The Science of the Total Environment 218 1998.

59 66

The impacts of road trafc management on urban air quality 1

K.O.K. Oduyemi a,U , B. Davidsonb
b

School of Construction and En ironment, Uni ersity of Abertay Dundee, Dundee DD1 1HG, Scotland, UK Department of En ironmental Health and Consumer Protection, Dundee City Council, Tayside House, Crichton Street, Dundee DD1 3RA, Scotland, UK Received 15 January 1998; accepted 2 May 1998

Abstract The effects of road trafc emissions on urban air quality are investigated, using long-term nitrogen dioxide NO 2 . data. The effectiveness of the several trafc management measures that have been made in Dundee city centre, UK, within the last 5 years in relation to urban air quality is discussed. The information assessed during this study indicates that the annual mean NO 2 levels at all the study sites are, at present, below the current EC and WHO long-term. air quality standards for NO 2 concentration in the ambient air. Trafc restrictions appear to be effective in protecting urban air quality. The annual mean NO 2 concentration at two of the study sites is currently close to 40 grm3, a value published in the Air Quality Regulations 1997 for the air quality objective to be achieved by the year 2005. Proactive trafc management mitigation measures are proposed for these sites and a methodology for the consideration of trafc management alternatives, based upon trafc ow modal split, is described. Some measures proposed are based upon a survey of vehicle occupancy rates, carried out at the busiest of the four study sites. The methodology and assessment procedures presented should be invaluable to assessors of trafc management and local air quality management in a small city, both at the planning and at the auditing stage. 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Trafc management; Mitigation measures; Ambient air quality; Local air quality management; Long-term nitrogen dioxide NO 2 .; Emissions; Vehicle occupancy rates

U 1

Corresponding author. The opinions presented herein are those of the authors alone and should not be interpreted as necessarily those of the institutions or companies to which the authors are afliated. 0048-9697r98r$19.00 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII S0048-969798.00201-0

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K.O.K. Oduyemi, B. Da idson r The Science of the Total En ironment 218 (1998) 59 66

1. Introduction Road vehicles have long been identied as major contributors to the urban air pollution burden. As a consequence, transportation planners have had to be involved in the assessment of the impact on urban air quality of road and trafc management schemes. Over the last 20 30 years the amount of trafc on the roads of UK has increased beyond all expectations and, moreover, this increase is inclined to continue to the end of this century and beyond. The annual rate of growth of all trafc on UK roads was 3.3% over the 10 years spanning 1986 1996 DETR, 1997.. Trafc-related air pollution is most severe in urban areas and particularly city centres, where large trafc volumes and congestion commonly result in a signicant degradation of the air quality in these areas. This problem is compounded by

the fact that these are also centres of human activity. In 1992, the city of Dundee, a city on the east coast of Scotland, with a population of between 175 000 and 180 000 DCC, 1997., started the nal construction of an inner ring road see Fig. 1., which was designed to go round the city centre. Trafc restrictions, shown in Fig. 1, were simultaneously imposed in parts of the city centre. The trafc restrictions are aimed at reducing air pollution in the city centre, and at reducing noise and trafc congestion in the city centre. A major driving force for these schemes has been the imposition of an ever increasing number and tightening of legislation e.g. The Environmental Protection Act, 1990; The Environment Act, 1995.. The main objective of the authors was to assess the effectiveness of the trafc restricted zones in

Fig. 1. Map showing the trafc restrictions in Dundees city centre, and the positions of the sampling sites.

