Design of Liquid Propellant Engines Textbook

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NASA SP-125
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID ROCKET PROPELLANT ENGINES

Dieter Rocketdyne K. Huzel and North David American H. Huang Aviation, Inc.
Division,
_,,x
:e_ ,
31
_:_
'2'/
Scientific OFFICE NATIONAL
and Technical Information Division OF TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION Washington,
1967
D, C.
FORE
Success in this
WORD
achievements Behind each
made
in space demands perfection. Many of the brilliant vast, austere environment seem almost miraculous.
apparent miracle, however, stands the flawless performance of numerous highly complex systems. All are important. The failure of only one portion of a launch vehicle or spacecraft may cause failure of an entire mission. But the first to feel this awesome imperative for perfection are the propulsion systems, especially the engines. Unless they operate flawlessly first, none of the other systems will get a chance to perform in space. Perfection begins in the design of space hardware. This book emphasizes quality and reliability in the design of propulsion and engine systems. It draws deeply from the vast know-how and experience which have been the essence of several well-designed, reliable systems of the past and present. And, wi_h a thoroughness and completeness not previously available, it tells how the present high state of reliability, gained through years of research and testing, can be maintained, and perhaps improved, in engines of the future. As man ventures deeper into space to explore the planets, the search for perfection in the design of propulsion systems will continue. This book will aid materially in achieving this goal. WERNHER Director VON BRAUN
Matshall_pace Flight Center, NASA
iii
PREFACE
This book intends to build a bridge for the student and the young engineer: to link the rocket propulsion fundamentals and elements (which are well covered in the literature) with the actual rocket engine design and development work as it is carried out in industry (which is very little, if at all covered in literature). The book attempts to further the understanding of the realistic application of liquid rocket propulsion theories, and to help avoid or at least reduce time and money consuming errors and disappointments. In so doing, it also attempts to digest and consolidate numerous closely related subjects, hitherto often treated as separate, bringing them up to date at the same time. The book was written "on the job" for use by those active in all phases of engine systems
design, development, and application, in industry as well as government agencies. Since it addresses itself to human beings set out to create new machines, rather than describing machines about to dominate man, the language chosen may not always be "functional" in the strict sense of the word. The book presents sufficient detail to familiarize and educate thoroughly those responsible for various aspects of liquid propellant rocketry, including engine systems design, engine development, and flight vehicle application. It should enable the rocket engineer to conduct, independently, complete or partial engine systems preliminary detail designs and to understand and judge the activities in, and the problems, limitations, and "facts of life" of the various subsystems making up a complete engine system. It also attempts to educate those ultimately interested in specialized subsystems and component design (thrust chamber, turbopump, control valves, etc.) about their own as well as neighboring subsystems and about the complete engine system. This should enable the student to prepare realistic analytical calculations and design layouts with a long headstart toward the final specialized designs for subsystem production release. Special emphasis has been placed on engine flight application to stimulate engine systems and subsystem designers to think in these terms from the outset. The book is intended as a textbook, with specific consideration of the teacher without industry experience. We hope it will stimulate those desiring to specialize in the area of a rocket engine subsystem by supplying adequate information to enable them to benefit fully from the specialized literature. Thus it provides a realistic expert introduction for those joining the liquid propellant rocket engine field. We gratefully acknowledge the most valuable assistance by members of the Rocketdyne and the Space Divisions of North American Aviation, Inc., Los Angeles. We are particularly indebted to R. E. Grate, C. A. MacGregor, H. M. Alexander, S. B. Macaluso and T. Holwager of Rocketdyne Division, and to R. E. G. Epple, R. W. Westrup, R. D. Hammond, and D. A. Engels of Space Division, who reviewed the various chapters of the manuscript and contributed valuable ideas. Special recognition goes to R. F. Strauss of Astrosystems International, the manuscript and rendered valuable assistance during the various New Jersey, who phases of its preparation.
inspired
In particular, the authors are indebted to the manifold support they received from North American Aviation, Inc., and its divisions. Rocketdyne's engine technology has provided a major foundation for the book. Dieter K. Huzel
David H. Huang
CONTENTS
Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES 1.1 The Generation of Thrust by a Rocket Engine ...................................... 1.2 The Gas-Flow Processes in the Combustion Chamber and the Nozzle .................. 1.3 Performance Parameters of a Liquid PropellantRocket Engine ....................... 1.4 Liquid Rocket Propellants ....................................................... 1.5 The Basic Elements of a Liquid PropellantRocket Engine System .................... Chapter II. ROCKET 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 ENGINE DESIGN IMPLEMENTS
i 4 10 18 21
The Major Rocket Engine Design Parameters ....................................... The Importance of Design Quality ................................................. Systems Analysis and Design Layout ............................................. Stress Analysis ................................................................ Selectionof Materials ...........................................................
31 50 51 56 59
Chapter III.INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLE CALCULATIONS 3.1 Approach ...................................................................... 3.2 A-I Stage Engine ............................................................... 3.3 A-2 Stage Engine ............................................................... 3.4 A-3 Stage Engine ............................................................... 3.5 A-4 Stage Engine ............................................................... Chapter IV. DESIGN OF THRUST CHAMBERS AND OTHER COMBUSTION 4.1 The Basic Thrust Chamber Elements .............................................. 4.2 Thrust Chamber Performance Parameters ........................................... 4.3 Thrust Chamber Configuration Layout ............................................. 4.4 Thrust Chamber Cooling ......................................................... 4.5 Injector Design ................................................................. 4.6 Gas-Generating Devices ......................................................... 4.7 Ignition Devices ................................................................ 4.8 Combustion Instability .......................................................... Chapter 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 V. DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED-GAS PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS DEVICES
63 64 68 72 74
81 83 86 98 121 131 136 143
Determinationof Pressurant Requirements ......................................... Stored Gas Systems ............................................................. PropellantEvaporation Systems .................................................. Systems Evaporating Nonpropellants.............................................. Systems Using Products of Chemical Reactions..................................... Selectionof the PressurizationSystem ............................................
