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EQ1.

TENSILE TEST
The objectives of this experiment are:

Objective

Results of such a tensile test can be represented in the form of engineering stressstrain curve. Figure 2 is typical of ductile metals such as copper tested at room temperature. The tensile strength, also known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS), is defined as the maximum stress which a material can withstand. It is obtained by dividing maximum load by original cross-sectional area of tensile specimen. Figure 3 and 4 show the two types of stressstrain curves. The yield stress y is defined as the stress at which plastic deformation (elongation) of the tensile specimen takes place at a constant load (Figure 3). Such behavior is generally observed in carbon steels. F UTS

Where l l0 = l, the change in length. Since strain is a ratio of two lengths it has no units. Strain is frequently expressed as a percentage. (2)

The dimensional change caused by a stress is called strain. In tension (or compression), the strain is the ratio of the change in length to the original length. The term strain is defined as: (1)

Stresses may be tensile, compressive or shear in nature. Figure 1 shows a metal bar in tension, i.e. the force F is stretching force which thus increases the length of the bar and reduces its crosssection. The area used in calculations of stress is generally the original area A0 that existed before the application of the forces, not the area after the force has been applied. This stress is thus referred to as the engineering stress :

Theory

1. To develop an understanding of stressstrain curves.

2. To determine the various mechanical properties of engineering material.

= F / A0 [N/m2 or Pa]

e t (%) = 100 ( l l 0 ) / l 0

UTS = Fmax / A 0 [N/m2 or Pa]

(3)

F l l0 Stress

A0

F: Fracture F Strain Fig. 2 Typical engineering stressstrain behavior to fracture

Fig. 1 Metal bar in tension

Some steels, especially non-ferrous alloys, do not show the presence of sharp yield point (Figure 4). For such steels, proof stress is reported instead of yield stress. Proof stress 0.2 is that stress at which some small amount of permanent deformation, say equal to 0.2 percent strain, take place. In other words, it is that stress which produces a permanent elongation of 0.2 percent in the tensile specimen on the removal load. The proportionality constant (the slope of the curve) is called the elastic modulus or Youngs modulus E (Figure 5) and strain et .

At the beginning of the test, the force increases rapidly and proportionately to strain: the stress strain curve obeys Hookes law

= Ee t [N/m2 or Pa]

(4)

If the specimen is unloaded in this range, it will return to its original length, i.e. all deformation is elastic.

Tensile test is carried out by gripping the ends of a suitably prepared standardized specimen in a tensile testing machine, and then applying a continually increasing uni-axial load until such time as failure occurs. Before the test, the gauge length L0, and the cross-sectional area A0 are measured to enable calculations of percent elongation and percent area reduction to be made. Figure 6 shows dimensions of a specimen for tensile test.

Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to deform plastically without fracture. The two most common methods of ductility measurement are: a. Percent elongation is determined by setting a gauge length on a specimen prior to loading and after tensile failure measuring the final distance of these gauge marks. Then a percent elongation value is calculated as equation (2). b. Percent area reduction is calculated by putting the two ends of the fractured specimen together and measuring the diameter at the break. Calculate the area at the break at this point of fracture. This final area is then compared with the original area of the specimen and a percent reduction in area is then calculated. Reduction in area (%) = 100 ( A0 A ) / A0 (5)

Upper yield point

Elastic Plastic

Stress

y
Stress

Lower yield
point

2
Strain Fig. 3 Typical stressstrain 0.002 Strain

Fig. 4 General stressstrain

Unload Stress

Radius r Cross-sectional Diameter d0 area A0

Slope = modulus of elasticity Load Gauge length L0 Parallel length LC

L 0 = 5.65 A0

Strain

Fig. 5 Hookes law: Stress proportional to strain

Fig. 6 Standard tensile test specimen with circular cross section

Original gauge length L0

Plastic deformation

Gauge length at failure L Original diameter d0

Reduction in diameter

Diameter at failure d

Fig. 7 Schematic of tensile test specimen for before and after testing

Specimen and Equipments 3

1. Universal testing machine Instron Series 8500 (10 kN). 2. Vernier caliper. 3. Tensile specimen: steel / brass / copper / aluminium

Procedures

1. Refer to Figure 7, use vernier caliper to measure the original diameter of the specimen. Take measurements in at least three locations and average. 3. Grip the specimen in the gripping heads of the machine. 4. Set the required parameters on the control panel. 6. Press start button to start the tensile test. 5. Adjust the load recorder on the front panel controller to zero, to read load applied.

