ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS Daltons Atomic Theory (1808) Postulates: 1.

An element is composed of extremely small, indivisible particles called atoms. 2. All atoms of a given element have identical properties that differ from those of other elements. 3. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into atoms of another element. 4. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with one another in small whole-number ratios. 5. The relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound. Fundamental Laws of Matter 1. Law of Definite Proportion Different samples of the same compound always contain its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass. 2. Law of Multiple Proportion If two elements can combine to form more than one type of compound, the masses of one element that combine with a
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 1 of 24

fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers. 3. Law of Conservation of Mass Matter can be neither created nor destroyed. The Structure of the Atom Fundamental Particles: Particle Mass (amu) Electron (e-) 0.000548 58 Proton ( p+) 1.0073 Neutron (no) 1.0087

Charg e -1 +1 0

The Electrons Humphrey Davy in the early 1800s passed electricity through compounds and noted: that the compounds decomposed into elements. Concluded that compounds are held together by electrical forces. Michael Faraday in 1832-1833 realized that the amount of reaction that occurs during electrolysis is proportional to the electrical current passed through the compounds
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 2 of 24

Cathode Ray Tubes experiments performed in the late 1800s & early 1900s. Consist of two electrodes sealed in a glass tube containing a gas at very low pressure. When a voltage is applied to the cathodes a glow discharge is emitted.

These rays are emitted from cathode (end) and travel to anode (+ end). Cathode Rays must be negatively charged! J.J. Thomson modified the cathode ray tube experiments in 1897 by adding two adjustable voltage electrodes. Studied the amount that the cathode ray beam was deflected by additional electric field.

________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 3 of 24

Thomson used his modification to measure the charge to mass ratio of electrons. e/m = -1.75881 x 108 coulomb/g of e- Named the cathode rays electrons. Robert A. Millikan won the 1st American Nobel Prize in 1923 for his famous oil-drop experiment. - In 1909 Millikan determined the charge and mass of the electron. - Millikan determined that the charge on a single electron = -1.60218 x 10-19 coulomb.

- Using Thomsons charge to mass ratio, we get that the mass of one electron is 9.10 x 10-28 g.
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 4 of 24

e/m = -1.76 x 108 coulomb e = -1.6022 x 10-19 coulomb Thus m = 9.10 x 10-28 g Radioactivity 1895, Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen, discovered X-Rays - Marie Curie, suggested the name radioactivity, spontaneous emission of particles and/or radiation Three types of rays: 1. Alpha rays ( ) positively charged particles 2. Beta rays ( ) are electrons 3. Gamma rays ( ) high-energy rays; no charge The Proton Eugene Goldstein noted streams of positively charged particles in cathode rays in 1886. Particles move in opposite direction of cathode rays. Called Canal Rays because they passed through holes (channels or
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 5 of 24

canals) drilled through the negative electrode. Canal rays must be positive. Goldstein postulated the existence of a positive fundamental particle called the proton. The Nucleus Ernest Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and Ernst Marsdens experiment in 1910. - particle scattering from thin Au foils Gave us the basic picture of the atoms structure. - In 1912 Rutherford decoded the particle scattering information. Explanation involved a nuclear atom with electrons surrounding the nucleus . Rutherfords major conclusions from the -particle scattering experiment The atom is mostly empty space. It contains a very small, dense center called the nucleus. Nearly all of the atoms mass is in the nucleus.
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 6 of 24

 The nuclear diameter is 1/10,000 to 1/100,000 times less than atoms radius. The Neutron James Chadwick in 1932 analyzed the results of particle scattering on thin Be films. - Chadwick recognized existence of massive neutral particles which he called neutrons. Atomic Number The atomic number is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. Sometimes given the symbol Z. On the periodic chart Z is the uppermost number in each elements box. - In 1913 H.G.J. Moseley realized that the atomic number determines the element . The elements differ from each other by the number of protons in the nucleus.

________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 7 of 24

The number of electrons in a neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number.