151 156 165 167 167 173
vii
viii
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Page Chapter 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 YI. DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS Elements of Turbopump Propellant Feed Systems ................................... Turbopump System Performance and Desi_ou Parameters .............................. Design of Centrifugal Pumps ..................................................... Design of Axial-Flow Pumps ..................................................... Design of Turbines ............................................................. Design of Turbopump Bearings, Seals, and Gears ................................... Design Layout of Turbopump Assemblies .......................................... 176 186 204 225 238 257 261
Chapter VII. DESIGN OF CONTROLS AND VALVES 7.1 Control Methods ............................................................... 7.2 Basic Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine Control Systems ............................ 7.3 Engine Thrust Level Control .................................................... 7.4 Propellant-Mixture-Ratio and Propellant-Utilization Control ......................... 7.5 Thrust-Vector Control .......................................................... 7.6 Design Considerations for Fluid-Flow Control Components .......................... 7.7 Design of Dynamic Seals for Fluid-Flow-Control Components ........................ 7.8 Design of Propellant Valves .................................................... 7.9 Design of Control Pilot Valves .................................................. 7.10 Design of Fixed-Area-Type Regulating Devices .................................... 7.11 Design of Servovalves .......................................................... 7.12 Design of Gas Pressure Regnalators .............................................. 7.13 Design of Liquid Flow and Pressure Regulators ................................... 7.14 Design of Pressure Relief Valves ................................................ 7.15 Design of Miscellaneous Valves ................................................. Chapter 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Chapter 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 VIII. DESIGN OF PROPELLANT TANKS Basic Design Configurations of Propellant Tanks ................................... General Design Considerations for Propellant Tanks ................................ Structural Design of Propellant Tanks ............................................. Design of Storable Liquid Propellant Tanks ........................................ Design of Cryogenic Liquid Propellant Tanks and Their Insulation .................... Design of Fiber-Glass Filament-Wound Liquid Propellant Tanks ...................... Design of Propellant Tank Pressurant Diffusers .................................... Propellant Expulsion Under Zero Gravity or Oscillatory G-Loading Conditions IX. DESIGN OF INTERCONNECTING COMPONENTS AND MOUNTS The Principal Interconnecting Components and Mounts ............................... Design of Tubings and Tube Fittings .............................................. Design of Flange Joints ......................................................... Design of Brazed Joints for Rocket Engines ........................................ Design of Ducts for Rocket Engines ............................................... Design of Gimbal Mounts ........................................................
263 265 267 268 272 280 289 294 301 307 309 315 321 322 325
..........
329 332 336 343 345 348 349 349
353 358 360 370 372 379
Chapter X. ENGINE SYSTEMS DESIGN INTEGRATION 10.1 Systems Engineering ........................................................... 10.2 Engine System Design Integration by Dynamic Analyses ............................ 10.3 Design Integration for Engine System Calibration .................................. 10.4 Engine System Integrated Performance Characteristics .............................. 10.5 Mechanical Integration of Engine Systems ......................................... 10.6 Electrical System ..............................................................
383 384 390 394 399 403
CONTENTS
iX
Page 10.7 10.8 10.9 Chapter 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 INDEX Engine Instrumentation ......................................................... Clustering of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines ................................... Engine-to-Vehicle Interface ..................................................... Xl. DESIGN OF LIQUID PROPELLANT SPACE ENGINES PrincipalSpace Engine Applications............................................. General Design Considerations.................................................. Design of SpacecraftMain Propulsion Systems..................................... Design of Reaction Control Engine Systems ....................................... .............................................................................. 411 415 419
429 430 435 442 451
Chapter Introduction To Liquid Propellant

Combining obtain these
Rocket
two fundamental
Engines
relations, we
In order that the reader may better understand the basic laws and the operation of liquid propellant rocket engine systems, a brief review of the fundamentals is presented.
F =t
(1-3)
1.1
THE GENERATION OF THRUST BY A ROCKET ENGINE
The function of a chemical rocket engine system is to generate thrust through combustion; i.e., release of thermal energy derived from the chemical energy of the propellants. The generated force (pressure) imparts a momentum to the combustion products. In accordance with the basic laws of motion, a momentum in the opposite direction is also imparted to the vehicle. In practice, high temperature, high-pressure gases are produced in combustion chambers through chemical reactions of either solid or liquid propellants. These gases are ejected through a nozzle at high velocity. The operation of a rocket engine system is independent of its environment except for slight effects on performance caused by ambient air pressure. The rocket or, in a more general sense, the "reaction motor" presently is the only practical device able to propel a vehicle in space. Let us examine briefly the process of thrust generation and summarize the most frequently used laws and formulae needed to design the shape and to predict the behavior of a rocket engine. These laws are mere adaptations of basis physical laws. We know that F= ma (1-1)
This expression, known as the momentum theorem, is the basic thrust equation for rocket engines. When applied to rocket engines, the term for mass, m, and the term for velocity, v, may apply either to the vehicle or to the ejected gases. The products of v and m, in opposite directions, must be equal, as prescribed by the law of action and reaction. This condition exists even in a "tiedown" static rocket firing. In this case, however, the "vehicle mass" (the earth) is so large that reaction effects are undetectable. The vehicle designer is primarily interested in the utilization of the engine thrust available for the acceleration of the vehicle, which at any point of the trajectory may be expressed as
F = Wmf = Wma
(1-3a)
The vehicle designer uses this equation for vehicle design and trajectory calculations, properly considering that thrust F and vehicle mass Wm change during flight. In contrast, the engine designer and builder is primarily concerned with the generation of thrust. His attention, therefore, is focused on the efficient conversion of the chemical energy of the propellants into thermal energy, and thus into kinetic energy of the gaseous combustion products. His particular concern is to do this in the most efficient way. For the designer, the basic equation (1-3) may be rewritten as
Force equals mass times acceleration. We also know that the velocity increase experienced by the accelerated mass, during the time the force is imparted, is v = at (1-2)
_F =-_Ve = fnVe
(1-3b)
where m is the mass flow rate of the gases, and v e is their velocity at the nozzle exit. Even in
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
this given
simple mass
form, flow
it becomes rate, thrust
clear will
that, increase
for a with in is which states the on
where lute gas equation
Pe (lb/in2 pressure assumes propellants of gases i.e.,
or
psia) the the all
is exit
the plane
static flow and is
absoThe the gas velocity that one-
in the that can
Ae (in2).
increased gas velocities obtained. It should be remembered that the particular also is that sum all total liquid inclusion (fig. 1-1). subject a function if a mass of all surfaces the thrust to the chamber pressure out external of the
injection exit plane
vehicle, engine, (1-3b)
of the flow
be neglected molecules
through that lines. to as
environment, Equation of a container, forces is equal of the is such
dimensional; move on parallel
of the
of altitude. is flowing and
The the thrust.
expression--re
g and thrust in indiavailenergy a refor speto
internal of this
acting to the
is often AeP e as
referred the
momentum The term gas
thrust, pressure
container out thrust plane,
pressure form presence all
momentum propellant of tile
flowing rocket exit
surface. with
The the
is
not
a desirable The that have the not been
of thrust of the pressure into
generation AePe kinetic words, by the used the forces
chamber,
rocketry. cates able inside portion lease the cific convert,
a container
of the nozzle. pressure energy
converted gas
chamber
In other generated has not been
of the
of chemical generation function
of gas of the
momentum. thrust chamber efficiency, gas for a given
It is the
nozzle available and
at maximum pressure maximum into thrust
F_
...........
chamber
_ Pe
momentum,
thus flow
obtain rate.
propellant
We now Figure I-1 a finite altitude Let ated us first assume that the chamber is operforces have ever. pressure are plane access ates thrust nitude (1-5), tained: flowing
assume
that pressure The
the
rocket
is operated 2) (low-
at
ambient condition). acting no effect these
Pa > 0 (lb/in resulting of the on the cancel AePa. velocity pressure onto the term the
pressure chamber part walls Howof the gases exit have cre-
on the on the pressure
outside gas forces
at an ambient Then,
pressure the net
Pa = 0 (high-altitude force acting on the
inside.
