Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Kenneth Porter**
But it was in the 1950’s that Buddhism began to enter the American mainstream.
The writers Jack Kerouac, Gary Snyder and Allen Ginsberg embraced Zen
Buddhism with a fervor. With his easy and brilliant writing style, the transplanted
Englishman Alan Watts began to make Buddhism accessible to a wider
audience. And at Columbia University the esteemed (and aged – he was then in
his late 80’s) Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki began to teach the famous seminar that
introduced Buddhism to psychoanalysis. Attended by Erich Fromm and Karen
Horney (as well as the musician John Cage and others), this class led to the
seminal 1957 Cuernavaca conference on Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis
and to the book of the same name. This was the first attempt to bring these two
powerful movements together in a scholarly fashion (Suzuki, Fromm and De
Martino, 1960).
In the 60’s and 70’s Buddhism grew in popularity. Starting in 1959 another Zen
master named Suzuki (Shunryu Suzuki Roshi) began to teach in San Francisco,
and his collected dharma talks, later published under the title Zen Mind,
Beginner’s Mind, (Suzuki, 1972) became a classic. In the 70’s two Tibetan
Buddhism teachers, Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche and Tarthang Tulku, also
began to teach in the United States, and three young Americans, Joseph
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Goldstein, Jack Kornfield and Sharon Salzberg brought back from Asia the form
of Buddhism called Insight Meditation and founded the Insight Meditation Society
in Massachusetts. Starting in the 1980’s came pioneering work in the integration
of Buddhism and psychotherapy – especially the books of Diane Shainberg
(Shainberg, 1983, 1993, 2000), John Welwood (1983, 2000), and Mark Epstein
(Epstein, 1995, 1998, 2001), among many others.
It has often been noted that among many spiritual traditions Buddhism seems to
hold a particular appeal for psychotherapists. This has been attributed to two
causes. First, compared to the other great spiritual traditions, Buddhism contains
a particularly sophisticated understanding of human psychology (the Buddha
having jokingly been referred to as the world’s first cognitive psychotherapist).
Second, the powerful emphasis on love and compassion that permeates all of
Buddhist teaching is sometimes contrasted with what is said to be the harshness
of the Jewish conception of divinity, and with the Christian emphasis on original
sin and guilt, and is said to be in harmony with psychotherapeutic concepts of
healing.
For the purposes of this paper we will focus on four basic concepts of Buddhism:
Buddha nature, the dharma, attachment, and meditation.
1. The Nature of the Self and Buddha Nature. The most fundamental idea in
Buddhism is that all human beings are, at their core, healthy, wise and loving –
brilliantly sane, as one Buddhist teacher put it. This is referred to as Buddha
nature. At the same time, Buddhism famously teaches that “there is no self.” By
this Buddhism does not mean to deny the obvious fact that we all experience
ourselves as having a continuous identity, and that this concept is useful in living
our daily lives. The idea is rather that this everyday idea of identity is not the
deepest, most real experience that we can have of ourselves. We might say that
our identity, as we usually experience it, is composed of a set of mental
constructs, self-representations or self-images, which are actually simply ideas.
Buddhism teaches that on a deep level we may sometimes experience ourselves
in such a way as to reveal this ordinary concept of the self to be not completely
real. Instead, we could experience ourselves as deeply aware, peaceful, wise,
and caring, as not a static object but a process, as interdependent with others –
“inter-being,” as one teacher put it – rather than as independent of others.
Putting these ideas together, we might say that there are fundamentally two
different ways to experience the self – somewhat analogous to, although not
identical with, Winnicott’s well-known concept of the true self and false self. In
one mode, which we could call the social self or the false self, we experience
ourselves as a static set of self-representations, independent of others, in which
deficiency and psychodynamic conflict reside. In the other mode – Buddha
nature – we may experience ourselves as a fundamentally healthy, loving, wise
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interdependent process. It is an interesting and crucial fact, for most of us, that
the capacity to experience ourselves in the mode of our Buddha nature may be a
capacity that is even more deeply repressed than the thoughts, feelings and
impulses of what we normally think of as the unconscious.
2. The Journey of our Lives – the Dharma. The word dharma has many
meanings in Buddhism, but the most fundamental of these is that the universe
and our lives are characterized by order, and that we can live our lives with the
most happiness if we align ourselves with this order. A corollary is that the most
useful way to approach any situation in our lives, especially a difficult one, is not
to consider it as a problem to be solved, but rather to see it as an opportunity to
learn something new about this order and about how to align with it.
