Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90 (2002) 125137

Comparison of soil N availability and leaching potential, crop yields and weeds in organic, low-input and conventional farming systems in northern California
D.D. Poudel a, , W.R. Horwath b , W.T. Lanini c , S.R. Temple d , A.H.C. van Bruggen e
Department of Renewable Resources, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, P.O. Box 44650, Lafayette, LA 70504, USA b Department of Land, Air, and Water Resources, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA c Department of Vegetable Crops, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA d Department of Agronomy and Range Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA Plant Sciences, Biological Farming Systems, Wageningen University, Marijkeweg 22, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands Received 4 May 2000; received in revised form 28 November 2000; accepted 5 January 2001
a

Abstract Increasing dependence on off-farm inputs including, fertilizers, pesticides and energy for food and ber production in the United States and elsewhere is of questionable sustainability resulting in environmental degradation and human health risks. The organic (no synthetic fertilizer or pesticide use), and low-input (reduced amount of synthetic fertilizer and pesticide use), farming systems are considered to be an alternative to conventional farming systems, to enhance agricultural sustainability and environmental quality. Soil N availability and leaching potential, crop yields and weeds are important factors related to agricultural sustainability and environmental quality, yet information on long-term farming system effects on these factors, especially in the organic and low-input farming systems is limited. Four farming systems: organic, low-input, conventional (synthetic fertilizer and pesticides applied at recommended rates) 4-year rotation (conv-4) and a conventional 2-year rotation (conv-2) were evaluated for soil mineral N, potentially mineralizable N (PMN), crop yields and weed biomass in irrigated processing tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) and corn (Zea mays L.) from 1994 to 1998 in Californias Sacramento Valley. Soil mineral N levels during the cropping season varied by crop, farming system, and the amount and source of N fertilization. The organic and low-input systems showed 112 and 36% greater PMN pools than the conventional systems, respectively. However, N mineralization rates of the conventional systems were 100% greater than in the organic and 28% greater than in the low-input system. Average tomato fruit yield for the 5-year period (19941998) was 71.0 Mg ha1 and average corn grain yield was 11.6 Mg ha1 and both were not signicantly different among farming systems. The organic system had a greater aboveground weed biomass at harvest compared to other systems. The lower potential risk of N leaching from lower N mineralization rates in the organic and low-input farming systems appear to improve agricultural sustainability and environmental quality while maintaining similar crop yields. 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Farming systems; Soil mineral N; Plant tissue N; Weeds; Processing tomato; Corn; California

1. Introduction
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-337-482-6163; fax: +1-337-482-5395. E-mail address: ddpoudel@louisiana.edu (D.D. Poudel).

Conventional farming systems and management practices have been shown to produce high crop yields, however, the sustainable soil fertility and

0167-8809/02/$ see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 8 8 0 9 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 1 9 6 - 7

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environmental quality of these production systems is questionable. Conventional farming systems are often associated with problems such as nitrate leaching and groundwater pollution (Foster et al., 1986; Blackmer, 1987), degradation of soil structure (Jordahl and Karlen, 1993), decreased surface inltration of water (Logsdon et al., 1993), and pesticide contamination. In addition, these farming systems are also associated with decreased levels of total soil N (Drinkwater et al., 1998; Wander et al., 1994) and total soil C (Wander et al., 1994) over time. The answers to problems associated with conventional practices are alternative cropping systems that increase soil C and N and leading to less N to escape soils. The central Valley in the northern California produces several agricultural crops including processing tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum L.), corn (Zea mays L.), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), safower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), rice (Oryza sativa L.) and sunower (Helianthus annuus L.). The high production capacity of this region is attributed to intensive irrigation practices, agrochemical inputs and intensive tillage. Because of the above mentioned problems of environmental degradation and public health risk associated with the conventional farming systems there is a growing interest in alternative farming systems in the central Valley of California and elsewhere. Therefore, alternative farming systems including organic (no synthetic fertilizer and pesticide use) and low-input (reduced amount of synthetic fertilizer and pesticide use) farming systems, are being explored as ways to improve overall soil health, agricultural sustainability, and environmental quality. Several researchers have indicated considerable effects of crop rotation and management practices on soil N availability (Kamimura et al., 1994; Varvel, 1994; Kolberg et al., 1999; Wienhold and Halvorson, 1999), crop yields (Turner et al., 1972; Peterson and Varvel, 1989; Omay et al., 1998), and weed pressure (Young et al., 1994; Poudel et al., 1998; Daugovish et al., 1999) in different crop production environments. Studies on long-term effects of farming systems and management practices on soil N availability, crop yields and weeds, especially in an irrigated Mediterranean row-crop production environment are limited. An understanding of the effect of farming systems and management practices on soil N availability, crop