condition).
gas in the chamber is the sum of the reactions from the chamber walls and of the reaction of the absolute reaction ing the to the gas gas forces pressure are at the opposed theorem, to the exit. (fig. the These 1-1). net two Accordforce flux on out
thrust with A e, the to it.
by an amount supersonic pressure force (opposing this thrust ambient ambient The area
Since in the not Pa thus
Pa does
a net
unbalanced
projected of mag-
momentum be equal
chamber Aep a. the
thrust)
must chamber:
momentum
of the
Including rocket
in equation is ob-
general
equation
A
tC
Ptc
dA-
AePe
--_-V
F =/2: Ve. g
Ae(Pe
- Pc)
(1-6)
Tile acts hicle.
integral on the
describes that force F (Ib) which thrust chamber and thus on the vewrite:
The standing pose movable ber and pressure),
following of the equation cylinder vehicle a piston
model nature (1-6). ,nass),
may of the
extend terms the
the which thrust gas
undercoma gas mass), concham-
We can
Let
us assume
we have
F-AePe
or
=_Ve
(1-4)
(representing a spring (representing rack (representing
(representing the
F = W---ve+ AePe g
(1-5)
and
a stationary (fig. 1-2).
ambient
ditions)
INTRODUCTIONTO LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES
MOVEABLE THRUST
CYLINCER CHAMBER
(REPRESENTING AND VEHICLE)
(g/_/) indicatesthatoptimum ve has not been obtained. Sample Calculation (I-1)
MASS)
-l_:,Ig _YI'iY'_LI -T. _U-The following data are given for a liquid propellant rocket engine: thrust, F : 100 000 lb at sea level; propellant consumption rate, g/= 369.3 Ib/sec; thrust chamber exit area, A e = 760.8 in 2" gas exit static pressure, Pe : 10.7 psia; ambient pressure, Pa : 14.7 psia (sea level); gravitational constant, g: 32.2 ft/sec _. From what we have just learned, we will determine (a_) gas exhaust velocity, (_b_) ngine e thrust in space, and (c__) he effective t exhaust velocities at sea level and in space. Solution (a) From equation velocity (1-6) the gas exhaust
(REPRESENTING GAS PRESSURE)
'_- STATIONA RY RACK (REPRESENTING AMBIENT CONBITION$)
Figure
I-2
The spring is so made that its end slips sideways upon reaching the end of the cylinder and engages the stationary rack. The cylinder is suspended in a suitable manner to move freely. When releasing the spring force ("Pc"), the "gas" is expelled to the rear. If, upon reaching the chamber exit, some spring force remains, the spring engages the rack and continues to act upon the cylinder, but ceases to act upon the "gas." We find that the model works for all cases: underexpanded (as assumed above, where spring free length is longer than cylinder length); overexpanded (spring free length is less than cylinder length and the spring force is exhausted prior to the "gas" reaching the exit, the "gas" therefore being subject to deceleration within the cylinder); and ideal expansion (where spring free length equals cylinder length). The model can also illustrate the case of the overexpanded nozzle without jet separation, which will be further explained below. This situation is equivalent to that of the inertia of piston ("gas") and spring pulling the spring beyond its null point. The negative-loaded spring, in engaging the rack ("ambient"), will pull the cylinder backward. Equation (1-6) is often expressed as
ve : IF - Ae(P e - pa)](g/g/) = [100 000: 9040 ft/sec Our calculation assumes a nozzle somewhat too 760.8(10.714.7)](32.2/369.3)
long for sea-level the fact that Pe is "undershoot" and shoot" occurred. i.e., if the nozzle
conditions, as indicated by smaller than Pa; a pressure an exhaust velocity "overIf no jet separation occurred, remained _filled" to the exit
F:c--
(1-7)
plane, the calculation is valid. The "penalty" of incorrect nozzle length simply appears as the negative thrust term Ae(Pe-Pa). If jet separation does occur within the nozzle, or if it is combined with decelerating shock waves, the situation becomes considerably more complicated and requires elaborate mathematical treatment. However, there should be no concern at this point. From equation (1-6), we know that the difference in thrust between space and sea level is AeP a. Since the nozzle selected was too long at sea level, this thrust increase AeP a during rocket ascent will be obtained in two distinct steps. First, by reduction of the negative thrust term Ae(Pe-Pa) to zero. This will occur when Pe = Pa; that is, when the rising vehicle reaches an altitude where Pa = 10.7 psia, in our specific case. As we have learned, this represents ideal expansion. As the vehicle continues to ascend farther
Where c is defined velocity (ft/sec)
as the effective
exhaust
and comprises (1-8)
c= v e + Ae(Pe - Pa) (g./W)
The effective exhaust velocity is not the actual gas velocity except when Pe : Pa where becomes equal to Ve. As explained with equation (1-6), the presence of a term Ae(Pe- Pa)
DESIGN OF LIQUID PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
and eventually reaches Pa---0, the increase of Ae(Pe- Pa) raises the combined effect of the simply the elimination nozzle is filled at all Thus, we obtain
"empty space" where the positive term thrust level farther. The two phases, however, is of paAe, provided the times. thrust in space:
(4) (5) (6) (7)
engine
ible, it is additionally called an isentropic process. No friction Steady flow rate One-dimensional flow (all gas molecules move on parallel lines) Velocity uniformity across any section normal to chamber axis
F= 100000+760.8 (c) From equation velocity at sea level
14.7= 111 183.8 lb (1-8) the effective results exhaust
(8) Chemical equilibrium established within the combustion chamber and not shifting in the nozzle. Certain correction factors, usually empirically obtained, will be applied to the results derived from these ideal assumptions in the actual design of a rocket and for the prediction of its behavior.
c = v e + Ae(Pe - pa)(g/W) =9040-_760.8(10._= 8772, ft/sec and in space c= v e + AePe(g/_l) = 9040 + 760.8 10.7 (32.2,/369.3) = 9750 ft/sec 14.,)
_ X
(32.2,' 369.3)
1.2
THE GAS-FLOW PROCESSES IN THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER AND THE NOZZLE
Since the analytical treatment of compressible fluids flowing through cylindrical ducts and nozzles can be found in standard aerodynamics and thermodynamics textbooks, no attempt will be mad'_ here to derive basic equations governing gas flows. Rather, significant applications of those equations used in actual rocket design are presented. The parameters and terms applicable to gas flows in a liquid propellant rocket thrust chamber are shown in figure I-3 and table 1-1. These parameters serve to define the characteristics of gas flow at various points within the thrust chamber. Gas-flow calculations for rocket thrustchamber design ideal conditions: usually assume the following
The Perfect
Gas Law X the peifect 144pxVx = RTx gas law states: (1-9)
At any section
(1) Homogeneous gas composition (2) Perfect gas (3) No heat transfer through the motor walls in either direction; i.e., adiabatic processes. If no increase in entropy occurs, i.e., if the process is considered revers-
The Principle
of Conservation
of Energy
In an adiabatic process, the increase in kinetic energy of the flowing gases between any two points is equal to the decrease in enthalpy.