K.O.K. Oduyemi, B. Da idson r The Science of the Total En ironment 218 (1998) 59 66

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Dundee in protecting the air quality of the city centre. Diffusion tubes measuring nitrogen dioxide NO 2 . at sites participating in the National Nitrogen Dioxide Survey AEA Technology, 1993. were used for comparing the air quality within and outside trafc restricted zones. The diffusion tube survey was run over a period of approx. 28 months with samples being collected and analysed every month 4r5 weeks.. Trafc ow characteristics at several of the study sites were measured and in some cases, obtained from Dundee City Councils Roads Department in order to assess the correlation between trafc and the air quality parameter NO 2 .. A survey of vehicle occupancy rate was carried out at the ring road, the busiest site, in order to examine what probable effect this factor may have on urban air quality. Similarly, compliance with air quality standards was assessed to investigate the appropriateness of the trafc management strategies adopted for Dundee. 2. Site selection and methodology Each of the four main study sites shown in Fig. 1 has different trafc characteristics. This allowed a comparative study of the trafc related pollution concentrations. This, in turn, provided an opportunity for assessing the effectiveness of the various trafc restrictions in protecting the air quality from trafc related pollution. The sites selected can all be classied as urban road sites. The locations surrounding the sites are highly built up and they potentially suffer from the effects of sheltering. This phenomenon results in the inhibition of atmospheric mixing and transport Collett et al., 1997.. Emission sources within the areas of interest are primarily trafc related, with the major sources of interest being the roads and the trafc ows on the roads. There is a possibility of migration of parts of the emission from one site to another, because of the interconnection of the roads in the city centre. The diffusion tubes at the four study sites were analysed by the Public Analyst of Dundee City Council DCC.. All the usual precautions for minimising interference and tampering were observed. The laboratory analysis of diffusion tube

samples will not be discussed here because of brevity but can be found in appropriate references Campbell, 1992; AEA Technology, 1993, 1995.. A camcorder was placed upon a tripod stand at the kerbside of site 1 to assess how efcient is the use of vehicles at this site. It was used to lm trafc ows from both sides of the ring road at hourly intervals. The selection of an hourly time interval was dictated by the capacity of the battery pack of the camcorder. The vehicle occupancy was calculated over a period of 2 weeks. A week, in this instance, was 1 h, 3 days per week. The hour of recording was varied each day to cover a wide scope of trafc ows. In order to ensure accuracy in the analysis the video had to be continuously frozen or rewound. 3. Analyses, results and discussion of results 3.1. O er iew of meteorological conditions The prevailing winds in Dundee are south westerly. Dundee can generally be described as having a climate characterised by cool, but sunny summers and cold winters. Monthly average rainfall totals range between 45 mm and 70 mm. 3.2. Trafc: temporal and spatial ariation The effects of factors capable of inuencing trafc ow or composition see Collett et al., 1997. have been investigated at the study sites. Table 1 shows the differences in the characteristics of trafc at three of the study sites: North Marketgait, Seagate and Commercial Street. Only qualitative trafc information exists for the Reform Street site. The North Marketgait ring road. site has by far the largest volume of trafc. This was largely expected, as the imposition of trafc restrictions in the city centre led to greater trafc numbers using this alternative route, the ring road. Total trafc volume for this study site had increased from a 24-h weekday average of 8501 in September 1992, during the construction of the road, to a stabilised value of 21 221 " 847 during the period between May 1994 and June 1996. In May 1994, the construction of the North

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Table 1 Trafc data for the study sites Name of road Duration of count h. 12 Date of count Motor cycles %. 0.4 Cars and taxis %. 83.9 Buses and coaches %. 0.8 Light goods vehicle %. 10.8 Heavy goods vehicle %. 4.1 Total trafc ow Weekday average 14 900 18 121 18 075 18 104 16 390 16 821 16 287 16 611 8501 21 943 21 732 21 805 20 528 20 097 0 0.2 0 0 71.9 72.1 72.2 66.6 17.5 17.3 17.4 23.7 10.6 7 10.4a . 8.4
a

K.O.K. Oduyemi, B. Da idson r The Science of the Total En ironment 218 (1998) 59 66

Daily average

Ratio of daily to weekday

A991 Marketgait North west of Victoria St.

18 March 1993 09 15 May 1994 16 22 May 1994 23 29 May 1994 29 January 1996 03 09 June 1996 July 1996 18 November 1996 September 1992 09 15 May 1994 16 22 May 1994 23 29 May 1994 November 95 03 09 June 1996 25 May 1994 25 September 1994 June 1995 July 1996

15 522 15 684 15 737 14 478

0.86 0.87 0.87 0.86

0 0.3

85.3 85.6

1.2 0.7

10.9 11.5

2.6 1.9

24

19 350 19 389 19 496 17 677

0.88 0.89 0.89 0.88

A929 Seagate west of St Andrews St. Commercial St. SE of junction between Commercial St. and Seagate
a

12

3.4

5995 6080 6015 4277

12

1.3

Including heavy goods vehicles.

