance from shore/continental shelf: Neritic Zone: Coast to edge of continental shelf (up to 200m depth). Oceanic Zone: Beyond continental shelf (beyond 200m depth). Depth beyond continental shelf: Epipelagic (0-200m) Mesopelagic (200-1,000m) Bathypelagic (1,000-4,000m) Abyssal (4,000-6,000m) Hadal (>6,000m) Habitat: Benthic: Habitat on ocean bottom. Pelagic: Habitat off the bottom in water column. Neritic: within the water column

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New York Times

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Oceans

Salinity between 34 ppt to 36.5 ppt; lowest near equator; highest in subtropics. Why? Lower oxygen concentration (cf. aerial environments). Oxygen concentration highest near ocean surface, and decreases with depth to a minimum at < 1,000m. Photosynthetic organisms limited to upper epipelagic zone (euphotic zone).

food only from above?

Chemosynthesis occurs near deep sea hydrothermal vents chemoautotrophic bacteria making use of hydrogen sulphide

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Oceans: Light
!
!

80% light absorbed in rst 10 m.

Which colour light is least quickly absorbed by water? Quality of underwater photos?

Most of ocean is dark

BBC Blue Planet: Bioluminescence

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Oceans: Temperature
!

Warm surface water oats on top of cooler water below. Thermocline separates the two layers = thermal stratication (300-400 metres). Permanent feature of tropical oceans - seasonal feature of temperate oceans (summer) Temperature variation anr equator = 1C

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Oceans: Water Movement

!

Wind-driven surface currents transport

! ! ! !

nutrients oxygen heat organisms

Where does this energy come from?

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Oceanic Circulation
Currents exist throughout the world. Warm equatorial waters transported to the poles E.g. Gulf Stream

Molles, M. C. Jr., 2007. Ecology: concepts and applications, 4th edition. McGraw-Hill

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Oceans: Water Movement

!

Warm equatorial waters transported to the poles create moderate climates in temperate areas.
Canada

Gulf Stream

NOAA (Wikipedia)

http://www.welt-atlas.de
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Kuroshio Current Apr - May 1998

Remote sensing systems http://www.ssmi.com/

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Spheniscus humboldti, Per: Islas Ballestas

http://www.ickr.com/photos/zug55/4796491016/

Peter (zug55) on Flickr

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Oceans: Water Movement

Currents cause upwellings. Upwelling - wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water.

NOAA
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Oceans: Water Movement

Currents cause upwellings.
Deep water is nutrient-rich. No light; Energy source?
Dead or dying animals and plants (plankton), protists (diatoms) faecal matter, sand, soot and other inorganic dust.

What is marine snow?

What is the signicance of marine snow to the twilight and midnight zones? What is the signicance of upwelling to sheries and humans?

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Oceans: Water Movement

Deepwater currents cause upwellings.

http://marine.rutgers.edu/coolroom/education/upwelling.htm
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Rutgers COOL

Normal conditions

Cooler water in E Pacific Upwelling

Warmer water in W Pacific

El Nio conditions

Warmer water in E Pacific Absence of upwelling

Source: www.elnino.noaa.gov/
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Relatively cooler water in W Pacific

Oceans: Water Movement

What is the signicance of EL Nino to upwelling? During normal conditions:

Cool, W coastal waters off S America rich in nutrients due to upwelling.

During warm episode (El Nio):

Stratication ! thermocline ! upwelling shut off ! reduced nutrient supply

! reduced phytoplankton primary production ! reduced food supply to consumers.

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Oceans

Salinity between 34 ppt to 36.5 ppt; lowest near equator; highest in subtropics. Why? Lower oxygen concentration (cf. aerial environments). Oxygen concentration highest near ocean surface, and decreases with depth to a minimum at < 1,000m. Photosynthetic organisms limited to upper epipelagic zone (euphotic zone).

food only from above?

Chemosynthesis occurs near deep sea hydrothermal vents - chemoautotrophic bacteria making use of hydrogen sulphide

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2.3 Inter-tidal shores

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2.3 Inter-tidal shores

Various systems of vertical zonation of the sea shore. Example:

Supralittoral (=splash zone)

Zone: > HHWST Always exposed, i. e. Never covered even by the highest tides.

Littoral (= intertidal) zone: HHWST < Littoral > LLWST Daily exposure (air) and immersion (seawater), 1-2x/day.

Sublittoral Below LLWST mark Always covered by water even during lowest tides.