ix _
INTRODUCTION
TO
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
TABLE
l-l.-Terms
Used in the Gas Flows
Calculation
el
The Principle
V :
of Conservation
AIvi 144 Vi Axvx = 144 Vx
of Matter
aC,
Local velocity of sound in chamber and at nozzle throat (ft/sec);
=constant
(1-11)
(at =v gy-F/_).
mc
Cylindrical Ae, Ax
cross-sectional inlet,
area throat
of and to
The Isentropic Flow Process For any isentropic flow process the following relations hold between any two points:
piViY:
Aj, At,
chamber (in2). Flow areas at nozzle exit; axis and at any (in2).
section
X normal
Cp, Cv g J
Specific heats for constant and for constant volume Gravitational sea level). Energy Btu). constant factor
pressure (Btu/lb F). ft/sec ft-lb/ -_ at
PxVxY= constant
(1-12)
(32.2 (778
and TI/Tx:(pI/px)(Y-9"Y=(Vx/VI)Y -1 (1-13)
conversion
Mc, M i, M_, M e , Mx
Flow Mach number (v/a) at chamber; nozzle inlet, throat and exit; and at any section X normal to axis. Molecular products. weight of combustion end
Gas Flow Through Liquid PropellantRocket Combustion Chambers The functionof a liquidrocket combustion chamber is to convertpropellantsintohightemperature, high-pressure gas through combustionwhich releases the chemical energy of the propellant, resulting an increase of internal in energy of the gas. Combustion chambers are generallytubular,as shown in figure1-3. The liquidpropellants are injectedat the injection plane with a small axial velocitywhich is assumed to be zero in gas-flow calculation.The combustion process proceeds throughoutthe lengthof the chamber and is assumed to be completed at the nozzle inlet.As heat is liberated between injection plane and nozzle inlet, the specificvolume of the gas is increased. To satisfythe conditionsof constantmass flow, the gas must be accelerated toward the nozzle inlet with some drop of pressure. In brief, the following takes place: The gas-flow process within the combustion chamber, that is, within the volume upstream of the nozzle entrance, is not entirely isentropic but is a partly irreversible, adiabatic expansion. Although the stagnation temperature or total temperature remains constant, the stagnation pressure or total pressure will decrease. This causes permanent energy losses, which are a function of the gas properties as expressed by y, and of the nozzle contraction area ratio ec or (Ac/At). Wherever the acceleration of gases is largely effected by expansion due to heat release, rather than by a change of area as in a nozzle, the stated losses occur. The greater the
(Pc)tnj
Chamber (lb/in2).
total pressure at injector Because of the relatively injection flow
low propellant
veloc-
ities vtaj, the measurable static pressure at this station is generally treated as pressure. (Pc)ns equivalent to the total
Nozzle stagnation pressure or chamber total pressure at nozzle inlet (lb/in2 ); (Pc)ha = pi[l + _ (yI)Mi] Y/y'. Flow static throat and pressures at nozzle inlet, exit; and at any section X
Pi, Pt, Pc, Px
R (Tc)ns
normal to axis (lb/in2). Gas constant (1544Dli)(ft/R) Nozzle stagnation :emperature or chamber total temperature (R). (Te)ns = Ti[1 + 'z(y- 1)Mi] Flow temperature at nozzle inlet, throat, and exit; and at any section normal to axis (OR). Injector flow velocity =0 (by assumption). Flow velocities at nozzle inlet, throat, and exit; and at any section X normal to axis (ft/sec).
Ti, T, Te, Tx
Vin/
Vi,
Vt,
re,
V x
V_, Vt, Ve, Vx
Flow specific volumes at nozzle inlet. throat, exit; and at any section X normal to axis (fta/lb). Steady weight flow rate (lb/sec). area ratio (Ae/At). area ratio (Ac/At). Nozzle Nozzle Specific expansion contraction heat
E (c
ratio (Cp/Cv).
Applied to a nozzle, of gas flowing

1 2
this
yields
for unit weight
_-2(Vx
- vi:): Cp(Ti - Tx)
(i-10)
ROCKET ENGINES
contribution the zle gas
of the acceleration. the
nozzle,
the
more
efficient with
is
of the the at the as the through
converging-diverging area then 1-3. increases then it and increases throat and
De Laval decreasing increasing The flow to sonic further that the the total
type, exit
with area, at
Conversely, losses It will the are thrust
no nozThe design further great bein
cross-sectional
to a minimum to the velocity velocity supersongas flow expantemperature throughout becritical of spethe
attached, apparent. IV.
maximum. chamber
importance comes chapter Figure
of ec to the
shown throat
in figure a nozzle and
be discussed loss of total
1-4 shows
pressure are
ically through sion and the tween pressure cific
in the
diverging nozzle that
section. is an isentropic both remain ratio
for two typical y values nozzle contraction area generally lated from used the in rocket Rayleigh
as a function of the ratio ec. These data design, flow and are calcu-
In practice a rocket process, the total throat ratio ratio heat
is assumed
process.
pressure The and and
constant Pt/(Pc)ns
nozzle.
pressure chamber is solely
is called
a function
09 1.0
08 o.
Pt/(Pc)ns
= [2/(y+
1)] y/(F-0
(1-16)
, i.o
( CYLINDER )
l 2.0 Figure
L 30 1-4
3 40 Ao/At
The sonic unit The
static flow, area velocity
pressure where occurs, the is
Pt at a nozzle maximum defined as wave is equal
throat
with flow per of pressure.
weight critical to the within
of sound of a pressure
velocity a medium. disto in-
propagation Neglecting end, i.e., the flow velocity at the (Pc)inj injecting = Pinj, the
assuming
Vin j = 0 and (Pc)inj/(Pc)ns of flow Mach of the
It is, therefore, impossible for a pressure turbance downstream of the nozzle throat fluence throat, create pressure. It is attached the flow at the that throat throat pressure or upstream will the than
total pressure ratio expressed in terms the nozzle inlet and
can also be number Mi at heat ratio y:
of the not critical of an however, is mainpresthe presAs must
provided a higher one
this
disturbance
specific
(Pc)inj/(Pc)ns
= that
of the
characteristic or De Laval in the back exit throat nozzle pressure is greater
features nozzle, thrcat (ambient than (recovery) and the velocity.
diverging velocity if the nozzle at the even at the
(1 + yMi_)/(1
+_'_Mi2)
)''(y-I)
(1-14)
sonic
tained sure) For that small. the the reasons Mach mentioned number value ratio the at the above, nozzle it is desirable be with sure entrance chamber 2 is Mi= ratio, the
required
for sonic
a result, take exit take tropic), ties place
a pressure between through way
adjustment the throat This
A typical area For
for a thrust of Ac/At= static to pressure
nozzle may (isen-
a contraction 0.31(),: expression 1.2).