Fig. 8 Instron Series 8500 (10 kN)

2. Calculate the value of gauge length, and make two marks on the parallel part of the specimen to register the gauge length.

7. Monitor the sample and note when constriction begins. From now on, the force will no longer increase, but instead, will tend to decrease until fracture occurs.

Results

1. Show all the measurements of specimen. i. ii. Original gauge length L0 [mm]. iii. Final diameter d [mm]. iv. Final gauge length L [mm]. Original diameter d0 [mm].

8. Remove the tested specimen from the gripping heads, and measure dimensions of tested specimen. Fit the broken parts together and measure reduced diameter and final gauge length (Figure 7).

2. Calculate the following. i.

ii. Final cross-sectional area A [mm2]. iii. Percent elongation. v. Youngs modulus E [GPa]. i. iv. Percent reduction in area.

Original cross-sectional area A0 [mm2].

3. Plot the stressstrain graph.

4. On the stress-strain curve show the following points, and verify the value (i) to (iii). iii. Fracture stress f [MPa]. vii. Necking region. iv. Elastic limit. ii. Yield stress y or Proof stress 0.2 [MPa]. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) [MPa].

v. Proportional limit.

Discussions

1. Discuss on the shape of obtained stressstrain curve.

vi. Elastic and plastic deformation regions.

3. Discuss the difference between Engineering Stress and True Stress, and whether there is a significant difference between these values at failure. 5. Discuss on the mechanical properties of the tested specimen. 6. Discuss on the factors that can be affected to the experimental result.

2. Compare and discuss on the experimental results with the theory.

4. Explain the necking process, and discuss how the necking of the specimen relates to the shape of the stressstrain curve. 7. Compare and discuss the affect differences in the stress-strain behavior of various materials.

Conclusions

1. Give an overall conclusion based on the obtained experimental results. 2. Conclude on the applications of the experiment.

EQ2. REACTION OF BEAM TEST


The objectives of this experiment are:

Objective

1. To identify the supports reaction in simply-supported and overhanging beams.

A beam supported by a support at the ends and having one span is called a simply-supported beam (Figure 1). A support will develop a reaction normal to the beam but will not produce a couple. If either or both ends of the beam project beyond the supports, it is called overhanging beam (Figure 2). A cantilever beam (Figure 3) is one in which one ends is built into a wall or other support so that the built-in end can neither move transversely nor rotate. W W w W

A beam is a member which has the primary function of resisting transverse loading. Beam is one of the simplest structures in design but one of the most complexes to analyze in terms of the external and internal forces acting on it. The complexity of its behavior under load depends on how it is supported - at one or both ends - and how its ends are attached to the supports. Three basic beam types are the simply-supported, overhanging, and cantilever beams.

1. General

Theory

2. To develop an understanding of beam apparatus, and to determine its sensitivity and accuracy.

Pinned

Roller

Pinned

Pinned

Fig. 1 Simply-supported beam with two symmetric concentrated loads and supported by pinned and roller supports W

Fig. 2 Overhanging beam with concentrated and distributed loads, and supported by pinned supports

Fixed-end Fig. 3 Cantilever beam with a concentrated load and supported by fixed-end support

2. Types of Load i) ii)

A beam is normally horizontal, the loads being vertical, other cases which occur being locked upon as exceptions. The two types of loads for beams are concentrated and distributed loads. A distributed load w [N/m] is one which is spread in some manner over the length of the beam. The rate of loading may be uniform, or may vary from point to point along the beam (Figure 2). A concentrated load W [N] is one which is considered to act at a point, although in practice it must really be distributed over a small area (Figures 1 and 3).

