Cerebral Cortex organization of cerebral cortex according to function 1. Sensory areas receives sensory information 2.

Motor areas controls voluntary movements 3. Association areas complex functions such as memory, emotions, etc Sensory areas sensory information arrives behind the central sulcus y y Primary sensory areas receive sensory information from peripheral sensory receptors Sensory association areas receives sensory information from the 1 sensory areas and other parts of the brain o They process the sensory information  Example: 1) Damage to the primary (1) sensory visual area results in partial/complete blindness 2) Damage to visual association area results in not understanding what you are sensory (You can see a pen but not understand that is a pen) Important 1 sensory areas: - 1 visual area - 1 auditory area - 1 gustatory area (taste) - 1 olfactory (smell) - 1 somatosensory area (example: pain, temperature, pressure etc...)

Motor areas mainly found in the anterior part of the cerebrum Important motor areas:   1 motor area controls voluntary muscle contractions Broca s speech area involved in speech production y Example: Damage to Broca s speech area will result in not being able to form words but still have clear thoughts

Association areas Important areas: y y y Somatosensory association area receives sensory input from primary (1) somatosensory area o Example: Recognizing a pen when you touch it; without seeing it Visual association area allows you to recognize objects just by looking at them receives input from 1 visual area Facial recognition area receives input from visual association area and allows you to recognize specific people by their faces

y y y

y y y y

Auditioary association area receives input from the 1 auditory area and allows you to recognize sounds Orbitofrontal cortex receives input from the 1 olfactory area and allows you to recognize smells Wernicke s (language) area it takes the words that you hear and translates them into thoughts o Damage to Wernicke s area will result in not understanding what you hear and not being able to arrange words in a meaningful way. (They can say words but Not understand them or make a sense out of them- like they re in a foreign country) Common integrative area it integrates sensory interpretations (from other association areas) to form thoughts Prefrontal cortex involves a person s personality, intellect, judgment, foresight, institution, mood, recall of information, planning for the future, etc Premotor area involves learned motor activities o Example: Learning how to write Frontal eye field area involves voluntary scanning movement of the eyes o Examples: when reading Clinical conditions: 1. CVA= Cerebrovascular accident (Stroke) y Blood clot forming in an artery or busting of an artery that supplies the brain (bleeding stroke) 2. TIA- Transient ischemic attack y Decrease in blood flow to the brain(specific area) that last 5-10 mintues y Experience temporary paralysis slurred speech etc 3. Reye s syndrome y Happens a viral infection in children/teens who take aspirin y They have vomiting and brain dysfunction (disorientation, lethargic, etc) and can even progress to coma or death

Comparison of Endocrine VS. Nervous System 1. Medator molecules NS Neurotransmitters ES Hormones 2. Site of action NS close to site of release ES usually far from site of release 3. Types of target cells NS Neurons, muscles, glands ES All cells throughout the body

4. Time to onset of action NS immediately ES Seconds, hours, days 5. Duration of action NS milliseconds ES Seconds to days Function of hormones Control growth and development Regulates metabolism and energy balance Regulates operation of reproductive system Regulates glandular secretions Regulates the amount and chemical contents of interstitial fluid Regulates some immune system activity Help establish CIR rhythm Regulates contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle Mechanisms of hormonal actions: 2 Types of hormones- Water soluble + lipid soluble Lipid Soluble hormones: 1. Lipid soluble hormones diffuse from blood through interstial fluid through the plasma membrane (hydrophobic) and into the cell 2. The hormone binds to receptors within the cytosol or nucleus and triggers certain gases to be on 3. If a new gene is turned on, then a new protein is being made. New proteins change the cell s activity in different ways Water soluble hormone: 1. A water-soluble hormone cannot enter the cell through diffusion. It diffuses from the blood to the interstial fluid and binds to a receptor on the surface of the cell membrane 2. Binding of the hormone to a receptor activates G protein. G protein then activates Adenylate cyclase . 3. Adenylate cyclase than converts ATP into CAMP. CAMP then activate a protein kinase. 4. The activated protein kinase then adds to a phosphate to a target protein (this process is called Phosphorylation) Adding a phosphate to a protein will either turn it on or off. 5. Phosphorylated proteins cause reactions that produce physiological effects y Example: a specific protein kinase might trigger glycogen synthesis Control of Hormone secretion