The theory of meditation is as follows. The potential exists in all of us for our
consciousness to be in contact with the deepest level of who we are. What
interferes are the habits of our brain, our habits of thinking and feeling which tend
to focus our attention on our attachments, our addictions. Meditation is simply a
matter of re-training our brains to focus away from these attachments – the
places to which our minds wander during meditation – to leave the brain free to
contact something deeper and more satisfying. Focusing on our breathing is a
technique to pull our minds away from our mental addictions.
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Principles of Buddhist Psychotherapy
The primary effect of Buddhism on the practice of group therapy is in the way
Buddhist practice changes the consciousness of the therapist. In my experience
this is in the direction of a greater capacity on the part of therapists to be fully
present in the here-and-now with the patient, to be compassionate, and to be
flexible and creative with their responses – in other words, to do more effectively
what we already know how to do.
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experience ourselves as without pathology. These are the experiences we may
have while looking at a beautiful sunset, or listening to music, or being engaged
in artistic creativity, or making love, or being engaged in a particularly meaningful
therapy session, or participating in a special moment of athletics. These
experiences, which have been referred to a “flow,” (Csikszentmihayli, 1990), or
are spoken of by world-class athletes as “being in the zone,” are characterized by
feelings of utter calm, of effortless spontaneity, of a sense of oneness with the
world, and a sense of beauty and rightness.
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similar to that expressed by the German playwright Friedrich Schiller when he
wrote, “ we only play when in the full meaning of the word we are human, and we
are only completely human when we play.”
According to this approach the super-ego could be viewed as a structure that can
be outlived rather than modified and softened. Of course it could be argued that
what a Buddhist considers to be morality derived from Buddha nature is really
just another way of talking about an unconscious mature super-ego, but from the
Buddhist point of view even a mature super-ego could be considered simply a
mental object, and therefore a potential interference with contact with what could
be an even stronger source of morality.
2. Presence. Next it must be said that talking about a Buddhist, or for that
matter, any spiritual technique for psychotherapy is to immediately engage in a
massive paradox. For the essence of a Buddhist approach to technique is that
there is no technique at all. That is, in a Buddhist approach to therapy, the
essence of the technique of doing therapy is not to try to “do” anything at all –
that is, not to try to “fix” the patient or “make something better.”
Rather the idea is to “be” with the patient or the group, to be present, without
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trying to fix anyone or anything. This is essentially what the existential analysts
meant by “presence,” what Sullivan meant by “the syntactic mode,” what the
Jewish mystic Buber meant by “an I-Thou relationship,” and what Bion meant by
jettisoning “memory, understanding and desire.” In other words, the technique is
simply to be fully present with the patient or group, which means allowing oneself
as a therapist to fully experience and accept the patient’s and one’s own
experience without the need to do anything. Or as the psychologist and spiritual
teacher Ram Dass (Richard Alpert) said when talking of his own approach to
doing psychotherapy, “the gift you offer another person is just your being.”
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Over-attending to the conscious mind only interferes with our access to this
knowledge – hence Theodor Reik’s famous advice to listen with the third ear
(Reik, 1964). What is required is a capacity to be comfortable with confusion,
what the poet John Keats famously referred to as “negative capability” – “when a
man is capable of being in uncertainties, mysteries, doubts, without any irritable
reaching after fact and reason” (Keats,1959).
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unless its leader adheres to the basic principles of good group therapy
leadership. These are, to review (Porter, 1994):
This being said, where a Buddhist group therapy may differ is in the more subtle,
but nonetheless critical aspects of the work: the structure of the group, the overall
approach of the therapist to clinical material, the effect of the approach on the
consciousness of the therapist, the effect on the atmosphere of the group, and
the effect on the level of clinical material available for productive therapeutic
work.
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The model I used evolved over time, largely in response to input from the
members of the groups. The present model is 15- 20 minutes of meditation at the
start of the group, 5 minutes to discuss technical issues of meditation, and about
an hour of group process. The groups end with one to two minutes of closing
meditation. At the present time there are 4-5 members in each group. After about
a year both groups spontaneously (and independently – within about 4 months of
each other) decided to change their contract and become formal therapy groups
– a development which had not been consciously in my mind when I started the
groups. This seemed to be the result of a sense of depth and emotional
connection that had developed among the members of each group. The clinical
examples in this paper are drawn from these two groups.
Here are some ways in which a therapy group run according to Buddhist
principles might differ from what we have come to know as traditional group
therapy, based on my experience with these two groups.
Clinical example #1
(All clinical examples have been discussed with and approved by members of the
relevant groups in so far as this was clinically possible.)