The deformations and stresses which result in a beam owing to a particular load (concentrated load) or group of loads (distributed load) are dependent on the manner in which the beam is supported. The three basic types of supports for beams are roller, pinned and fixed-end. i) ii) iii) A roller support is one which exerts a reactive force having a known line of action (Figure 1). A pinned support in one which allows the beam freedom to rotate but prevents it from any linear movement (Figures 1 and 2). A fixed-end support is one which prevents the beam from translating or rotating at the point of support (Figure 3).

3. Types of Support

Referring to the loading in Figure 4, the left-hand support reaction R1 is first required and the reactions can be found from the equations of force and moment equilibrium.

4. Supports Reaction of the Simply-Supported Beam with Concentrated Loads

R 1 + R 2 = W1 + W 2

(1)

Therefore

1 1 1 R 1l = W1 ( 2 l + a ) + W 2 ( 2 l b ) = 2 l (W1 + W 2 ) + W1a W 2 b

(2)

Substitute (3) to (1).

R1 = R2 =

1 2

(W1 + W 2 ) + W1 (a l ) W 2 (b l ) (W1 + W 2 ) W1 (a l ) + W 2 (b l )
W1 a b W2

(3)

1 2

(4)

R1

l/2

l/2

R2

Fig. 4 Supports reaction of the simply-supported beam with concentrated loads

Specimens and Equipments


2. Vernier caliper 3. Load cells 4. Dial gauges

1. Beam apparatus SM104 5. Weight hangers 7. Steel blocks

6. Weights: 5 N, 10 N

8. Beams: Steel / Brass / Aluminium

Supports Reaction of the Simply-Supported Beam with Concentrated Loads Procedures


1. Measure the thickness and width of the beam. 2. Measure the length of the beam and mark it at mid-span and at 1/4-span points. 5. Position two weight hangers equidistant from the mid point of the beam. 8. Adjust the dial gauge to zero read and then lock the bezel in position. 4. Place the beam in position with 1/4-span overhang at either end.

Fig.5 Beam apparatus SM104

6. Place a dial gauge in position on the upper cross-member so that the ball end rests on the centre-line of the beam immediately above the left-hand support. 7. Check that the stem is vertical and the bottom O-ring has been moved down the stem. 9. Move the dial gauge to a position above the right-hand support, check that the beam is parallel to the cross-member, then adjust the height of the knife edge so that the dial gauge reads zero. 12. Process the results and plot graphs from the experimental results.

3. Set up load cells 1/4-span to the left and right of the mid-span reading, and lock the knife edge.

10. Remove the dial gauge and unlock both knife edges. Adjust the load cell indicators to read zero. 11. Apply loads to the weight hangers in a systematic manner, tap the beam very gently and take readings of the load cells.

L W1

l 4

l 4

W2

Load cell

R1 L/4 L/4 l L/4

R2 L/4

Fig. 6 Experimental set up for supports reaction of the simply-supported beam with concentrated loads

Results

1. Show all the measurements of beam. ii. Beam width b [mm] i. iii. Beam thickness h [mm] iv. Beam working length l [mm] Beam length L [mm]

3. Plot the graphs. i.

2. Record the values of R1 and R2, and calculate the R1+R2, and % in Table 1. ii. R1 and R2 against W2, when W1 = 0. iii. R1 and R2 against W1 = W2 = 5 N, 10 N, 30 N. R1 and R2 against W1, when W2 = 0.

Discussions

1. Discuss on the verification of equations (3) and (4).

2. Discuss on the obtained graphs from the experiment.

4. What is the percentage error? Discuss the factor that can be affected to the experiment results.

3. Calculate the theoretical values of R1 and R2, by using equations (3) and (4). Plot the graph of theoretical values of R1 and R2. Compare and discuss the theoretical and experimental graphs.