yields, and weeds is important in designing management strategies that will both increase agricultural productivity and minimize the risk of environmental pollution. The specic objectives of this 5-year study (19941998) were: to measure soil mineral N levels during a cropping season, to assess N mineralization rate, to assess crop response to weed pressure, and to measure crop yields for organic, low-input, and conventional farming systems in irrigated eld row-crop production systems in a Mediterranean environment.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Site description and eld experiment This research was done as a part of a long-term study called the Sustainable Agriculture Farming Systems (SAFS) project initiated in 1989 at the Agronomy Farm of the University of California at Davis. The SAFS project consists of 11.3 ha of research plots, and the location (38 32 N, 121 47 W, 18 m elevation) is characterized by a Mediterranean climate with most rainfall occurring during the winter months (DecemberMarch), and relatively little rain during the growing season. Total annual rainfall is typically 400500 mm and daytime temperature averages 2334 C during the growing season (MarchOctober). The soil at the research site is classied partially as Reiff loam (coarse-loamy, mixed, nonacid, thermic Mollic Xerouvents) and partially as Yolo silt loam (ne-silty, mixed, nonacid, thermic Mollic Xerouvents). On average, soil at the SAFS site contains 350 g kg1 sand, 460 g kg1 silt, and 190 g kg1 clay at 030 cm depth. By FAO classication system, the soil at the SAFS site is classied as Mollic Fluvisol. At the SAFS project, the conventional, organic, and low-input farming systems with 4-year rotations are compared with a conventional farming system with a 2-year rotation (Table 1). The 4-year rotations include processing tomato, safower, corn, and bean which follows winter wheat in the conventional 4-year system (conv-4), and a bi-culture of oat (Avena sativa L.) and vetch (Vicia spp.) in organic and low-input systems. The oatvetch mix is either harvested for seed, cut as hay, or incorporated as green manure. The conventional 2-year system (conv-2) is a tomato and

D.D. Poudel et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90 (2002) 125137 Table 1 Description of farming system treatments in the SAFS project, University of California, Davis Farming system Organic Description

127

4-Year, ve crop rotation including processing tomato, safower, corn and oats/vetch followed by beans in the 4th year; winter legume cover crops grown in between tomato and safower; safower and corn; and bean and tomato; composted animal manure and organic supplements are used; no pesticide application 4-Year, ve crop rotation including processing tomato, safower, corn and oats/vetch followed by beans in the 4th year; winter legume cover crops grown in between tomato and safower; safower and corn; and bean and tomato; synthetic fertilizer use is reduced by about one-half the recommended rate; some pesticides used, but 60% less compared to conventional system 4-Year, ve crop rotation including processing tomato, safower, corn and wheat followed by beans in the 4th year; synthetic fertilizer and pesticide use is based on conventionally recommended rates 2-Year, two crop rotation including processing tomato and wheat; synthetic fertilizer and pesticide use is based on conventionally recommended rates