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

1. Signals from nervous system 2. Chemical changes in blood 3. Other hormones Most hormonal regulatory systems work via the (-) feedback system, some via the (+) feedback system. Hypothalamus and pituitary gland y y The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus It is attached to the hypothalamus with the infundibulum

Pituitary has 2 lobes: anterior and posterior Anterior pituitary y Normally, blood flows from heart artery capillary vein heart. Here, blood flows from heart artery capillaries in hypothalamus portal vein capillaries in anterior pituitary etc. Because blood flows directly from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary, any hormones secreted by the hypothalamus will reach the anterior pituitary immediately The hypothalamus contains neurons that synthesize hormones called neurosecretory cells.

y y

There are 5 different types of anterior pituitary cells: 1. Somatotrophs Secretes human growth hormone (hGH) and insulin-like growth factors 2. Thyrotrophs Secrete thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) 3. Gonadotrophs Secrete follicle-stimulating horomone (FSH)  Luteinizing hormone (LH) 4. Lactotrophs Secrete prolactin 5. Corticotrophs Secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)  Melanocytes-stimulating horomone (MSH)

The hypothalamus produces releasing hormones (hormones) that tell the anterior pituitary to secrete its hormones) 1. Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) Stimulate somatotrophs to secrete hGH 2. Thyrotropin releasing hormone stimulates thyrotrophs to secrete TSH

stimulate lactotophs to secrete prolactin 3. Gonadotroph releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates gonadotrophs to produce FSH and LH 4. Prolactin relasing hormone (PRH) stimulates lactotrophs to secrete prolactin 5. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates the corticotrophs to secrete ACTH and MSH Hypothalamus GHRH TRH GnRH PRH CRH Human Growth (hGH) Stimulates liver, muscle, cartilage, bone and other tissue to synthesize and secrete insulin-like growth factors (IGF): IGF s     Promote cell growth Protein synthesizes Tissue repair (example: Fracture) Promote ATP production by triggering lpolysis increasing blood glucose levels Anterior Pituitary hGH TSH prolactin FSH/LH Proclactin ACTH/ MSH

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Stimulates the thyroid gland to synthesize and secrete T3-T4 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

y y

Female: initiate the developing of oocytes and triggers the ovaries to secrete estrogen Male: stimulates testes to produce sperm Luteinizing hormone(LH)

y y

Female: stimulates the secretion of estrogen and progesterone; stimulates ovulation and formation of corpus luteum Male: stimulates testes to produce testosterone Prolactin

Promotes milk secretion by the mammary glands

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) y Stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids (example: cortisol) by the adrenal gland

Posterior pituitary: nuerohypophysis y y It stores and releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) These hormones are produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus. The axon terminals of the neurosecretory cells extend into the posterior pituitary (No portal system)

Oxytocin it is released in response to stretching of the uterus and cervix and stimulation of the nipples o It stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth and contraction of cells in the mammary glands to release milk Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) y y It is released in response to dehydration, decrease blood volume, pain, stress. Alcohol inhibits ADH ADH reduces loss of water in urine and constricts arterioles to raise blood pressure Thyroid Gland It is located underneath the larynx and sits on the trachea. There are 2 lobes: Left and Right lateral lobes They are connected by the isthmus. Most of the thyroid gland is made of thyroid follicle. Each follicle contains a wall of follicular cells that produce 2 hormones: o T (triiodothyronine) contains 3 iodine atoms o T (thyroxine) contains 4 iodine atoms between the follicles are parafollicular cells (c cells) which produce calcitonin (involved in calcium homeostasis) o T and T secretion is stimulated in response to low blood levels of T /T  Low metabolic rate  Cold  Pregnancy y These conditions will trigger the release of TRH (hypothalamus) y trigger release of TSH (anterior pituitary) y triggers release of T and T ( Thyroid Gland) T and T y y y y Increase metabolic rate Stimulate protein synthesis Increase ATP production Increase lipolysis