(ambient place or by
pressure). subsonic
adjustment deceleration
simplifies
of nonisentropic waves, represents that may occur nozzle situations
discontinuiof pos-
called Figure
shock 1-5a
or by a combination several shown which of the in a overexrepresent was
Pinj/Pi
= 1 + y Mi 2
(1-15)
both. sible panded
conditions nozzle. earlier. that
The
Gas
Flow The
Tl_ough
Rocket
Nozzles nozzle of the and gases are thus is to combushigh gas
cases
of an overexpanded
prime
function the kinetic The
of a rocket enthalpy energy nozzle
mentioned We see be obtained ambient the with
convert tion cient
efficiently into velocity. device Rocket
pressures cannot since
lower advance the
tba_
ambient The
may within
gases
in a supersonic
nozzle.
higher
exhaust velocities.
is the
most
effi-
pressure
upstream gases are
for accelerating nozzles
to supersonic
nozzle,
however,
flowing is along
conventionally
supersonic
velocity.
An exception
INTRODUCTION
TO LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
Or
EXF&NS_ON Pe ' Pa JET SEPaRaTION
*'-
lit
,>%
iPe <
F==
Ve =
V
_ gas
297 R(Tc)ns
I<
Pe 1(P"_-ns flow rate: [ y+t
(1-
lS)
(al
Theoretical
TYPICAL PRESSURE RECOVERY NOZZLE (I_NT ROP!C) ONLY
weight
W - A_(pc)ns
TYPtCAL THROUGH P_ESSURE S_CX RECOVERY WAVES (NONTROPPC], DECELERATION (P,)-4_ , i TYPlCAL THROUGH FURTHER '' _ESSURE SHOC_ SUBSON*C RECOVERY WAVES ONLY NO REPRESSURE (ISEN
_gT[2/(Y
R-- L
ratio:
+ 1)]Y:-I
(i-19)
Theoretical
nozzle
expansion
- -"--k/
I \\
/
1
_/CO_ERY,
o_ETo_eT SEOAR,T 0_ (
PRESSURE
2 _Y-IF!Pc)ns]Y (1-20)
_@
*DEAL
EXPANSION
(P I
: PQ)
OISTNCE
ALONG
NOZZLE
AXiS (b)
,/
incorrect on thrust nozzle F; De Laval length nozzle. At the throat: I _ b, pressure due gases to friction, may ambient forcing from the of separation the walls. exist. lowIt might will be inAt any section X between ocnozzle exit: 2gy vt=V_--_R(Tc)ns a boundIn pressure
( po
- \(Pc)ns]
Figure and
1-5.-a, of jet
Effect separation in
of
distribution
overexpanded
the ary this may
nozzle layer subsonic advance
walls,
where,
__L_ [- 2 ]Y -1 Pt = (Pe)ns LF_-J (1-21)
of slow-moving boundary for a distance, jet the away point that
layer,
pressure be expected at the fluenced angle,
center point by and
(1-22)
of optimum wall other friction, factors,
expansion. nozzle separation
Actually, divergence usually
nozzle inlet and
curs further downstream. In fact, it rarely occurs at all in conventional rocket nozzles within their design case sive region nozzle cases of operation, exists angles assumption the 1-Sb). significant gas flow and through useful a rocket nozzle divergence on the i.e., (see are unless are that is an extreme excesThus, chosen. all no nozzle separaat At any nozzle section throat:
[ IF-
y-1
+Y__t.L -1 y-_ (1-23)
of overexpansion
or unless to base
in many calculations tion all
it is correct
occurs; stations Following
that fig. some
"filled"
X between
nozzle
inlet
and
the
relations nozzle: Theoretical
for an ideal
exit
velocity: At
2
2
.y_=2_3__E22 y q2(y-_)
(1-24) (Pc)ns_ y
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
At the
any nozzle
section exit:
X between
the
nozzle
throat
and
divergent shown in
sections figure values y are I-6. of
of
a De
Laval
nozzle
are
Ax
[ 2 _y-1/(,.___c)_s, ky+l] p_
Useful heat ratio
functions in table
of
the
specific
listed
1-2.
(1-25)
Sample The chamber engine: Calculation following of an ideal chamber nozzle chamber product gas heat data (1-2) are liquid given for the thrust
p, 5) '?";
propellant propellant stagnation total flow
rocket rate, pressure, temperature, weight, 1.20; following Mach Mach number number thrust from 0.15 to at noz-
thrust ib/sec;
Vx=
J2gy _ Y -1R(Tc)ns
-_
s/'
r )'-P
11(1.26 )
l_tc (Pc)ns
= 360.7 = 1000
psia; R; gas
(Tc)ns=6540
molecular ratio, The flow flow y=
Vx
: Ii T
y+ of the
./ F
1 isentropic area
_{ = _2.67; zle expansion
specific area ratio,
_ = 12.
(-,),s ,c
p.._ _ pressure ratio in
) Y
(1-27)
conditions at the injecting nozzle
are
also
assumed: Minj Mi = 0.4. : O;
plane, inlet, design
(In Mi
practice, range
Variations number with
ratio the
and
Mach and
chamber
values
for
convergent
o.45.)
NUMBER Mx 0.5
0.1 IOO
MACH 0.2
5o
2o
o
rr
','
e 5
CONVERGING --_)-, yy. i,/ 1.40 1.10 MACH PRESSURE RATIO NUMBER VS AREA RATIO
,#1.
_;t r-. ._
ill
20 PRESSURE Figure 1-6.-Variations of isentropic diverging pressure sections ratio 50 RATIO(Pc)nr,/Pa and of De Mach Laval number nozzle. with IOO
/
200 area ratio in converging and
INTRODUCTION
TO LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
TABLE
1-2.-Useful Speci[ic
Values Heat
o[ Functions Ratio y
o[ the
From
equation
(1-21):
4/(
2 _(y+l}
(y-O
Pt = (Pc)ns
: 1000
0.564
= 564
psia
1.10 26.61 1.15 22.21 1.20 1965 1.21 19.26 1.22 18,89 1.23 18,55 1.24 18.23 1.25 17.94 1.26 17.66 127 17.40 1.28 17.15 1.29 16.92 1.30 16.70 .33 16.10 .36 15.59 1.40 15.01 .50 13.89 1.60 113.10
0.0909 .1304 .1667 .1736 .1803 .1870 .1936 .2000 2064 .2126 .2188 .2248 .2308 .2481 .2647 2857 .3333 ,3750
0.5847 .5744 .5645 .5626 .5607 .5588 .5569 .5549 .5532 .5513 5494 .5475 .5457 .5405 .5352 .5283 .5120 .4968
0.6590 .6848 .7104 .7155 .7205 .7257 7307 .7356 .7408 .7457 .7508
From Ax/At = 4
figure
1-6
or equation
(1-25)
at
Px=(Pc)nsX23
1 _ 1000 23 =43.5
psia
From
figure
1-6
or equation
(1-20):
,7558
.7608 .7757 .7906 .8102 .8586 .9062 Pe
(Pc)ns
101.5
- -101.5
1000
= 9.85
psia
(b) Since
Flow
temperatures: j = (Tc)ns = constant and Minj = 0
(Tc)in
Tinj Determine sures: flow flow the following: Px at Ax/At Tinj, vi, vt, Ti, Vinj, a(_ flow static Pc; Te; Vx, flow Ac, pres(_ c(c(c(c(_ Ve; Mach Ai, At, By definition:
= (Tc)inj
= (Tc)ns
= 6540 c R
Pin j, Pi, Pt, temperatures: specific
: 4, and Tt, Vi, Tx, Vt,
volumes:
(Tc)ns
d(.d) flow numbers: Ax, Ae.