Low-input

Conventional 4-year Conventional 2-year

wheat rotation. More complete descriptions of the research plots and management practices are reported by other workers (Scow et al., 1994; Temple et al., 1994). The organic system is managed according to the regulations of California Certied Organic Farmers (CCOF), which do not allow the use of synthetic chemical pesticides or fertilizers. Legume cover crops are grown in between tomato and safower; safower and corn; and bean and tomato in organic and low-input farming systems. The cover crop is mowed and incorporated about 3 weeks prior to planting of the main crops. Composted manure is broadcast and incorporated before planting crops in the organic system. The low-input system includes reduced fertilizer and pesticide applications in addition to legume cover crops and mechanical cultivation for weed management. The conventional systems are managed with practices typical of the surrounding area, which include the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Synthetic fertilizers are banded. Each farming system has four replications consisting of all possible crop rotation entry points, thus resulting in a total of 56 plots, each measuring 68 m 18 m. These farming system treatments are laid out in a randomized block split plot design. A single row of tomato cv. Brigade was direct seeded (0.4 kg ha1 ) in the two conventional system 1520 cm high raised beds with seed centered on the beds. Bed tops were 1 m wide and beds center to center were 1.52 m apart. In low-input and organic systems, tomatoes were transplanted (about 20,000 plants ha1 ) several weeks after conventional plot seeding. The delay allowed sufcient time for de-

composition of cover crops, and larger tomato plants minimized early weed competition in these systems. Pioneer 3162 corn was planted in the center of a 76.2 cm wide bed (about 70,000 seeds ha1 ). Both the tomato and corn were machine harvested. 2.2. Soil analysis In order to assess soil N availability, ve composite soil samples (015 cm depth) were collected every 23 weeks during the cropping season in tomato and corn plots from 1994 to 1998. Composite soil samples (015 and 1530 cm) were collected from all 1998 tomato plots on 4 November 1998 to determine soil mineral N levels after crop harvest in the organic, low-input, and conventional farming systems. Soil samples were mixed thoroughly and sieved through a 2 mm mesh screen. A subsample, 510 g of soil, was placed in 40 ml 2 M KCl in the eld, transported to the laboratory on ice, and extracted for nitrate and ammonium (Bremner and Keeney, 1966) on the same day. These soil extracts were analyzed for NO3 -N, and NH4 -N with a diffusion-conductivity analyzer (Carlson, 1978). In order to study the effects of farming systems on PMN, the 1997 and 1998 tomato plots were selected for detailed soil sampling and analysis. After tomato harvest on 26 July 1997, a composite soil sample (015 cm depth) from 30 separate soil cores from each organic, low-input, and conventional tomato plot was collected on 22 September 1997. Samples were stored at 4 C until processed. The mineralization of soil

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mineral N was determined over a 160-day laboratory aerobic incubation (Bonde and Rosswall, 1987). The mineralized NO3 -N was extracted with 2.0 M KCl and then analyzed on a continuous ow analyzer (Lachet Instruments, Milwakee, WI) every 1015 days from 0 to 80 days and every 2025 days during reminder of the long-term incubation. Potential N mineralization data were t to the following single compartment exponential model to determine PMN and N kinetics (Stanford and Smith, 1972): Nm = N0 (1 ekt ) (1)

dried at 6065 C, ground to pass through 40-mesh screen of a Wiley Mill, and submitted to the University of Californias Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources (UC DANR) Analytical Laboratory for analyses. Tomato petiole and corn stalk samples were analyzed for NO3 -N (Carlson et al., 1990), and cover crop and weeds aboveground biomass samples were analyzed for total-N using combustion gas analysis (Pella, 1990a,b). 2.4. Statistical analysis Farming system effects on crop yields were analyzed by two-way analyses of variance (SAS, 1994). Tissue N, crop yield, soil mineral N level and weed biomass in different systems were compared by StudentNewmanKeuls (SNK) multiple range test. The N mineralization data from 160-day aerobic incubation were t to Eq. (1) by nonlinear regression using Marquardt method in SAS (SAS, 1994).