y y y

o o

accelerates body growth plays a role in development of Nervous system Calcitonin

Secretion is triggered by high blood calcium levels. (incorporates C into bone) o it lowers blood Ca and (phosphate) Po levels by inhibiting bone resorption ( osteoclasts) and promotes bone deposition by the osteoblasts

Parathyroid glands y y 4 parathyroid glands- they are attached to the posterior surface of the thyroid gland It contains 2 types of cells: Chief cells produce PTH (oxyphil cells) Parathyroid hormone (PTH) y Overall effect is the increasing blood Ca levels by: o Increasing Osteoclast activity o Promotes formation of calcitriol (vitamin D) which increases Ca absorption in the GI tract (from the food you eat) when blood Ca levels are too high calcitonin is released from thyroid gland. When blood Ca levels are too low PTH is released from chief cells in the parathyroid gland. Adrenal gland Attached to the superior side of the kidneys. They have an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Adrenal Cortex: made of 3 zones 1. ( Outer) zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids 2. (middle) zona fasciculate secretes glucocorticoids 3. (inner) zona reticularis secretes androgens (male hormones) Mineralocortids Main mineralocorticoid is aldosterone: y y y Regulates balance of Na+ and K+ Helps adjust blood pressure and blood volume Promotes H+ excretion in urine to prevent acidosis The renin angiotensin-aldosterone

y y y y

Pathway controls the secretion of aldosterone Decrease blood pressure stimulates the kidney to secrete renin . Angiotensinogen -----renin (in liver) angiotensin I -----ACE(in lungs) angiotensin II stimulate adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone Renin converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I in the liver then angiotensin I is converted into angiotensin II in the lungs by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone

Glucocorticoids main one is cortisol y y y y y Increase rate of protein breakdown (into amino acids) Amino acids are then converted into glucose which is used to form ATP Lipolysis (to produce ATP) Anti-inflammatory effects Depresses the immune response

Androgens- main one is DHEA(dihydroepiandrosterone) y y y This is a major source of androgens in women (in men Promotes libido Gets converted into estrogen main source is the testes)

ACTH triggers the release of adrenal hormones Adrenal medulla Chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine y y y Increase heart rate and contractility (strength of each contraction) to increase cardiac output and increase blood pressure Increase blood flow to skeletal muscles, heart, liver, adipose tissue; Dilates respiratory airways

Diabetes insipidus y y Due to a decrease in production hypothalamus on (pituitary) secretion of ADH or defeats in ADH receptors( in kidney) Symptoms-excrete large amounts of urine o Danger of dehydration (within a day vs. 3 days for healthy people) o Excessive thirst Gestational diabetes y Due to enzymes from the placenta destroying the mothers ADH

y y y y

Diabetes Mellitus Due to an inability to either produce or use insulin 4th leading cause of death in the U.S. (due to its effects on the cardiovascular system) Insulin normally helps glucose get transported into cells all over the body In DM, blood glucose levels are high and glucose spills into the urine DM Type 1: Diabetes Mellitus Low insulin levels because the person s immune system is destroying the pancreatic cells ( cells produce insulin) Since insulin isn t bringing glucose to the cells, the cells are in starvation made and use fat stores for energy. Over a long period of time, this can result in an acidic blood pH(ketoacidosis) life threatening o Other symptioms:  Atherosclerosis  Loss of vision (because the retina s blood vessels are damaged)  Kidney problems o Treatment (Tx): insulin injections or pancreas transplant DM Type 2: Diabetes Mellitus

y y

y y y

Usually happens to obese people all overweight people have some resistance to insulin DM 2 results from the combination of insulin resistance and a decrease in insulin production by the cells which leads to hyperglycemia means (high blood glucose level) Symptioms: o Atherosclerosis:  Loss of vision  Kidney problems  Nerve damage o Treatment (Tx): y Insulin y Medication that stimulates the pancreas to increase insulin production can ultimately lead to coma, seizures