W1 [N] 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

W2 [N] 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30

R1 [N]

R2 [N]

R1+R2 [N]

[N]

* = (R1+R2) (W1+W2) % = 100 / (W1+W2) Table 1 Experimental results of simply-supported beam with concentrated loads Give an overall conclusion based on the obtained experimental results.

Conclusions

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EQ3. COMPRESSION TEST


The objectives of this experiment are:

Objective

Prior to the yield point tension and compression results are similar. The major difference with the compression test compared to the tensile test is that the specimen compresses or the area increases after the yield point is reached. For some ductile materials the specimen will compress until a flat slug is reached. However brittle materials will fail suddenly after their ultimate strength is exceeded. These brittle materials have much greater compression strength than tensile strength. That is why these materials are mostly tested in compression. When a force (or load) is applied to a material (Figure 1), it produces a stress in the material. The stress acting on the material is the force F exerted per unit area A0:

The compression test is simply the opposite of the tension test with respect to the direction of loading. It is often stated that materials behave the same in tension and compression. That is true for most ductile materials. However, there are some materials that are very weak in tension and extremely strong in compression.

Theory

2. To determine the mechanical properties on three different sizes of the tested specimens.

1. To study and observe the techniques of the compression testing.

= F / A0 [N/m2 or Pa]

(1)

A0

l0

The dimensional change caused by a stress is called strain. In compression (or tension), the strain is the ratio of the change in length to the original length. The term strain is defined as: Where l l0 = l, the change in length. Since strain is a ratio of two lengths it has no units. Strain is frequently expressed as a percentage. (2)

F Fig.1 Metal bar in compression

ec (%) = 100 (l l 0 ) / l 0

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In compression testing the sample is squeezed while the load and the displacement are recorded. Compression tests result in mechanical properties that include the compressive yield stress, ultimate compressive stress (brittle materials), compressive modulus of elasticity, and proportional limit. Compression members, such as columns, are mainly subjected to axial forces. The failure of a short compression member resulting from the compression axial forceF looks like in Figure 2. F (3) Compressive yield stress is measured in a manner identical to that done for tensile testing. Ultimate compressive strength max is the stress required to rupture a specimen. It is obtained by dividing maximum compressive load Fmax by the original specimen cross sectional area A0.

max = Fmax / A0 [N/m2 or Pa]

Short compression member

F Ductile material

F Brittle material

Fig. 2 Short member in compression testing However, when a compression member becomes longer, the role of the geometry and stiffness (Young's modulus) becomes more and more important. For a long (slender) column, buckling occurs way before the normal stress reaches the strength of the column material as shown in Figure 3. For an intermediate length compression member, kneeling occurs when some areas yield before buckling, as shown in the Figure 4. F F

Long compression member

F Buckling

Intermediate compression member

F Kneeling (Inelastic buckling)

Fig. 3 Long member in compression testing

Fig. 4 Intermediate member in compression testing

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Short columns are dominated by the strength limit of the material. Intermediate columns are bounded by the inelastic limit of the member. Finally, long columns are bounded by the elastic limit (i.e. Euler's formula). These three regions are depicted on the stress/slenderness graph below (Figure 5). The short/intermediate/long classification of columns depends on both the geometry (slenderness ratio) and the material properties (Young's modulus and yield strength). F/A Inelastic stability limit

The failure of a compression member has to do with the strength and stiffness of the material and the geometry (slenderness ratio) of the member. Whether a compression member is considered short, intermediate, or long depends on these factors.

In practice, for a given material, the allowable stress in a compression member depends on the slenderness ratio L/r and can be divided into three regions: short, intermediate, and long.