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One group was initially characterized for about 6 months by seemingly relentless
attacks on me as the leader. With the exception of one time when I responded
angrily to provocation, I was surprised to notice in myself a more flexible than
usual capacity to maintain a sense of equanimity and empathy in the face of a
very high level of aggression. Although it was of course not the point of the
experience, I noticed that the capacity to hold aggression without acting it out
became a maturational experience for me as a leader, and ultimately set a tone
that allowed the group to transform into a deeper and stronger container. From
my point of view, my Buddhist training seemed to have deepened my own
capacity for compassion and non-judgmental presence.
Clinical example #2
By their second year both groups contained four women and one man. Each man
seemed, for a period of time, to be experiencing an angry and unsatisfying
stance toward a woman in his life. Although in each case it was abundantly clear
that the woman in question was contributing in major ways to the relationship
difficulty, it was also clear to both groups that the man, without fully realizing it,
was caught in a behavior pattern that was making things worse for him. The
women in each group were able to give very direct feedback to the men, relating
it in some instances to here-and-now interactions in the group. In both situations
what was striking to me was the exceptional capacity of the group to be both
direct and empathic, and the striking ability of the men to receive the feedback
totally non-defensively, and to rapidly integrate it into their daily lives. Here too
the group atmosphere allowed for a striking degree of compassion and empathy
that seemed related to the Buddhist principles of psychotherapy technique with
which I had attempted to lead the groups.
5. Increased Depth of Material. What has been striking in both groups has
been the rapid access to very deep, sometimes primitive material, that seems at
times to be emerging from the first year of life, and that has included
transferential interactions with me. This has had very positive (and at times
challenging) effects.
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The group referred to in the first clinical example was at first one of the most
difficult I have ever led in 32 years of leading groups, and then evolved into one
of the most successful. It started as a group of ten women and myself that met
for the first time the week before September 11, 2001. The weeks following 9/11
many members were not able to attend. As members began to trickle back, a
hostile and mistrustful attitude toward the group and toward me began to evolve.
Several women developed intense, angry and painfully suspicious relationships
with me, which ultimately led to their leaving the group. I had the fascinating (and
frustrating) experience as a leader that whatever I said or didn’t say was wrong. I
seemed never to be able to help the group come together as a safe, trustworthy
environment. In retrospect I realized a number of things. First, of course, the
presence of ten women and one male leader certainly made for a very
challenging transference situation. Second, as I learned from both this and the
other similar group which I ran, ten members turned out to be too many once the
groups unexpectedly turned into therapy groups. But probably most important,
the combination of September 11 and the meditation ignited a regressive
firestorm that took months to burn out.
When the dust settled, what I came to understand was that the environment of
New York City merged with the environment of the group in the experience of the
group members. As we have come to know (Scheidlinger, 1974), the group is
often, and especially in times of crisis, experienced as the mother of early life, as
is society as a whole. On September 11 a massive attack of male aggression
tore apart the containing (maternal) fabric of society in New York City. Hence the
City itself, as well as the fragmented therapy group (which was unable to fully
reconstitute itself for weeks) was experienced as unsafe. I, on the other hand,
was experienced primarily as either the castrated father who was unable to
protect the integrity of the group, or as the aggressive male who was identified
with the attackers. In line with this, many women in the group began to
experience me as a replica of a traumatizing father.
Eventually a number of women dropped out of the group, which then gradually
settled into a productive work mode. With the addition of a new male member,
the group continued working on very deep material, as members began to deal
with profound feelings of anger and hatred toward their mothers. I supported this,
pointing out the enormous maturational value of being able to experience intense
hatred without self-judgment, repression, projection or acting-out. One woman
successfully freed herself from a lifelong and crippling dependency on her mother
by using her hatred as an engine of separation, and then eventually began to
develop feelings of compassion and forgiveness for her. A second woman went
through an analogous process embodied in a painful separation from a beloved
but disappointing analyst, and then went on to explore the corresponding
psychodynamics with her actual mother.
In summary, in this group it seemed that the spiritual orientation of the group and
the practice of meditation allowed the group to move to a very primitive
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regressed level very quickly. Specifically, the meditation seemed to give patients
quicker and deeper access to unconscious material, and my own background in
Buddhism seemed to allow for greater empathy and attunement of therapeutic
process than I had experienced in the past.
When external events deepened the process more rapidly than the container of
the group could hold, the process did become unstable. But the pressure of the
traumatic events seemed to allow the group eventually to become a cauldron for
transformation into a new and stronger container. What was quite fascinating was
to see that once the group became more stable, it evolved from one of the most
difficult to one of the most profoundly successfully groups which I have ever
encountered, able to work on a surprisingly deep level with very productive
results.