Hyper insulin happens when a diabetic injects too much insulin and death. (Due to hypoglycemia) Male reproductive system: Includes: Testes

Ducts (epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory ducts, urethra) Accesory sex glands (seminal vesicles prostate bulbourethral glands) Scrotum

y y

Externally it looks like one sack Internally it is divided into 2 pouches each holds a single testis Testes The Testes develop near the kidneys and usually begin to descend at 7 months (fetal) age Cryptorchidism undescended which happens in 3% of infants if not surgically corrected it can result in sterility (testes don t produce sperm) and a higher chance of testicular cancer.

y y

Layers surrounding the testes: Tunica Albuginea Tunica Vaginalis (peritoneum) internal spermatic fascia muscle external spermatic fascia dartos muscle skin cremaster

Sperm production happens in the seminiferous tubules. Each lobule contains 1-3 seminiferous tubules. The seminferous tubules contains 2 types of cells: 1. Spermatogenic cells (cells that form sperm) 2. Sertoli cells supportive cells Leydig cells- found between the seminiferous tubules: produce testosterone Spermatogonium (stem cell 2n) 1 spermatocyte (1n) spermatids spermatozoa( zon) (sperm) 2 permatocyte

Hormonal Control of Testes: During puberty, GnRH secretion is increased (hypothalamus) which stimulates the secretion of FSH and LH (from anterior pituitary) LH stimulates Leydig cells to secrete testosterone FSH and Testosterone stimulates sertoli cells to secrete androgen binding protein (ABP) ABP keeps testosterone levels high for sperm production (spermatogenesis) Once enough sperm are produced, sertoli cells released inhibin to inhibit FSH ( which will inhibit sperm production until more and needs to be produced)

Testosterone (+ DHT

dihydrotestosterone) functions

1. Prenatal development(development of male reproductive system) 2. Development of male secondary sexual characteristics 3. Development of sexual function sperm production libido (sex drive) 4. Stimulation of anabolism- protein synthesis; results in more muscle mass in men

Reproductive system ducts: Seminiferous tubules straight tubules rete testis efferent ducts (vas) deferens spermatic cord ejaculatory duct urethra ductus epididymis ductus

Varicoele swelling of veins in the scrotum (may contribute of lower sperm count) Other Glands: y y Seminal Vesicles secretes fluid that contains fructose (for ATP production in sperm and alkaline material) Prostate secretes a milky fluid that contains o Citric acid for ATP production o Enzymes that break down clotting protein o An antibiotic to kill bacteria o Bulbourethral glands during sexual arousal(before ejaculation) the bulbourethral glands secrete alkaline material to neutralize any acids left over in the urethra(from urine) - Mucus is also secreted to lubricate the urethra to decrease sperm damage during ejaculation

Female Reproductive System: Includes : Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vagina Oogenesis formation of oocytes ( eyes ) happens before birth oogonia (stem cells) Mitosis Produce millions of germ cells before birth, most of the germ cells degenerate Atresia Meiosis 1 oocytes At birth there are 200,000 -2,000,000 1 oocytes by puberty, there are n 40,000 A women will ovulate n40 times in a lifetime Each month, FSH and LH are secreted by the pituitary to stimulate the development of several primordial follicles (follicles that contain 1 oocytes) only one of them reaches maturity needed for ovulation. By the time ovulation happens the 1 oocyte continues to develop into a 2oocyte Once the sperm reaches the 2 oocyte and starts to penetrate it, the 2 oocyte then goes through its last phase of maturity and splits into an ovum(mature egg) and a polar body Once the nuclei of the ovum and sperm join, a zygote is formed y

y y