(Strength limit) Eulers formula (Elastic stability limit) Intermediate

Short

Long

L/r

Fig. 5 Relationship between compression strength with slenderness ratio

Specimens and Equipments


2. Vernier caliper

3. Compression specimen: wood

1. Universal testing machine Instron Series 8500.

Fig. 6 Instron Series 8500 (100kN)

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Procedures

1. Use vernier caliper to measure the original size of the specimen. 2. Center the specimen between the compression test plates. 3. Set the required parameters on the control panel. 5. Press start button to start the compression test. 9. Repeat experiment with other specimens. 6. Observe the specimen, as the load is gradually applied.

4. Adjust the load recorder on the front panel controller to zero, to read load applied. 8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen. 7. Record the maximum load and continue loading until complete failure. 10. Observe and describe the type of failure for each specimen.

PRECAUTIONS I.

NEVER OPERATE THE UTM WHEN SOMEONES HANDS ARE BETWEEN THE GRIPS.

II. ENSURE ALL LAB PARTICIPANTS ARE CLEAR OF EQUIPMENT BEFORE BEGINNING OR RESUMING TESTING. iii. STOP THE UTM AS SOON AS THE SPECIMEN FAILS.

Results

1. Show all the measurements of specimen. 2. Calculate the original cross-sectional area A0 [mm2]. i. Maximum load Fmax [N] Yield stress y [MPa] i. iii. Original length L [mm] ii. Original width w [mm] Original depth d [mm]

3. Plot the loaddisplacement graph for the tested specimen. 5. Plot the compressive stresscompressive strain graph. ii. Ultimate compressive strength max [MPa] iii. Modulus of elasticity E [GPa] iv. Proportional limit i.

4. On the loaddisplacement curve show and verify the value for the following points. 6. On the stress-strain curve show the following points, and verify the value (i) to (iii). ii. Load taken by the specimen at the time of failure Ff [N]

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Maximum Load, Fmax [N] 0

Yield Stress [MPa]

Original length L [mm]

Total length L [mm]

Discussions

1. Discuss on the shape of obtained stressstrain curve.

Conclusions

1. Give an overall conclusion based on the obtained experimental results. 2. Conclude on the applications of the experiment.

3. Discuss on the mechanical properties of the tested specimen.

2. Compare and discuss on the experimental results with the theory.

4. Discuss on the factors that can be affected to the experimental result.

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EQ4. TORSION TEST


The objectives of this experiment are:

Objective

1. To develop the relationship between torque T and shear stress with angle of twist . 2. To determine the modulus of rigidity G of the material.

1. General

Theory

The torsion test differs from a tensile test in that the former has a stress gradient across the crosssection of the specimen. Thus at the limit of the elastic range, yielding will first occur in the outermost fibers whilst the core is still elastic. In a tensile test, yielding occurs relatively evenly throughout the bar. As the specimen is twisted further into the plastic region, a greater proportion of the cross-section yields until there is a plastic zone through to the centre of the bar. A typical torquetwist diagram (Figure 1) is very similar to a loadextension diagram from a tensile test. Yield

3. To determine the maximum shear stress at the elastic limit and at failure of the material.

Torque

Slope = GJ/L (Torsional rigidity)

Angle of twist 2. Stress, Strain and Angle of Twist Fig. 1 Torquetwist diagram

Consider a solid circular shaft of radius r and length L, subjected to a torque T [Nm] at one end, the other end being fixed (Figure 2). Under the action of this torque, a radial line at the free end of the shaft twists through an angle [rad], point A moves to B, and AB subtends an angle at the fixed end. This is then the angle of distortion of the shaft, i.e. shear strain. Arc AB = r = L

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But = /G, where [N/m2] is the shear stress and G [N/m2] is the modulus of rigidity.

= r / L

(1)

T L

By substitution and rearranging

Fig. 2 Schematic representation of torsional deformation (2)

Combining (2) and (3) produces the so-called simple theory of torsion, and gives the fundamental relationship between shear stress, torque and geometry. Showing that, for a given torque, the shear stress is proportional to the radius.

where J [m4] is called the polar second moment of area (= r4/2).

The torque can be equated to the sum of the moments of the tangential stresses on the elements 2rr.