velocities: Mx, Me;
Vx, re; areas:
Ti: + ;(_1)M,2]
6540 1 +0.1 x 0.16 6540 1.016 = 6440 F
(f) flow
Solution (a) From Flow static pressures: (1-14): Y Tt (pc)inj=(Pc)ns(1 + yMi2)/ t 1 +-_ Mi 2) }'-1 y-I ( c)ns =6540x0-909=5945R From equation (1-13):
equation
= 1000 x (1 + 0.16 1.20) _ 1.192 = 1082 psia
o. o)
= 1082
Tx=(
Tc
)nsPL(p-_-_ _I y-i
1 = 6540 I._
= 38800 R
Since,
by
assumption,
Minj = 0 T e = (Tc)ns Pe [(p-p_n s ] Y : 6540 x 2-_: 3025 R
Pinj = (Pc)inj From equation (1-15)
psia (c) Flow specific volumes:
Pi = Pinj/(1
+ yMi 2) = 1+0.161.201082
1082 1._
= 909
psia
R = 1544
__ 1544 22.67
= 68
10
DESIGNOF LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES
From equation RTinj Vinj

- 144 Pinj
(1-9): 686540 = 2.846 144 x 10S2
Mx = Vx _ 8360_ 2.59 ax 3226 cu ft/lb ae -- \ gy---_e = \'32.2 ), 1.2 68 x 3025 = 2820 ft,/sec ve 9620 Me = _-_e 2--820= 3.43 = (f) Flow areas: From equation (1-11):
Vi
RTi _68 x 6440=3.34 - 144 Pi 144 909 RTt -144p_ 68 x 5945 144564
cu ft/lb
Vt
t.97 cu ft/lb
Vx
RTx 68 x 3880 = 144px "= 144x43.5 - 42.1 cu ft/lb RTx 68 x 3025 =144px=144x9.85-145.1
Ai= 144 WtcVi _ 144 360.7 3.34 = 105.4 vi 1646

Ac:Ai:105.4 in 2
in 2
Ve
cu ft/lb At = 144WtcVt vt _ 144 x 360.7 x 4.97.= 65.4 3958 144 x 360.7 x 42.1 8360
in 2
(d) Flow velocities: Since the sonic velocity vi=Miai=O.4 32.2x
a i = \,_ y RTi An x 4110 = 1646 ft/sec ft/sec
144 WtcVx vx
= 261.8 in 2
l.2x68x6440=O.4
or Ax=4At=261.8 in 2
vt = M_at = 1 x 32.2 x 1.2 x 68 x 5945 = 3958 From equation (1-26):
Ae-
144WtcVe Ve
144 x 360.7 x145.1= 9670
782 in 2
vx:
2gy R(Tc)n
_(
\(Pc)ns/J
Ae= 12xAt=782 in2
Px
or
= J6540x 64.4x 6 68 x [I- 0.593] = \/64.4 6 x 68 x 0.407x 6540 = 8360 ft/sec From equation(I-18): 1.3 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET OF A ENGINE
= \/64.4
x 6 x 68 x 6540 x 0.543 = 9760 ft/sec
The performance of a rocket engine is expressed by a quantitycommonly called "specific impulse,"Is. Ifimpulse impartedto the vehicle and propellant weight consumption were measured during a given time interval, would have Is the dimension ib-sec/Ib. In practice, thrustis usuallymeasured, in conjunctionwith propellant weight flow-rate measurements. This yieldsthe same dimension: ]b/(Ib/sec).Is may thus be expressed as Is = F/'ff Since weight is the force exerted (1-28) by a mass
(e) Flow Mach numbers: Since ax = vg),_--RTx= \32.2 x 1.2 x 68 x 3880 = 3226 ft/sec
INTRODUCTION TO LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES
11
on its rigid support under the influence of gravitation (by convention at sea level on Earth), it has become accepted practice to measure Is in "seconds," by canceling out the terms for the forces. Obviously, the expression does not denote a time, but rather a magnitude akin to efficiency. is directly contributes to the final velozity of the vehicle at burnout and thus has a pronounced effect on range or size of payload, or both. This will be shown further below in connection with equation (1-30). It is important to state whether a specific impulse quoted refers to the thrust chamber assembly only (ls)tc, or to the overall engine system (Is)onOften, the distinction may not be selfevident. It is important, therefore, to state accurately to what system the quoted specific impulse refers. For instance, in a turbopump fed system, overall engine specific impulse may include turbine power requirements, vernier, and attitude control devices. All of these may be fed from one or all of a given vehicle's propellant tanks. If they are properly considered, the user, in this case the vehicle builder, will obtain the correct value for his own optimization studies, which include propellant tank sizes, payload weight, and range, among other parameters. In many instances, statement of the specific impulse (ls)tc for the thrust chamber only may be desirable, such as during the component development period of this subassembly. Since, in that case, those propellant demands which are inadequately or not at all contributing to the generation of thrust are not included, the specific impulse stated will be higher than for a complete system, by 1 to 2 percent, as a rule. The specific impulse thus stated would be too high for the vehicle builder, who must consider the supply of propellants to the auxiliary devices mentioned above as well. If, due to improper identification of Is, a thrust chamber value were used as an engine value, the consequences would be serious. This becomes clear, if one realizes that when relying on a better-than-actual value, propellant tank sizes would be designed too small, resulting in premature propellant depletion. This would eliminate the last seconds of required burning time, when the vehicle mass being accelerated is near empty weight and acceleration, therefore, is near maximum. A substantial loss of range for a given payload
would
result.