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Marketgait road had long nished and most of the trafc restraints in the city centre had been implemented. The trafc restriction at the Reform Street site was, however, implemented on 22 April 1996. Commercial Street has a signicantly smaller trafc volume using it, compared to the ring road. Smaller trafc ows were expected at this site as it is not a route to many locations. Trafc counts for the Seagate site remained broadly constant between May 1994 and June 1995 see Table 1.. There is no evidence to suggest that trafc restrictions post-May 1994 and any other local factors capable of inuencing trafc ow or composition have any effect on the trafc ows and modal splits at North Marketgait, Seagate and Commercial Street. It can be assumed therefore that the trafc volume and composition remained broadly the same between January 1995 and June 1997 on these roads. 3.3. Ambient NO2 The background monthly averaged NO 2 concentration is estimated to be 14.7" 7.3 grm3. The result compares well with the background NO 2 concentrations observed at urban roadside locations both within and outside Dundee AEA Technology, 1995; Collett et al., 1997.. The range of the monthly averaged NO 2 concentration at the study sites, shown in Table 2a, during the period between January 1995 and June 1997 is: 26.4 61.3 grm3 at the Seagate site; 27.5 68.6 grm3 at the Marketgait site; and 24.1 44.0 grm3 at the Commercial Street site. At the Reform Street site the maximum monthly averaged NO 2 concentration since the restriction to trafc is 21.6 grm3. All these NO 2 values are comparable with ambient NO 2 levels measured at other urban roadside locations, e.g. 10 96 grm3 Hewitt, 1991; AEA Technology, 1995.. A comparison of the running annual mean concentration values with those standards in Table 2b shows that all sites would, at present, appear to comply with the air quality standards for NO 2 concentration in ambient air. The analysis thus far suggests that NO 2 levels

at the Seagate and Marketgait North sites, whilst not exceeding the air quality standard values at present, are close to the annual value of 40 grm3 published as the air quality objective value to be achieved by 2005 The Air Quality Regulations, 1997.. In the authors opinion, the possibility of extreme acute conditions at these sites andror a very small increase in trafc ow may make the annual mean NO 2 concentration exceed the air quality objective value. This makes the requirement for seeking measures to mitigate the trafc related problem essential for these two sites. This is discussed further in Section 3.4. The NO 2 data at the study sites at which there were no trafc restrictions, between January 1995 and June 1997 see Table 2a., shows similar long-term and short-term trends to the data sets of a separate investigation Collett et al., 1997., for which explanations have already been given. Table 2a shows that the trafc restriction introduced at the Reform Street site has brought the monthly averaged NO 2 concentration down to approx. 18 grm3 similar to the background level of NO 2 for urban roadsides in Dundee. from a peak of 52.3 grm3 before the restriction. This clearly shows that, for this site, the restriction to trafc using the road has been largely successful. Annual mean NO 2 concentration at the Commercial Street site may also have beneted from the restriction to trafc in the second half of the Street, since this restriction would have had bearing on the vehicles passing the Commercial Street site. 3.4. Ways for impro ing the impacts caused by trafc related emissions in Dundee There are many conceivable ways of reducing vehicle emissions Rayeld et al., 1994; Boulter, 1997., but far fewer that are considered desirable or politically feasible. The effects of various trafc management alternatives on NO X emissions have been widely reported Krauack, 1993; Stathopoulos and Argyyrakos, 1993.. The modal split of trafc at the Seagate site is 79.3% cars and LGVr17.3% busesr3.4% HGV, while that at the Marketgait site is 95.8% cars

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K.O.K. Oduyemi, B. Da idson r The Science of the Total En ironment 218 (1998) 59 66