where Nm is the amount of N mineralized at time t, N0 the initial amount of PMN, and k the rate constant. A 7-day anaerobic laboratory incubation (Waring and Bremner, 1964) was conducted to determine PMN on composite soil samples (015 cm) collected four times during the 1998 cropping season. A composite soil sample was obtained from 30 cores per plot. Ammonium N was extracted with 2.0 M KCl and then analyzed as above. To determine soil mineral N levels after crop harvest, composite soil samples (015 and 1530 cm) were collected from all 1998 tomato plots on 4 November 1998. 2.3. Plant analysis In tomato, petiole sampling was done at rst bloom (60% of plants with owers) crop stage by walking through each plot in a U-shaped pattern, and stripping the fourth leaf from the top of 20 tomato plants, pulling off all leaets so that only the petiole remained, and placing petiole and leaets in separate bags. Tissue sampling in corn was done at eight-leaf (V-8) crop stage. The V-8 stage of corn was generally around the 8th week after planting. At V-8 stage, 10 plants per plot were cut at soil level for nutrient testing. The following three leaves, the rst unrolled leaf from the top, and the two leaves below that, were snipped off where they attached to the stalk and were saved in a bag. Remaining leaves were cut off and discarded, and the stalk placed in a separate bag. In organic and low-input systems, aboveground biomass samples for cover crops were obtained before their incorporation into the soil. Weeds were separated from the fresh cover crop samples. Cover crop, weed, tomato petiole and corn tissue samples were

3. Results and discussion 3.1. N inputs The amount and form of N application to tomatoes and corn varied by the farming systems (Table 2). In addition to 1.3 kg N ha1 as starter fertilizer, the organic tomatoes received, on average, 308 kg N ha1 (190 kg N ha1 as composted manures and 118 kg N ha1 as aboveground cover crop residue), while the low-input and conventional tomatoes received 198 kg N ha1 (95 kg N ha1 as synthetic fertilizers and 103 kg N ha1 as aboveground cover crop residue) and 165.3 kg N ha1 (synthetic fertilizers), respectively, during 19941998. Average N application rates (19941998) for the organic, low-input and conventional corn were 443 kg N ha1 (292 kg N ha1 as composted manures and 151 kg N ha1 as aboveground cover crop residue), 260 kg N ha1 (106 kg N ha1 as synthetic fertilizers and 154 kg N ha1 as aboveground cover crop residue), and 231 kg N ha1 (synthetic fertilizers), respectively. The type, quality, and amount of N additions and pest control are major management factors that differentiate the organic farming systems from the

D.D. Poudel et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90 (2002) 125137 Table 2 Amount of N applied in tomato and corn crops at SAFS project, Davis (19941998) Organic (kg ha1 ) Manurea Tomato 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Corn 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
a b

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Low-input (kg ha1 ) Cover 110 81 115 148 136 239 86 191 116 124 cropc Fertilizerd 100.8 100.8 78.4 95.2 100.8 96.1 141.1 96.3 96.3 97.0 Cover crop 111 67 136 80 120 264 85 174 121 128

Amendmentsb 2.8 1.0 0.4 1.0 1.0

Conv-4 fertilizer (kg ha1 )

Conv-2 fertilizer (kg ha1 )

123.2 108.6 308.0 226.2 181.4 245.3 175.8 371.8 315.8 350.6

168.0 179.2 147.8 165.7 165.7 230.7 230.7 230.7 230.7 231.4

168.0 179.2 147.8 165.7 165.7 NAe NA NA NA NA

Composted poultry manure applied before planting. Fish powder, sea weed applied at the time of planting. c N in aboveground biomass. Contribution from weeds is included. d Synthetic fertilizer applied at the time of planting (small amount as starter fertilizer) and 45 weeks after planting. e Not applicable.

conventional system. In conventional system, nutrient imbalance in the soil and pesticide use often impact agricultural sustainability and environmental quality. The balance of N, P, and K in the soil and pesticide use were identied as indicators of agricultural sustainability in Costa Rica (Jansen et al., 1995), while nutrient replenishment (annual amounts of N, P, and K) was identied as the most important factor related to the sustainability of conventional vegetable farming systems in Mindanao, Philippines (Poudel et al., 1998). At SAFS, the differences in the amount and source of N in the organic, low-input and conventional farming systems are expected to impact soil mineral N levels during the cropping season. Several researchers (Aulakh et al., 1991; Wander et al., 1994; Franzluebbers et al., 1995) have reported the effects of type, amount, and form of N application on soil mineral N levels in other parts of the USA. 3.2. Soil mineral N levels Soil mineral N levels (015 cm depth) during a cropping season differed by crops, amount and sources of N application, and farming systems (Tables 2 and 3). Although statistically not signicant, average surface soil mineral N levels for the organic and low-input