/ r = G / L

T = (2 rdr )r = (G / L ) (2 rdr )r 2 = (G / L ) J

(3)

T / J = / r = G / L

(4)

Now from the definition of the modulus rigidity G, = G . It therefore follows that the two equations may be combined to relate the shear stress and strain in the shaft to the angle of twist per unit length, thus (5) This equation indicates that the shear stress and shear strain vary linearly with radius and have their maximum value at the outside radius (Figure 3). (6)

The shear stresses which are developed in a shaft subjected to pure torsion are indicated as

= (G / L )r

= (G / L )r = G

max

max

Fig.3 Maximum shear stress

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Specimens and Equipments


2. Vernier caliper

1. Torsion testing machine Norwood 50 Nm 3. Torsion specimens: steel, brass, aluminium

Procedures

1. Measure the initial length and initial gauge length diameter of the specimen. 3. Turn the hand-wheel as required aligning the specimen. 5. Ensure that there is no preload on the specimen. 7. Adjust the digital torque meter reads zero.

2. The specimen between the loading device and the torque-measurement unit into the straining hexagon sockets. 4. Slide the tailstock unit so that the specimen is fully into the hexagon sockets. 6. Zero the pointer on the zero degree point on the protractor scale.

Fig. 5 Norwood 50 Nm

11. Repeat the experiment for other specimens.

9. Read the torque value from the digital torque meter and notice it together with the indicated angle of twist. 10. Continue the process of steps 8 and 9 until fracture occurs.

8. Turn the hand-wheel clockwise slowly to load the specimen. Turn it only for a defined angle increment.

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Results

1. Specimen Dimensions: Dimension Initial gauge length diameter d0 [mm] Initial length L0 [mm] Final gauge length diameter d [mm] Final length L [mm] 1

Determination no. 2 3

Average

2. Angle of Twist and Torque.

Angle of Twist [] 10 20 30 40 50 60 . . . F (Fracture angle)

Angle of Twist [rad]

Torque T [Nm]

Discussions

3. Plot the torque T versus angle of twist graph for the tested specimen. From the graph, calculate the modulus of rigidity G, and determine the slope of the elastic part. 4. Calculate the shear stress at the proportionality. 5. Plot the shear stress against angle of twist graph. 6. Plot the shear stress against shear strain graph. Tabulate the following values and show them on the curves i. Proportional limit shear stress in torsion ii. Shear modulus of elasticity iii. shear stress 2. Discuss on the mechanical properties of the tested specimens in shear. 1. Compare and discuss on the experimental results with the theory.

Table 1 Experimental results

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Conclusions

3. Discuss on the factors that can be affected to the experimental result. 2. Conclude on the applications of the experiment.

1. Give an overall conclusion based on the obtained experimental results.

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EQ5. FLEXURAL TEST


To study and examine the flexural properties of materials.

Objective Theory

Figure 1 shows a length of beam under the action of a bending moment M [Nm]. O is the centre of curvature, and R is the radius of curvature of the neutral surface NN. The beam subtends an angle at O. Let [N/m2] be the longitudinal (bending) stress in a filament AB at a distance y from NN. Then the strain in AB is where E [N/m2] is Youngs modulus.

/ E = (ab NN )/ NN = [(R + y ) R ]/ R = y / R or / y = E/R (1)


O

R M N a
y

M N b

Consider a cross-section of the beam. If A is an element of cross-sectional area at a distance y from the neutral axis XX (Figure 2) then for pure bending the net normal for the cross-section must be zero, i.e. dA = 0 or (E / R ) y dA = 0 This is the condition that XX passes through the centroid of the section. Y X X

Fig. 1 Beam subjected to pure bending, after the moment M has been applied

y A Y Fig. 2 Beam cross-section

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The bending moment is balanced by the moment of the normal forces about XX, i.e.

M = y dA = (E / R ) y 2 dA = EI / R or

where I [m4] is a property of the cross section known as the moment of inertia or second moment of area. For rectangular I = bh3/12, b: width, h: thickness; and for circular I = d4 / 64, d: diameter.