Table 2 a. NO 2 concentration a measured at sites in Dundee, UK, from January 1995 to June 1997 month 1 corresponds to January 1995. Reform Street Month number Monthly average Running annual mean Seagate Monthly average Running annual mean Marketgait Monthly average Running annual mean Commercial Street Monthly average Running annual mean

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

44.1 39.1 26.1 36.5 51.7 42.4 52.3 44.9 47.5 44.0 36.6 39.3 46.3 40.4 21.6 15.8 16.1

48.8 52.9 45.6 40.7 42.2 39.8

19.6 17.2 15.7 17.1

42.9 42.3 42.0 42.2 42.3 42.0 40.2 37.3 36.8 35.3 34.2 32.5 30.9 29.9 26.6 21.8 17.7 16.9

44.3 46.5 47.4 42.7 35.1 40.7 61.3 44.4 37.9 39.4 33 36.7 33.3 43.2 42.8

59 26.4 27.8

45.1 43.7 42.5 44.1 44.4 44.0 44.0 43.0 42.5 41.5 41.3 40.9 40.7 41.3 41.3 41.1 39.1 38.0

43.7 59.00 47.3 46.3 43.2 46.3 32.8 68.6 39.6 48.1 56.3 37.2 40.2 31.2 36.9 42.4 42.7 31.4

27.5 57.4 30.2 39.1

45.5 48.4 47.4 47.5 48.3 47.4 47.1 44.8 43.9 43.6 43.5 42.3 43.1 40.6 39.4 40.3 37.7 37.9

42.5 39.4 40.7 33.0 37.0 44.0 38.2 33.4 41.5 36.8 38.3 33.5 28.4 34 36.6 37.3 42.2

24.1

39.4 39.3 38.5 38.9 38.7 38.6 38.2 37.0 36.6 36.2 36.6 37.0 36.4 36.2 35.3 34.6 34.3 33.7

b. Air quality standards for long-term NO2 concentration in ambient air Averaging time 1 yearb Annual
a b

EC standard 1985 50

WHO standard 1994 40 50

NO 2 concentration in grm3. 50th percentile of 1-h means.

and LGVr0.9% busesr2.9% HGV. The proposed trafc measures investigated for the Marketgait site therefore revolved around the cars. It is for this reason that the vehicle occupancy rate was investigated at the Marketgait site. The important factor from the vehicle occupancy rate survey is that 59% of the cars in the

occupancy rate investigation contained only the driver. The proactive trafc management measures for minimising the impact of trafc on air quality at the Marketgait site should be based upon encouraging car pooling. Consequently this should improve further the air quality at the site. Education and public information campaigns have

K.O.K. Oduyemi, B. Da idson r The Science of the Total En ironment 218 (1998) 59 66

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previously been reported as means for discouraging single occupancy Rayeld et al., 1994.. However, the success of these approaches is doubtful and it may be necessary to consider stronger measures to discourage single occupancy trips. The stronger measures may include the following: refusing access to lone drivers on the Marketgait road, but at the same time providing them with affordable and accessible park and ride schemes or metered bicycles at various depots within the city centre and on the Marketgait outer circle. Coupled with these measures will be to make lone drivers who use the road pay punitive nes. This strategy may require some policing which could make the costs outweigh the benets. However, if proper research is done before implementation there is no reason to suggest that the overall cost of random policing could not be reected in the actual ne. The only problem with this strategy is the possible lack of political will at present to effect such a change. As we approach the year 2005 and beyond, such a strategy as proposed may be one of the solutions that will balance well the economic and individual interests on one side against the task of maintaining a reasonably good air quality for the benet of human beings and the environment. The measures proposed for the Marketgait site should indirectly benet the Seagate site, since the cars using the Seagate site do access the Marketgait ring road. However, the major benets to air quality will undoubtedly be linked to how bus trafc is managed in the area, based upon the trafc modal split for the area and on average emission rate factors for the vehicle types DoE, 1993.. The basis of the proactive mitigation measures for the Seagate site is the same as that put forward in a short term study of the Seagate Collett et al., 1997.. It is believed that trafc re-arrangement measures at the Seagate, coupled with the gradual replacement or upgrading of the local bus eet emission systems would be effective in improving further the air quality at the site and should ensure that the air quality objectives for NO 2 concentration in the ambient for the year 2005 is met at this site.