tomato systems were lower during all the cropping seasons compared to the conventional farming systems (Table 3). In contrast, the organic and low-input corn systems showed consistently higher surface soil mineral N levels during a cropping season compared to the
Table 3 Average soil mineral N (NO3 -N + NH4 -N) levels (015 cm depth) during the cropping season for tomato and corn crops in the organic, low-input and conventional systems at SAFS project, Davis (19941998) (n = 5)a Organic (mg kg1 ) Tomato 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Corn 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 14.2 19.3 20.9 27.6 30.9 42.8 23.9 33.2 61.9 37.9 a a a a a a a a a a Low-input (mg kg1 ) 20.9 24.1 17 a 24.3 26.8 28.5 20.9 16.9 42.1 20.8 a a a a a a a ab b Conv-4 (mg kg1 ) 28.5 31.0 30.4 36.2 41.9 14.3 17.9 15.4 26.6 17.4 a a a a a a a a b b Conv-2 (mg kg1 ) 30.1 25.7 26.3 39.5 39.6 NAb NA NA NA NA a a a a a

a Different letters within a row are signicantly different at 0.05 probability level by SNK. b Not applicable.

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D.D. Poudel et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90 (2002) 125137 Table 4 Average amount of potentially mineralization N and N turnover rate assayed by 160-day aerobic incubation for organic, low-input and conventional farming systems at SAFS project, Davisa (n = 4) (different letters within a column are signicantly different at 0.05 probability by SNK) Treatment Organic Low-input Conv-4 Conv-2 Potentially mineralizable N (mg NO3 -N kg1 ) 100.5 64.3 46.8 47.8 a b b b Turnover rate (rate constant (k) per day) 0.0063 0.0098 0.0137 0.0113 b ab a ab

conventional system. This suggests that soil mineral N levels vary by the amount of N application (Table 2), and crop N uptake pattern. Tomato has the highest N absorption rate between 40 and 50 days after emergence (Dumas, 1990; Tesi and Giustiniani, 1987) with a rate of 36 kg N ha1 per day (Cavero et al., 1997). Corn takes up to 75% of its total N after tasseling, the onset of the reproductive stage (Friedrich et al., 1979; Mills and McElhannon, 1982). Tasseling generally occurs during the 8th week after planting. Differences in soil mineral N levels between tomato and corn crops and among the organic, low-input and conventional farming systems during a cropping season suggest that appropriate crop specic N management strategies are necessary to minimize environmental pollution from these farming systems. 3.3. Potential N mineralization The potential N mineralization assay by both 160-day aerobic incubation and 7-day anaerobic incu-

a Soil sampled on 22 September 1997; tomato harvested on 26 July 1997.

bation showed greater pools of PMN in the two cover crop-based farming systems (organic and low-input) (Table 4, Fig. 1). Potentially mineralizable N has been used as an index of N availability by many workers (El-Haris et al., 1983; Drinkwater et al., 1995; Franzluebbers et al., 1995; Vanotti et al., 1995;

Fig. 1. Potentially mineralizable N assayed by 7-day anaerobic incubation during the 1998 cropping season. Urea (46% N) was sidedressed on 18 May in low-input and on 20 May after soil sampling in conventional farming systems. Different letters above a column in a group are signicantly different at 0.05 probability as determined by SNK test (n = 4).