M / I = E/R

(2)

Equations (1) and (2) now can be combined and written as the convenient form.

each being then used with the appropriate value of allowable stress.

In the unsymmetrical sections such as T-sections where the values of ymax will be different on each side of the neutral axis (NA) (Figure 3), and here two values of section modulus are often quoted,

where the subscripts denote tension and compression. The quantities I / yt max and I / yc max are functions of geometry only; they are termed the section modulus and are denoted by Zt and Zc [m3]. For rectangular Z = bh2 / 6, b: width, h: thickness; and for circular Z = d 3 / 32, d: diameter. (4)

From equation (3), the maximum stress obtained in any cross-section is given by (3)

M / I = / y = E/R

t max = My t max / I = M / Z t c max = My c max / I = M / Z c

Z 1 = I / y 1 and

Z2 = I / y2

(5)

y1 = y y2 = y

NA

c y1 t
+

NA

y2

c In case of a beam (b: width, h: thickness) with concentrated load W [N] at the centre (Figure 4), the beam deflection y [mm] can be expressed in the form. Fig. 3 Typical bending stress distributions

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where l is the beam working length, EI [Nm2] is known as the flexural rigidity of the member.

y = Wl 3 / 48 EI

(6)

W x i y l/2

l
The flexural stress [N/m2] caused by bending is calculated by the following formula: = M / Z = 3Wl / 2bh 2 (7) where bending moment M = Wl / 4. If the load recorded corresponds to the value at which failure occurs, then corresponds to the flexural strength f. The maximum strain f due to bending (compression at the side contacted by the loading and tensile at the opposite face) is estimated by using Hookes Law, Fig. 4 The beam with concentrated load W at the centre

f = / E = 6hy max / l 2

(8)

Specimen and Equipments


2. Vernier caliper. 3. Test jig 4. Loading block

1. Instron Series 8500 (5kN). 5. Flexural specimen

Fig. 5 Instron Series 8500 (5kN)

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Procedures

1. Measure the thickness and width of the beam.

2. Grip the loading block and test jig in the upper and lower gripping head, respectively.

3. Locate the specimen (Figure 5) so that the upper surface is to the side and centered in loading assembly. 4. Operate the machine until the loading block is bought into contact with the upper surface of the specimen. Ensure to secure full contact between the loading (and supporting) surfaces and the specimen. 5. Set the required parameters on the control panel. 7. Press Start button to start the flexural test. 6. Adjust the load recorder on the front panel controller to zero, to read load applied. 8. Observe the specimen, as the load is gradually applied. 9. Record the maximum load and continue loading until complete failure. Beam length L [mm] Beam width b [mm] Beam thickness h [mm]

Results

1. Show all the measurements of beams. Specimen 1 Specimen 2

Beam working length l [mm]

2. Plot the loaddeflection graph for the tested specimen. 3. Complete the table below. Experiment Flexural strength f [MPa] Maximum flexural strain f Flexural modulus Ef [GPa]

Specimen 3

Theory

Discussions

1. Discuss on the shape of obtained loaddeflection graph.

Give an overall conclusion based on the obtained experimental results.

Conclusions

2. What is the percentage error (%) between experiment results with the theory? Why? 3. What is the critical application of the experiment in industry?

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EQ6. CANTILEVER TEST


Objective
1. To identify the supports reaction in simply-supported and overhanging beams. 2. To develop an understanding of beam apparatus, and to determine its sensitivity and accuracy.

1. General

Theory

A beam is a member which has the primary function of resisting transverse loading. Beam is one of the simplest structures in design but one of the most complexes to analyze in terms of the external and internal forces acting on it. The complexity of its behavior under load depends on how it is supported - at one or both ends - and how its ends are attached to the supports. Three basic beam types are the simply-supported, overhanging, and cantilever beams.