The situation
would
be further
complicated by the fact that it is nearly impossible to improve the specific impulse once an engine and thrust chamber have been designed, for a given propellant combination. Another important performance parameter is the propellant mass fraction vehicle, of which the engine The propellant mass fraction Rp of the complete system is a part. is defined as (1-29)
Rp-
Usable propellant mass Initial rocket mass
where the initial rocket mass is equal to the sum of the masses of the engine system at burnout, the structure and guidance system, the payload, and the propellant. The significance of the propellant mass fraction can be illustrated by the basic equation for the rocket burnout velocity Vbo (ft/sec) Vbo=Cvc" g(ls)oa 1 In 1-Rp (1-30)
where the coefficient Cvc corrects for the effects of aerodynamic and gravitational forces. It is composed of several parameters which vary with type of trajectory and with elapsed time during flight. Although they are of no concern here, they are of great importance to the vehicle builder. Also, they cannot be neglected for rigorous engine design analyses which must include trajectory information. Thrust Chamber Specific Impulse (ls)tc
The overall performance of the liquid propellant thrust chamber is a direct function of the propellant combination, the combustion efficiency of propellants in the chamber, and the product gas expansion performance in the nozzle. The expression for (Is)tc may be obtained in several ways: From equation 1-28:
(1-31)
Combine
equations
1-31 and 1-7: (/s)tc c g (1-31a)
12
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
The
effective as the
exhaust product Ct
velocity of two
c may convenient
be further param-
This
form
shows of the namely, R, and
that
c* is a function product i.e., ratio heat
of the gas at the noz-
defined eters,
properties exit zle of the inlet;
combustion chamber, specific temperature
c* and
combustion
at the y, gas
c=c*C!
(1-31b)
constant
(Tc)ns.
where second parameter
the
characteristic primarily used
velocity to rate The parameter
c* in feet "cee-star') the thrust used through and propellant
per is a
(commonly
pronounced
Thrust
Coefficient
Cf
The quantity Cf reflects the product gas expansion properties and design quality of the nozzle. Combining equations 1-31, 1-31c, and for theoretical Cf may be 1-32, the expression written as:
combustion
performance.
coeHicient to measure the noz-
Ct is a dimensionless the zle. gas expansion Combine equations
performance 1-31a
1-31b:
c*Cf (Is)tc =g (1-31C) CI:
F At (Pc)n s (1-33)
While missile are and
I s and
Rp and
are early
of ultimate builder, importance and
importance both to the developer.
to the Cf engine
This mented as erated throat 1-18,
form
shows gas with only. and
that
Cf measures through which acted
the
force the over
aug-
or space chamber
vehicle designer
c* and
by the if the area 1-19, form:
expansion the force pressure the
nozzle be genthe 1-6, fol-
of great thrust
compared
would equations in the
chamber 1-33, may
By combining equation be rewritten
Characteristic Velocity c* In a system the level injector fined quantity of the and by the with propellants combustion following sonic the and velocity effective the design at the throat, of
for theoretical
Ct at any altitude lowing
c* reflects
energy quality be deIt may
chamber. expression: (Pc)nsA_
2 I y-'
+'
y
Pe - Pal
c* = g'tc This form shows that c* measures combustion pounds per combustion chamber second the the
(1-32)
Equation by specific heat
1-33a ratio
shows
that
CI is pressure nozzle
a function (Pc)ns, area expan-
of
performance indicating pellant nozzle propellant tion energy higher equation theoretical form: indicates and value 1-19
in a given how many
y, chamber Pc, and the
of prorequired value of condi-
must
be burned
to maintain A lower l_ under
ambient pressure sion ratio _. As sure and try gas the will (Pc)ns (1-33). and is that inlet, C_. cannot converted
stagnation
pressure.
be noted, has This been has of the (Pc)ns
the used
throat the
stagnation practice Briefly, the true exit, logical the (Pc)ns measured true
pres(1-32) in industhe i.e., value value at theoretical
consumption
given
in equations
a combustion efficiency of c*. and
process gives 1-32,
of higher lYtc with
been reflects
a corresponding the equation following for
in most
literature. chamber a more
By substituting
reason
in equation
property nozzle
at combustion and gives In actual
c* may
be rewritten
in the
to c* and of (Pc)ns matically c* = \/gyR(Tc)ns )'+ 1 (1-3_) the gas accuracy fied erties,
operation
be measured. from the
is mathevalue of
static pressure at the injector, of this calculated value has test thus results. the Likewise, heat the ratio
Pinj. The to be verigas prop-
by the and
specific
y which
13
additionally changes along the chamber axis, affect the true values of c* and Cf. This will have to be verified by actual test results. To understand better the nature of Cf and the design parameters which influence it, let us first rearrange equation (1-33): F =(Pc)ns" At" CI (1-34)
coefficient CfL is introduced to correct for this fact. For instance, if the ratio (Pc)ns/Plnj was found to be 0.8 from figure 1-4, CII would have to be 1.25 to offset the introduction of (Pc)ns. As will be seen, the use of a thrust coefficient of 1.25, for instance, in a straight cylinder thrust chamber for which (Pc)ns/Pinj is 0.8, is merely part of a mathematical rearrangement, but does not signify an increase in thrust for a given
Pinj.
The formula expresses that the thrust generated by a thrust chamber (the effect) is produced by pressure (the cause) as a function of the physical properties of the chamber itself. The relationships and effects of the principal design parameters become clearer if we proceed in steps as follows: Assume we wish to generate a certain thrust F. Our chamber is a straight cylinder (fig. 1-7). The pressure in this chamber has a very small effect on the cylindrical wall (the forces normal to the chamber axis will cancel each other), except for effects of friction, which we will neglect. There is no part of the chamber for the pressure to act upon at the exit. The only chamber area upon which the pressure can act is the injector plate. Since, for the cylindrical chamber, the injector area Ai is equal to At, we can write: Fcyl : Pinj "At For the reasons include (Pc)ns: explained above, (1-35) we rewrite to
It is noted
that
the combustion
chamber
in-
cluding injector will have to produce the required pressure (Pc)ns with a flow rate, the magnitude of which is determined by c* and by the throat area At. Transformation of equation (1-32) shows the relationship:
(Pc)ns =Wtc" c*. I-L-At'g
(1-37)
Fcyl = (Pc)ns Since (Pc)ns is smaller
"At" C[ 1
(1-36) 1-4), the
than Pinj (fig.