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Barrios et al., 1998; Needelman et al., 1999). Results from 160-day incubation assay showed 112 and 56% greater PMN pool in the organic system compared to the conventional and low-input systems, respectively. The in-season PMN levels were also consistently higher in the organic system, except for the 20 May spike in the low-input system (Fig. 1), attributable to the sidedressing of 90 kg N ha1 as urea 2 days before sampling. Notwithstanding larger PMN pools in cover crop-based farming systems (Table 4, Fig. 1), N mineralization rate in the conventional system was 100% greater than in the organic and 28% greater than in the low-input system (Table 4). The lower turnover rate in the cover crop-based farming systems is attributed to the differences in the quality of SOM which is linked to the chemical stabilization and physical protection of its labile pool (Ladd et al., 1985; Drinkwater et al., 1998). Wander et al. (1994) compared biologically active SOM pools for three crop rotations (organic with cattle manure and cover crops, cash-grain-based organic cover crops, and a conventional cash-grain-based rotation with mineral fertilizer). They found a higher total C and N, particulate SOM, and reduced water dispersible organic C in cover-cropped soil and suggested that the SOM pool of the cover-cropped treatment was more stable than the SOM in other treatments. The lower N mineralization rate in the organic and low-input farming systems corresponds with a greater accumulation of N in these systems (Clark et al., 1998) and a reduced risk for N leaching and groundwater pollution. In fact, soil mineral N levels after crop harvest in the organic and low-input systems were remarkably lower compared to those in conventional plots at SAFS in 1998 (Table 5) which apparently suggests a reduced risk of N leaching and groundwater contamination in alternative farming systems. Kamimura et al. (1994) also found increased total soil N values for organic paddy treatments in their long-term eld experiment in Japan.

3.4. Plant tissue N Effects of the amount of N application and soil mineral N levels on plant tissues N concentration in tomatoes and corn (Table 6) crops were observed in the organic, low-input and conventional farming systems. Plant tissue N results indicated that both the organic tomato and corn crops had N limitation problem especially during the initial years of this study, when N application rates in this system were relatively small (Table 2). Petiole NO3 -N concentrations at rst bloom crop stage was low in organic tomatoes in 1994 and 1995 (Table 6), which increased remarkably following threefold increase in the amount of compost N application in 1996 in this system (Table 2). Compost application rates in organic tomatoes declined in 1997 and 1998 but were higher than that of the 1994 and 1995. Increased amounts of compost N application in organic tomatoes was reected in higher levels of petiole NO3 -N concentrations in this system in 19961998 (Table 6). Organic corn tissue N also showed a similar relationship with N input. In 1995, when composted manure application in organic corn was reduced by 28% compared to the 1994 level (Table 2), stalk NO3 -N concentration in the organic corn were lower compared to the low-input and conv-4 systems (Table 6). However, when composted manure application in organic corn was doubled in 1996 and subsequent years compared to 1995, stalk NO3 -N concentrations between organic, low-input and conv-4 systems did not differ. These results indicate that the organic system required a large amount of N input to meet crop demand and indicated differences in N mineralization potential between the organic, low-input and conventional farming systems. Conventional systems received large amounts of inorganic N through sidedressing (Table 2) at a time of high plant demand, while organic systems more likely obtained smaller amounts of N over a long period of

Table 5 Average soil mineral N (NO3 -N + NH4 -N) levels after 1998 tomato harvest in the organic, low-input and conventional systems at SAFS project, Davis (n = 4)a Depth (cm) 015 1530
a

Organic (mg kg1 ) 20.19 b 7.11 a

Low-input (mg kg1 ) 17.17 b 5.86 a

Conv-4 (mg kg1 ) 44.10 a 15.30 a

Conv-2 (mg kg1 ) 37.59 a 9.84 a

Different letters within a row are signicantly different at 0.05 probability level by SNK.

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Table 6 Average petiole NO3 -N for tomato at the rst bloom crop stage and stalk NO3 -N for corn at V-8 crop stage at SAFS project, Davis (19941998) (n = 4)a Organic (mg NO3 -N kg1 ) Tomato 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Corn 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
a b

Low-input (mg NO3 -N kg1 ) 1373 8580 8840 13000 13550 5808 4250 7943 5038 4968 c a b a ab a b a a a

Conv-4 (mg NO3 -N kg1 ) 14275 7920 12350 8373 9993 6790 7523 6793 5145 5580 a a a c bc a a a a a

Conv-2 (mg NO3 -N kg1 ) 14850 7770 11350 10575 7209 NAb NA NA NA NA a a a b c

4267 1023 7893 10875 15200 7318 682 8218 4097 5213

b b b b a a c a a a

Different letters within a row are signicantly different at 0.05 probability by SNK. Not applicable.