4. Conclusions This paper has presented the results of an investigation into the impacts of road trafc management on urban air quality in a small city, Dundee, UK. The determinant considered was nitrogen dioxide. The results of the investigation of long-term measurement of NO 2 and trafc ow at four main study sites indicate that: The ambient annual mean levels of NO 2 at all the study sites are, at present, below the current EC and WHO air quality long-term. standards EC, 1985, WHO, 1994.; The trafc restricted zones appear to be effective in protecting air quality; and Proactive mitigation measures to improve air quality would be desirable for two of the study sites, Marketgait North and Seagate, in order to ensure that NO 2 levels do not exceed the air quality objective levels set for the year 2005 The Air Quality Regulations, 1997.. The results of the investigation further highlighted the methodology for the consideration of trafc management alternatives based upon trafc ow modal split. The measures proposed here are specic to small cities with similar trafc layout like Dundee. This study can be extended to other determinants e.g. CO, PM 10 , Benzene, SO 2 , etc.. in a similar fashion to the study carried out here, in order to develop a complete local air quality management plan for the locality in question, with consideration given to short term effects as well. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their gratitude to the University of Abertay Dundee and Dundee City Council for their support and contributions throughout the project. The authors are particularly indebted to a former research student of Dr Oduyemi, Richard Collett, who had very stimulating discussion with us on this project. Finally, the authors specially acknowledge all the former students of Dr Oduyemi who have con-

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K.O.K. Oduyemi, B. Da idson r The Science of the Total En ironment 218 (1998) 59 66 quality. Second report of the Quality of Urban Air Review Group, The Stationery Ofce, London, 1993. Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions DETR.. National Road Trafc Forecasts Great Britain. Reasons for Trafc Growth 23. 1997. Dundee City Council DCC.. Personal communication, 1997. Hewitt CN. Spatial variations in nitrogen dioxide concentrations in an urban area. J Atmos Environ 1991;25B:429 434. Krauack S. Trafc management and emissions. Sci Total Environ 1993;134:305 314. Rayeld DJ, Longhurst JWS, Conlan DE. The impacts of road transport on urban air quality a case study of the Greater Manchester region Computer Simulation. Air Pollut 1994;11:333 340. Stathopoulos A, Argyyrakos G. Control strategies for reducing environmental pollution from road trafc. Sci Total Environ 1993;134:315 324. The Air Quality Regulations. London: The Stationery Ofce HMSO., 1997. The Environment Act, Part IV: Air quality management. London: The Stationery Ofce, 1995. The Environmental Protection Act, Part I: Integrated pollution control; Part III: Statutory nuisance. London: The Stationery Ofce, 1990. World Health Organisation WHO.. Revised air quality guidelines for Europe. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Ofce for Europe, 1994.

tributed to the eld work investigation in one form or another. References

AEA Technology. UK nitrogen dioxide survey 1993. AEA Technology, National Environmental Technology Centre, Culham, Oxfordshire, 1993. AEA Technology. Air pollution in the UK 1993r1994. AEA Technology, National Environmental Technology Centre, Culham, Oxfordshire, 1995 Boulter PG. Environmental trafc management: a review of factors affecting cold start emissions. TRL Report 270, Transport Research Laboratory, 1997. Campbell GW. A survey of nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the UK using diffusion tubes: July to December 1991. Warren Spring Laboratory Report LR893, 1992. Collett RS, Oduyemi K, Davidson B. An investigation into ambient levels of trafc-related pollutants in urban centres: a case study of the Seagate Dundee, United Kingdom. J Environ Manage 1997;51:289 304. Commission for European Communities Council Directive EC.. Directive on air quality standards for nitrogen dioxide. No. 85r203rEEC, 1985. Department of the Environment DoE.. Quality of Urban Air Review Group. Diesel vehicle emissions and urban air