We have reviewed the history of Buddhism in America in the last 100 years,
some basic concepts of Buddhism (Buddha nature, dharma, attachment and
meditation), and some basic principles of Buddhist psychotherapy regarding the
self, psychopathology, therapeutic process, the goal of therapy, the affective
focus of therapy and the super-ego. We discussed the basic principles of
Buddhist therapeutic technique, which include the need for the therapist to do her
own maturational work, be present, cultivate communion, emphasize the healthy
growth edge, be comfortable with not knowing, be open and flexible, focus on
positive affect, question the super-ego, and be open to the use of active
techniques. We explored the application of all this to group therapy, reviewing the
basic principles of traditional group therapeutic leadership technique, and then,
using examples from two Buddhist-oriented therapy groups which I have led,
reviewed how bringing a Buddhist orientation to group therapy might change the
structure (by adding meditation), change the overall technical approach of the
leader, change the consciousness of the leader (in the direction of greater insight
and empathy), shift the atmosphere in the group (toward more honesty and
compassion), and deepen group members’ access to repressed material.
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But there is nothing exclusive in the Buddhist tradition that uniquely qualifies it,
among other spiritual traditions, to be privileged in enhancing our therapeutic
effectiveness. One could write an equally compelling paper, for example, on “A
Christian Approach to Group Therapy,” which might emphasize the usefulness of
prayer, purging, mercy and forgiveness; or a “Jewish/Kabbalistic Approach to
Group Therapy,” enumerating techniques to contact and activate the sephirot; or
a Hindu/Yoga approach, focusing on the use of asanas and pranayama, the
activation of kundalini shakti, the opening of chakras, and the path of service and
union with the Divine; or a Moslem/Sufi approach, a Taoist approach, or a
Shamanistic approach, to pick just a few of the many intriguing possibilities from
among the world’s great spiritual traditions.
Indeed, I believe that in the conduct of the therapy groups which I described, I
never once mentioned the word “Buddhism,” and that the members of those
groups, should they happen to read this paper, would be a bit surprised to know
that they had been participating in a “Buddhist-oriented psychotherapy group.” In
part this is because, as I mentioned earlier, the groups were not run exclusively
according to Buddhist principles, but also incorporated many other spiritual
traditions which I had happened to study. It may also be in part because
psychotherapeutic technique does not require (and in fact may even eschew)
making glaringly explicit the theoretical framework with which one approaches
the clinical work.
Be that as it may, my point is that Buddhism is just one of the many great spiritual
traditions which our species has developed, and hopefully it may serve to
facilitate, along with many other influences, the development of an ever more
wise and compassionate twenty-first century philosophy and practice of group
psychotherapy.
REFERENCES
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Porter, K.(1994). Principles of group therapeutic technique. In H.S. Bernard and
K.R. Mackenzie, Basics of group psychotherapy (pp. 100-122). New
York: Guilford.
Reik, T. (1964). Listening with the third ear. New York: Pyramid Books.
Rutan, J.S. & Stone, W.N. (1984). Psychodynamic group psychotherapy.
Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.
Safran, J.D. (2003), ed. Psychoanalysis and Buddhism: An unfolding dialogue.
Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Shainberg, D. (1983). Healing in psychotherapy: The process of holistic change.
Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach.
Shainberg, D. (1993). Healing in psychotherapy: The path and process of inner
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Shainberg, D. (2000). Chasing elephants: Healing psychologically with Buddhist
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Suzuki, D.T., Fromm, E., & DeMartino, R. (1960). Zen Buddhism and
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Suzuki, S. ( 1970). Zen mind, beginner’s mind. New York: Weatherhill.
Welwood, J. ( 1983), ed. Awakening the heart: East/West approaches to
psychotherapy and the healing relationship. Boston: Shambhala.
Welwood, J. ( 1986). Class at Omega Institute, Rhinebeck, New York
Welwood, J. (2000). Toward a psychology of awakening: Buddhism,
psychotherapy, and the path of personal and spiritual transformation.
Boston: Shambhala.
Winnicott, D.W. (1989). Playing and reality. New York: Routledge.
Yalom, I. (1985). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy, 3rd ed. New
York: Basic Books.
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My thanks to Ken Porter for submitting this essay for publication on the
www.desmoinesmeditation.org website. Contact Charlie Day at (515) 255-8398
or charlesday1@mchsi.com to submit material or discuss meditation, Buddhism,
sitting groups, retreats, or meditation experiences.
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