time, from the slow release of N from compost and cover crops. According to Westerman et al. (1988), potentially about 50% of total available N in composted broiler and turkey litter is available within a few weeks after application, while potentially about 60% is available within 810 months. Several processes such as mineralization, immobilization, and nitrication affect the forms and amount of soil N available to crop plants (Reddy et al., 1979; Tisdale et al., 1993), and factors such as air and soil temperature, transpiration, and soil water potential affect N uptake and translocation (van Keulen and van Heemst, 1982). Based on results from this study, it can be safely stated that a close monitoring of the N status of the plants is necessary especially in the organic and low-input systems to improve agricultural productivity and environmental quality of an agroecosystem. 3.5. Crop yields There were signicant farming system and year interaction effects (ANOVA, p < 0.01) on tomato fruit and corn grain yields during this study duration. Tomato fruit yields were signicantly different among the farming systems for three (1994, 1995 and 1998) out of ve study years (19941998) (Fig. 2), while corn yields showed system effects only for 1994 and 1995 (Fig. 3). Organic tomato yield was lower by 36% in 1994, 4% in 1995, and 7% in 1997 compared to

conv-2 tomato. Organic tomato had a greater yield by 18% in 1996 and 13% in 1998 than conv-2 tomato. In 1998, tomato fruit yield was lowest in the conv-4 system followed by the conv-2 system, as conventional tomato yield, on average, dropped by 37%, while the two cover-cropped, transplanted systems dropped by 17% from that of the previous year. The large decrease for conventional systems was partially the result of having to replant. The initial planting had emergence problems due to an unusually wet spring, followed by extreme heat in the summer. Increased organic tomato fruit yield in recent years are attributed to increased rates of composted manure application, which apparently have prevented potential N deciency problems (Cavero et al., 1997). Although low-input corn grain yields, on average, were 10% greater than conv-4 corn yields, yield differences between low-input and conv-4 systems appears to be declining. Low-input corn grain yields were 27% greater in 1994, 9% in 1995, and 15% in 1996 compared to the conventional system, while they were 1% lower in 1997 and 2% in 1998. The 1998 low-input corn grain yield was 14% lower than organic. These results indicate that the management practices used in alternative farming system have potential for producing comparable yields to conventional farming systems. Similar results are reported by other workers in Pennsylvania (Drinkwater et al., 1998), in North Carolina (King and Buchanan, 1993) and in California (Drinkwater et al., 1995; McGuire

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Fig. 2. Tomato fruit yields in the organic, low-input and conventional farming systems at SAFS Project, 19941998. Different letters above a column in a group are signicantly different at 0.05 probability as determined by SNK test (n = 4).

Fig. 3. Corn grain yields in the organic, low-input and conventional farming systems at SAFS Project, 19941998. Different letters above a column in a group are signicantly different at 0.05 probability as determined by SNK test (n = 4).

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et al., 1998). Comparable organic rice yields to conventional farming systems are reported by Kamimura et al. (1994) in Japan. Although the organic, low-input and conventional farming systems at SAFS showed comparable crop yields, they have differences in economic viability. Poudel et al. (2001) reported lower cumulative net returns for the organic system than for the low-input and conventional farming systems over the last 11 years at SAFS. Conventional farming system with 2-year crop rotation was the most protable system due to growing tomatoes every other year, while organic system with premium prices performed better than conv-4 and low-input system, a net loss occurred with the organic system without premium prices. Higher production costs in the organic system were due to additional expenses in compost use, planting, cover crop management, and pest control (Clark et al., 1999). This suggests that large acreage in organic production will pull the prices down and eventually loss of farm profitability. It means even if the organic systems are ecologically and agronomically sound, economically their widespread adoption is questionable. 3.6. Weeds There were signicant farming system effects on aboveground weed biomass in tomato in 1996 and