Mass Number Mass number is given the symbol A. A is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons. Z = proton number N = neutron number In general, the mass number is given by
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons Mass Number = atomic number + number of neutrons

Isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element but with different neutron numbers. Isotopes have different masses and A values but are the same element. One example of an isotopic series is the hydrogen isotopes. 1 H or protium is the most common hydrogen isotope (one proton and no neutron). 2 H or deuterium is the second most abundant hydrogen isotope (one proton and one neutron).
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 8 of 24

H or tritium is a radioactive hydrogen isotope (one proton and two neutrons). A common symbolism used to show mass and proton numbers is Mass number
A Z

Atomic Number Thus for the isotopes of hydrogen, we write

1 1

2 1

3 1

protium

deuterium

tritium
protons,

Practice Exercise 2.1: Indicate the number of neutrons, and electrons in each of these species: 1 5 33 65 84 a. 7 N b. 16 S c. 29 Cu d. 38 Sr

The Periodic Table A chart in which elements having similar chemical and physical properties are grouped together. The elements are arranged in increasing atomic number in horizontal rows called periods and in vertical columns known as groups or families based on similarities in chemical properties. Note that elements number 111 to 115 have recently been synthesized but not yet been named.

________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 9 of 24

IA 1 H 3 Li 1 1 N a 1 9 K 3 7 R b 5 5 C s 8 7 Fr 2 A 4 Be 12 M g 3 B 4B 22 Ti 40 Zr 72 Hf 10 4 Rf 59 Pr 91 Pa 5B 23 V 41 Nb 73 Ta 10 5 Db 60 Nd 92 U 6B 24 Cr 42 Mo 74 W 10 6 Sg 7B 25 Mn 43 Tc 75 Re 10 7 Bb 26 Fe 44 Ru 76 Os 10 8 Hs 63 Eu 95 A m 8B 27 Co 45 Rh 77 Ir 10 9 Mt 64 Gd 96 C m 28 Ni 46 Pd 78 Pt 11 0 Ds 65 Tb 97 Bk 1B 29 Cu 47 Ag 79 Au 11 1 Rg 66 Dy 98 Cf 2B 30 Zn 48 Cd 80 Hg 11 2 67 Ho 99 Es 3A 5 B 13 Al 31 Ga 49 In 81 Tl 11 3 68 Er 10 0 Fm 4A 6 C 14 Si 32 Ge 50 Sn 82 Pb 11 4 69 Tm 10 1 Md 5A 7 N 15 P 33 As 51 Sb 83 Bi 11 5 70 Yb 10 2 Nn 6A 8 O 16 S 34 Se 52 Te 84 Po 11 6 71 Lu 10 3 Lr 7A 9 F 17 Cl 35 BR 53 I 85 At 11 7

8A 2 He 10 Ne 18 Ar 36 Kr 54 Xe 86 Rn 11 8

20 21 Ca Sc 38 39 Sr Y

56 57 Ba La 88 89 Ra Ac 58 Ce 90 Th

61 62 Pm Sm 93 Np 92 Pu

The elements can be divided into three categories metal, nonmetals and metalloids. 1. A metal is a good conductor of heat and electricity. (found on the left of the chart with) 2. A nonmetal is usually a poor conductor of heat and electricity. (are found on the right side)
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 10 of 24

3. A metalloid has properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals. (found along the zigzag line, separating the metals from the nonmetals) Elements are often referred to collectively by their periodic table group number (Group 1A, Group 2A, etc.). However some element groups have special names. Common examples are: 1. Group 1A elements are called alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr). 2. Group 2A elements are called alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, and Ra). 3. Elements in Group 7A are called halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, and At). 4. Elements in Group 8A are known as noble or rare gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) Molecules A molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical forces (also called chemical bonds) Examples of molecules: O2, H2, Cl2 diatomic molecules
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 11 of 24

H2O, C12H22O11 molecules

polyatomic

Ions An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge. Two basic types of ions: 1. Positive ions or cations - one or more electrons less than neutral Na+, Ca2+, Al3+ - monoatomic cations NH4+ - polyatomic cation 2. Negative ions or anions - one or more electrons more than neutral F-, O2- , N3- - monoatomic anions SO42-, PO43- - polyatomic anions Chemical Formulas Chemical formula shows the chemical composition of the substance. It is the ratio of the elements present in the molecule or compound Types of formulas: 1. Molecular Formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 12 of 24

of a substance Examples: Molecular Name Formula H2 hydrogen O2 oxygen O3 ozone H2O water Note that oxygen and ozone are allotropes of oxygen. Allotrope is one or two distinct forms of an element.