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Sea shores

Waves and tides affect distribution and abundance of intertidal organisms. Semidiurnal tides: Two periods of low and high tides daily. Diurnal tides: Single low and high tide each day. Intertidal zone organisms adapted to amphibious existence. Differential tolerances to periodicity of air exposure leads to zonation of species.

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(2.3) Mangrove forests

Inter-tidal tropical forest communities, 30-35 latitude of the Equator. Along protected/sheltered coastlines and estuaries. Temperate zone equivalent: salt marsh (no trees, dominated by herbaceous vegetation).

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(2.3) Mangrove forests

Open ecosystem:

autochthonous (inside) and allochthonous (outside) inputs.

Challenging environment: High and uctuating salinity (physiologically dry environment) Unstable and anoxic substratum

Mangrove plants and animal adaptations (structural, physiological, reproductive) Low plant species diversity
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(2.3) Mangrove forests

Low plant species diversity Zonation parallel to shoreline, dened by dominant tree species or topography Keystone species:. Mud lobster, Thalassina anomala Keystone species: Sulphur bacteria, Desulfovibrio spp.

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2.4: Rivers, streams and lakes

Image: www.freeimages.co.uk

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2.4 Limnology
LSM4264 Freshwater Biology

"Freshwater ecosystems Study of freshwater habitats. have lost a greater proportion of their Lakes species and habitat than Rivers, streams ecosystems on land or in the oceans, Freshwater swamps and they face increasing Peat swamps threats from dams, Freshwater marshes water withdrawals, pollution, invasive Peat bogs species, and overharvesting."
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2.4 Lakes ~ small seas

Most of the worlds freshwater resides in a few large lakes; ca. 60% of the worlds freshwater are in three major lakes

Littoral zone: Shallows Limnetic zone: Open lake Lakes become thermally stratied as they warm forming
three layers: Epilimnion: Warm surface layers. Uppermost stratum. Oxygen-rich - higher concentration of fauna. Metalimnion: Temperature changes rapidly with depth (=Thermocline). Hypolimnion: Cold dark waters. Lowest stratum. Oxygen-poor - lower concentration of fauna.

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Lake Structure
= (Thermocline)

Molles, M. C. Jr., 2005. Ecology: concepts and applications, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill

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Classication of Lakes
Classified by trophic (nutrition) state Well nourished = eutrophic (hyper-eutrophic) mesotrophic Lowly nourished = oligotrophic

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Classication of Lakes
Dependent on: Nutrient supply - bedrock geology, soils, vegetation, human
landuse and management

Climate - sunlight, temp, precipitation, turnover Shape of lake basin (morphometry) - depth, vol.,
watershed: lake surface area

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Lakes
Oligotrophic: Nutrient-poor; low Organisms requiring high oxygen
concentrations biological production; well oxygenated. E.g. Lake Toba (rock base)

Cooler, well mixed increased oxygen

solubility and concentration

Low in phytoplankton reduced oxygen

consumption by respiration at night
http://www.rmbel.info/Reports/ Static/TrophicStates.aspx
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Lakes
Eutrophic: Nutrient-rich; high
biological production; depleted of oxygen. E.g. Seletar reservoir (mud/clay base)

Organisms tolerant of low oxygen concentrations Warmer, stratied reduced oxygen solubility and concentration;
accumulation of decomposing matter below thermocline consumes oxygen

increased High in phytoplanktonby respiration at oxygen consumption night

http://www.rmbel.info/Reports/ Static/TrophicStates.aspx
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Lakes

Wind-driven mixing of the water column is ecologically important.
oxygenation of bottom waters replenish nutrients in surface waters

Temperate context:
Summer mixing limited to above thermocline Spring, autumn, winter (if no ice) mixing throughout breakdown of thermal stratication

Local (Tropical) context:

No seasonality, but breakdown of thermal stratication may occur at night due to lower temperatures and strong, night winds.
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Quarry Straits of Johor

Sand bar

Seagrass lagoon Mangroves

3. Tides

Plantations

Rocky shore

Coastal Hill forest

Coral rubble 0.7km = 0.43 miles 1km= 0.63 miles 80

Chek Jawa - why a hidden eden?

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Where are the barnacles?

0.3m

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See http://tides.sivasothi.com for links

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What will the tide be like on the Pulau Ubin eld trip?

How will affect

your travel there? what you will see there?

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What time to do the coastal cleanup brieng?

ICC falls on the third Saturday of September
= Sat 17th September 2011: 9am.

Is the tide suitable for a cleanup? The Kranji Mangrove brieng is conducted on the
Saturday one week before the cleanup.

The organisers take a walk through the site and At what time should the brieng be held?

examine the mangrove and must see the conditions of the actual day.

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