in corn in 1995 (Table 7). However, percent weed cover monitored during the cropping seasons showed more weed pressure in the organic and low-input systems than conventional systems both in tomato and corn during all the study years (data not shown). The greater weed pressure in the organic and low-input systems was reected in the cost of weed management reported by Clark et al. (1999) in the organic, low-input and conventional tomato systems at the SAFS Project. They found the organic or the low-input tomato systems cost $571 ha1 for weed management while the conventional systems cost $420 ha1 during 19931996. Several researchers reported effects of crop rotation on weed pressure. Young et al. (1994) observed increased winter annual grass weed populations over time in monoculture wheat (winter wheat and spring wheat) compared to a 3-year rotation of winter wheat, spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and spring dry pea (Pisum sativum L.) in the Pacic Northwest. Similarly, Daugovish et al. (1999) reported the superiority of 3-year rotations to 2-year rotations in controlling winter annual grass weeds in Nebraska. We did not see a difference in weed biomass between the conventional 2-year and the conventional 4-year rotations in our study. Although a shorter rotation might be expected to have more weeds, hand weeding in the tomato crop every other year, prevented the buildup

Table 7 Average aboveground weed biomass at harvest in the organic, low-input and conventional farming systems at SAFS project, Davis (19941998) (n = 4)a Organic (dry weight kg ha1 ) Tomato 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Corn 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
a b

Low-input (dry weight kg ha1 ) 157 595 1690 124 67 49 998 311 1509 a a a a a a b a a

Conv-4 (dry weight kg ha1 ) 173 366 467 278 140 79 1572 461 599 a a b a a a ab a a

Conv-2 (dry weight kg ha1 ) 141 a 273 a 204 b 74 a 4a NAb NA NA NA NA

150 621 1550 264 350

a a a a a

69 a 2364 a 454 a 2354 a c

Different letters within a row are signicantly different at 0.05 probability by SNK. Not applicable. c Data not available.

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of weed seed in this system, unlike the other studies where hand weeding was not used. More weeds were observed in the organic and low-input systems where herbicides were either not used or used less frequently. This is in agreement with Barberi et al. (1998), who observed almost four times more weed seed in an organic corn system than in a conventionally managed system. In this study, crop yields and weed biomass at harvest varied. The highest organic tomato yield occurred in 1996 (Fig. 2) when weed biomass at harvest was also highest (Table 7). Most of the weed growth was in the furrow and edges of the bed, which did not impact tomato growth. High rates of compost were applied in 1996, and weed growth was much greater in the later part of the growing season, as a result of this added N. Miyama (1999) observed more late season weed growth in tomatoes following early weed-free conditions, when applied N or compost was increased. In contrast, corn yields in 1995 were lowest when aboveground weed biomass at harvest was greatest. Hand weeding is not used in corn, and thus weeds that emerge early compete with the crop for the full season. Although not statistically signicant, organic corn yields in 1997 were lower compared to low-input and conventional treatments when organic corn had a higher aboveground weed biomass at harvest. These results suggest that more understanding of the ecology of weeds and interrelationship between crops and weed pressure and N application is needed to improve agricultural productivity of the organic and low-input farming systems while enhancing environmental quality of an agroecosystem.

corn (organic and low-input systems) in the later part of this study. Therefore, post-harvest N management strategies appeared necessary to conserve N for future crop use while minimizing the risk of N leaching and groundwater pollution in eld crop production systems. Crop response to N application rates and weed pressure varied by crop. Tomato responded to the amount of N application, while corn responded more to weed competition. Tomato has a higher crop value than corn and therefore hand weeding supplemented cultivation. This reduction in weed competition resulted in fertility being a more important variable for yield. Organic and low-input systems generally had higher amounts of aboveground weed biomass at harvest indicating that these farming systems had more weed competition. Application of appropriate amount of N and development of N management plan considering crops grown, management practices used, weed consideration, and N mineralization potential appears to be a very important factor to improve crop yield and protability while minimizing the risk of N leaching and groundwater pollution.

Acknowledgements We acknowledge the work of Oscar Somasco, Mary Kirk Wyland, Diana Friedman, and Sean Clark, former research managers on the SAFS Project, and William Cruickshank, Don Stewart, and Peter Brostrom, SAFS crop production managers. We are thankful to the students, faculty, and staff members from the University of California at Davis who contributed to research efforts at the SAFS project during this study. Financial and/or technical support for the SAFS project has been provided by several agencies including WR SARE of the USDA, University of California Sustainable Agriculture and Education Program (UC SAREP) and University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources (UC DANR). References
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