2. Empirical Formula tells us which elements are present and the simplest ratio of their atoms but not necessary the actual member of atoms in a given molecule. Example: Empirical Molecular Name Formula Formula NH2 N2H4 hydrazin e
Practice Exercise 2.2: What are the empirical formulas of the following compounds? a)Al2Br6 b) Na2S2O4 c)K2Cr2O7 d) ________________________________________________________________________ N 2: 5 Module2OAtoms, Molecules and Ions Page 13 of 24

Formula of Ionic Compounds Formula of ionic compounds is determined by the charges of the ions. Charge on the cations must equal the charge on the anions. The compound must be neutral, that is, the sum of the charges on the cation and anion in each formula unit must be equal to zero.

If they are different, we apply the following formula to make the formula electrically neutral: The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on the anion and the subscript of the anion is numerically equal to the charge on the cation. (We call this the crisscross method). If the charges are numerically equal, then no subscripts
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 14 of 24

are necessary. This rule follows because the formulas of most ionic compounds are empirical formulas, and as such, the subscripts are reduced to the smallest whole number ratios. Examples are as follows. Potassium bromide is formed by K+ and Br-. The formula is KBr. Zinc iodide is formed by Zn2+ and I-. The formula is ZnI2. Aluminum oxide is formed by Al3+ and O2-. The formula is Al2O3.
Practice Exercise 2.3: Which of the following compounds are likely to be ionic? Which are likely to be molecular? a)CH4 b) NaBr c)BaF2 d)CCl4 e) ICl f)CsCl

Naming Ionic Compounds 1. Binary compound is a compound that is composed of two elements, the cation derived from metal atom and a nonmetallic anion.

________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 15 of 24

a. Cation with only one charge ( Alkali metal cations, Alkaline earth metal cations, Ag+, Al3+, Cd2+, Zn2+) Rule: Name the (+) ion + name the stem of the (-) ion + -ide The -ide Nomenclature of Some Common Monatomic Anion According to Their Position in the Periodic Table Group Group Group Group 7A 4A 5A 6A C4N3O2F1Carbide Nitride Oxide Fluoride Si4P3S2Cl1Silicide Phosphid Sulfide Chloride e Se2Br1Selenide Bromide Te2I1Telluride Iodide Example: Formula Name NaCl sodium chloride Al2O3 aluminum oxide KBr potassium bromide ZnI2 zinc iodide b. Cation with more than one charge (Transition metals except Ag+, Al3+, Cd2+, Zn2+)
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 16 of 24

Rule: name the metal + (Roman numeral of the charge of the metal cation) + name the stem of the (-) ion + -ide Example: Formula Name FeCl2 iron (II) chloride FeCl3 iron (III) chloride MnO manganese (II) oxide Mn2O3 manganese (III) oxide MnO2 manganese (IV) oxide 2. Ternary compound is a compound consisting of three elements. Rule: name the (+) ion + name the (-) ion Example: Formula Name LiOH Lithium hydroxide KCN Potassium cyanide BaSO4 Barium sulfate Ca3PO4 Calcium phosphate KMnO4 Potassium permanganate

________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 17 of 24

TABLE 2.3 on page 27 of the General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts, 5th edition by Raymond Chang displays the formulas, charges and names of some common cations and anion.
Practice Exercise 2.4 : Name the following compounds. a) Cu(NO3)2 b) KH2PO4 c) NH4ClO3 d) PbO e) Li2SO3 f)NaHCO3 Practice Exercise 2.5: Write chemical formulas for the following compounds. a) mercury (I) nitrate b) cesium sulfide c) barium