A beam supported by a support at the ends and having one span is called a simply-supported beam (Figure 1). A support will develop a reaction normal to the beam but will not produce a couple. If either or both ends of the beam project beyond the supports, it is called overhanging beam (Figure 2). A cantilever beam is one in which one ends is built into a wall or other support so that the builtin end can neither move transversely nor rotate (Figure 3). W W w W

Pinned

Roller

Pinned

Pinned

Fig. 1 Simply-supported beam with two symmetric concentrated loads and supported by pinned and roller W supports

Fig. 2 Overhanging beam with concentrated and distributed loads, and supported by pinned supports

Fixed-end Fig. 3 Cantilever beam with a concentrated load and supported by fixed-end support

2. Types of Load i)

A beam is normally horizontal, the loads being vertical, other cases which occur being locked upon as exceptions. The two types of loads for beams are concentrated and distributed loads. A concentrated load W [N] is one which is considered to act at a point, although in practice it must really be distributed over a small area (Figures 1, 2 and 3).

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3. Types of Support i)

ii)

The deformations and stresses which result in a beam owing to a particular load (concentrated load) or group of loads (distributed load) are dependent on the manner in which the beam is supported. The three basic types of supports for beams are roller, pinned and fixed-end. ii) iii) A fixed-end support is one which prevents the beam from translating or rotating at the point of support (Figure 3).
(1)

A distributed load w [N/m] is one which is spread in some manner over the length of the beam. The rate of loading may be uniform, or may vary from point to point along the beam (Figure 2).

A roller support is one which exerts a reactive force having a known line of action (Figure 1). A pinned support in one which allows the beam freedom to rotate but prevents it from any linear movement (Figures 1 and 2).

4. Deflection of Cantilever

The deflection under the load for a cantilever loaded at the free end is given by

If EI and L are maintained constant then: Where k1 is constant Likewise z =

z=

WL3 3EI

z = k1 .W

Similarly if EI and W are maintained constant:

(2)

Specimens and Equipments


2. Cantilever support 3. Vernier caliper 4. Load cells 5. Dial gauges 6. Steel blocks

1. Beam apparatus SM104

k3 k and z = 4 if E and I respectively are made the variables. E I

z = k2 .L3

(3)

7. Beams: Steel / Brass / Aluminium

Fig. 4 Beam apparatus SM104 26

Procedures

2. Set up the clamp to give a cantilever of convenient length.

3. Pass one end of the beam through the clamp and rest the other end on the load cell. (It is convenient to lock the knife edge during assembly). Tighten the clamp and tie up the free end of the beam using a short piece of string. 5. Adjust the knife edge upwards to give a convenient reading on the load cell. Record the load and the dial gauge reading. 8. Repeat the experiment for several lengths of cantilever. 7. Return the knife edge to its initial position; lock the knife edge; slacken the clamp and move it to a new position (this is more convenient than moving the load cell). 9. Use the Aluminum, Brass and Steel beams 6 mm thick to varying E value. 10. Use the steel beams 3 mm, 4.5 mm and 6 mm thick to vary I. Dial Gauge (z) L 4. Place the dial gauge near to the clamp and set the zero. Move the dial gauge to the free end of the cantilever, unlock the knife edge and adjust it so that the dial gauge returns to zero. Set the pointer of the load cell to zero.

1. Set up a load cell at a convenient position near to one side of the frame.

6. Adjust the knife edge upwards to give a number of load increments recording loads and dial gauge readings.

W Load cell Cantilever support

Fig. 5 Schematic of Experimental Setup

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Results

1. Record the values of z according to the following table. Load [N] 2 4 6 8 2. Plot graphs and verify the accuracy of the results i. 10 Deflection z[mm] L=400mm L=200mm L=300mm L=500mm L=600mm

Give an overall conclusion based on the obtained experimental results.

Conclusions

ii. z against L3 verifies that equation (3) is correct, with k2 for each load being given by the respective gradient of the graph.

z against W to verify equation (2) is correct, with k 1 for each length being given by gradient of the graph.

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