Naming Binary Molecular Compounds Molecular compounds contain discrete molecular units. They are usually composed of nonmetallic elements. Many molecular compounds are binary compounds. Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms in each element present in a molecule of a compound. Numeri Prefix Numeri Prefix c c 1 mono 6 hexa 2 di 7 hepta
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 18 of 24

3 4 5

tri tetra penta

8 9 10

octa nona deca

Rule: Prefix name of the (+) ion + name the cation + prefix name of the (-) ion + stem of (-) ion + -ide Notes: The prefix mono may be omitted for the first element. For oxides, the ending a in the prefix is sometimes omitted. Exceptions to the use of Greek prefixes are molecular compounds containing hydrogen. Examples: Formul Name Formul Name a a B2H6 Diborane HCl Hydroge n chloride CH4 Methane SiC Silicon carbide SiH4 Silane CO Carbon monoxid e NH3 Ammoni CO2 Carbon a dioxide PH3 Phosphin NO2 Nitrogen e dioxide
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 19 of 24

H2O H2S

Water Hydroge n sulfide

N2O4 SO2

Dinitroge n tetroxide Sulfur dioxide

Practice Exercise 2.6: Name the following molecular formula. Practice NF3 a. Exercise 2.7: Write chemical formulas for the b. Cl2O7 following molecular compounds. a) sulfur tetrafluoride b) dinitrogen pentoxide

Naming Acids An acid can be described as a substance that yields hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Formulas for acids contain one or more hydrogen atoms as well as an anionic group. 1. Binary acid is composed of hydrogen and nonmetal. Rule 1: For dry acid Hydrogen + stem of the non-metal + -ide Rule 2: For aqueous acid Hydro + stem of the nonmetal + -ic + acid Examples: Formul Name in Name in a dry form aqueous solution
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 20 of 24

HCl HF H 2S HCN

Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen cyanide

Hydrochloric acid Hydrofluoric acid Hydrosulfuric acid Hydrocyanic acid

2. Ternary acid (oxoacid) contains hydrogen, oxygen and another element (the central element). Rule 1: For dry acid Hydrogen + name of ion Rule 2: For aqueous acid Name stem of the middle element + -ous/-ic + acid The use of ous and -ic Addition of one O atom to the -ic acid: The acid is called per...-ic acid. Thus, adding an O atom to HClO3 changes the chloric acid to perchloric acid, HClO4. Removal of one O atom from the -ic acid: The acid is called -ous acid. Thus nitric acid, HNO3 becomes nitrous acid, HNO2.
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 21 of 24

Removal of two O atoms from the -ic acid: The acid is called hypo...ous acid. Thus when HBrO3 is converted to HBrO, the acid is called hypobromous acid.

The rules for naming anions of oxoacids (oxoanions) are: When all the H ions are removed from the -ic acid, the anions name ends with -ate. For example the anion CO32derived from H2CO3 is called carbonate. When all the H ions are removed from the -ous acid, the anions name ends with -ite. Thus the anion ClO2- derived from HClO2 is called chlorite. The names of anions in which one or more but not all of the hydrogen ions have been removed must indicate the number of H+ ions present. For example, consider the anions derived from the phosphoric acid (H3PO4): dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-), hydrogen phosphate (HPO42-). Examples:
________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 22 of 24

Formul a H2CO3 HNO3 HClO4 HClO3 HClO2 HClO

Name in dry form Hydrogen carbonate Hydrogen nitrate Hydrogen perchlorate Hydrogen chlorate Hydrogen chlorite Hydrogen hypochlorite

Name in aqueous solution Carbonic acid Nitric acid Perchloric acid Chloric acid Chlorous acid Hypochlorous acid

Naming Bases A base can be described as a substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water. Example: sodium hydroxide, NaOH potassium hydroxide, KOH barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2 Ammonia (NH3), a molecular compound in the gaseous or pure liquid state, is also classified as a common base. This is

________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 23 of 24

because when dissolved in water it reacts with water and yield NH4+ and OH- ions. Assignment: 2.31, 2.33, 2.41, 2.45, 2.47, 2.49, 2.59, 2.65, 2.73 (Pages. 54 56)

________________________________________________________________________ Module 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions Page 24 of 24