I
INJECTOR -----F_ --Pa
Ain j =A
J A = A i =A t = Ae
Figure
i-7
In actual practice, the value of c* for a given propellant combination and thrust chamber design is arrived at tentatively from existing experience and is subsequently refined during development testing. Let us now redesign our cylindrical thrust chamber, as shown in figure 1-8. Maintaining the same throat area At=Ae, we enlarge the combustion chamber including injector to a diameter somewhat larger than that of At. The flow rate remains V/tc. In the straight cylindrical chamber (fig. 1-7), the gas velocity was sonic at the end of the cylindrical chamber portion, which coincided with At and Ae. From earlier discussions (see sec. 1-2), we know that expansion (acceleration) is nonisentropic in that case. In the redesigned chamber (fig. 1-8) by contrast, gas velocities are still well below sonic velocity at the end of the cylindrical portion. Most of the acceleration to sonic velocity will now occur in the added, convergent nozzle. Since we can make the assumption, which is essentially correct, that the combustion process is complete at the end of the cylindrical chamber portion, the subsequent expansion (acceleration) in the convergent nozzle is assumed to be isentropic; i.e., to occur without further total pressure losses. Since we keep lYtc and At constant, and assume that c* remains unchanged, the nozzle stagnation pressure (Pc)ns, too, will retain the same value as in
]4
DESIGN OF LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES
INJECTOR
go
Ainj =A
1
Ac=Ai Ai>A t
I
At =A e
Ainj
"A
At=A+
At<A
A I >A
Figure
1-9
Figure
1-8
the case of the straight cylindrical chamber. However, because of the reduced pressure losses in the combustion chamber, the required total pressure at the injector end will definitely be lower. The redesign, then, has the favorable result that, for instance, in pressurized systems, the same propellant flow rate can be sustained with lower tank pressures, thus, slightly lighter tanks can be used. In turbopump-fed systems, required turbopump horsepower will decrease. However, the forces acting upon the thrust chamber, and thus the developed thrust, can be assumed to have remained unchanged, since a lower pressure acts upon the larger injector, and since opposing forces are present at the converging nozzle. In short, it may be stated that our redesign (fig. 1-8) results in reduced demands on the propellant feed system for the same Wtc and the same thrust level. We now proceed to further redesign the chamber to include a divergent nozzle section, as in figure 1-9. Up to the throat area, nothing changes over the preceding configuration, which includes a convergent nozzle only. Since the gas velocity in the throat area is always sonic (except for very low, subcritical chamber pressures), the attachment of the divergent nozzle section, likewise, will have no effect on the previously described gas processes and the pressures upstream of the throat. However, conditions downstream from the throat are now different. With the cylindrical with convergent energy available chamber, and the chamber by
expansion to atmospheric pressure, flowing freely in all directions. By attaching a divergent nozzle, we prevent the gases from dissipating at random, and further accelerate the gases in one preferred direction only. Since this process takes place in the divergent part of the thrust chamber, the static pressures of the expanding gases produce a force on the chamber, as indicated by the arrows in figure 1-9. The expression of the thrust for the complete thrust chamber with convergent-divergent nozzle can now be written as:
Ftc
roAr
pdA
+ fAinj ,]A t
pdA
Ai pdA t *A
+
e
pdA $
(1-38)
The last expression in the equation the gain realized from attaching the nozzle to the throat. By combining into a single coefficient C[ (see eq. arrive again at equation (1-34): F = (Pc)ns "At" Ct
represents divergent all gains 1-33), we
In brief, it may be stated that the redesign (fig. 1-9) results in an increased thrust level, the same Wtc and the same feed uration. system config-
for
Summary of the Influences of Pa, e, y, R, and (Pc)ns on Engine Performance The Effect of Pa
nozzle, the static pressure at the throat Pt is dissipated
An ambient pressure Pa reduces the vacuum thrust F of an engine by the amount Pa "Ae. (See
15
eq. (1-6).) C{ is similarly affected by the amount E. Pa/(Pc)ns, as shown in equation 1-33a). This may be rewritten as C{=(CDvac-e-Pal(pc)as. The lower the ambient pressure, the higher thrust and performance. Maximum values are obtained in vacuum. The Effect of e
___
(Pc)NS
Pe >P=
PO
Optimum thrust for a given ambient pressure is obtained when the nozzle expansion area ratio e=Ae/At is such that Pe--Pa. This may be seen from figure 1-10. If the divergent nozzle section is extended in the region where Pe > Pa, thrust will increase. Where Pe <Pa, however, lengthening of the nozzle will decrease thrust. Hence it would be beneficial to design the nozzle to yield Pe = Pa, to reach an optimum value for the thrust coefficient. The e for this condition is called optimum nozzle expansion area ratio. Unfortunately, because of changing ambient pressure during flight, no one single is optimum. Optimization studies are usually made to determine the best compromise. Such a study is not required (except for weight and size considerations) for rockets which start and stop at the same ambient pressure, such as upper stages, where ambient pressure is zero or near zero at all times. For the special case of Pa = 0 (vacuum conditions), e would become infinity, to satisfy "ideal expansion." Even for this case, however, expansion ratios over 25 contribute little. The nozzle design is usually "cut" at this point, mainly for weight considerations. This leaves a small positive pressure at the exit which is unavailable for final gas acceleration. However, it still contributes as a positive term Pe "Ae. The Effect of y
OPTIM_ UNDER EXPANSION (VARIABLE EXPANSION I = I NOZZLE OVER EXPANSION LENGHT)
Figure
I-10
constant R increases; i.e., the gas molecular weight decreases. Thus, a higher value of R will yield a higher engine performance. The Effect of (Pc)ns
The effective chamber pressure or nozzle stagnation pressure (Pc)as appears in equation (1-33a) for Ct in the form of two pressure ratios Pe/(Pc)ns and Pa/(Pc)ns. As is evident from equation (1-20), the ratio Pe/(Pc)ns has a singular value, for a given E and y. (Pc)ns in equation (1-33), therefore, influences C{ only through the negative term -Pal(pc)as. An increase in (Pc)as decreases this negative term and hence increases C{. This effect is more pronounced when Pa is high. Since the thrust is proportional to both (Pc)as and Ct, we see now clearly how an increase in (Pc)ns in a given thrust chamber will increase the thrust. (Pc)ns also has some tion process. Increasing effect on the combus(Pc)as tends to in-
The specific heat ratio is an indication of the energy storing capacity of the gas molecule. A smaller value of y indicates a higher energystoring capability, and in turn gives higher engine performance. As shown in equations (1-32a) and (1-33a), a smaller y will yield a higher value for both, c* and C[. The influence of the properties of the selected propellants and of the combustion products is apparent. The Effect of R(R= 1544/_)
crease (Tc)ns and to reduce y and R. The overall result is usually an increase in c*. However, these effects are slight, especially at (Pc)as above 300 psi.
Correction Factors and Magnitudes Performance Parameters
of Engine
It can be seen from equation (1-32) that for constant (Tc)as, c* will increase if the gas
The actual performance of a liquid propellant rocket engine differs from that of an ideal one because of friction effects, heat transfer, nonperfect gases, nonaxial flow, nonuniformity of working substance and of flow distribution, and
16
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
shifting gas composition. The latter refers to the fact that the gas properties (y, _, R) are not truly constant along the nozzle axis, as the isentropic treatment of the processes assumes, Therefore, correction factors have to be applied to the performance parameters which are derived from theoretical assumptions. Following are some important correction factors: Correction factor for thrust and thrust coefficient
TABLE Gas temperature, T ............... pressure (pc)ns E .............
I-3 4000 R to 7000 o R .. 10 to 2500 2 to 30 51.5 to 772 0 to 4.5 1.13 to 1.66 3.5 to 100 1.3 to 6 1.3 to 2.0 3000 4000 to 8000 R/see to 12000 ft/sec sec psia
Nozzle stagnation Molecular weight, Gas Gas Nozzle Nozzle Thrust
constant, R .................. flow Math number, M .......... heat ratio, y . ........... area ratio, e ..... area ratio, _c .. Ct ........... expansion contraction coefficient,
Specific
Characteristic velomty, e* ....... Effective exhaust velocity, c ...... Specific impulse, Is ..............
150 to 480 fvaeuum)
Actual thrust coefficient _?t= Ideal thrust coefficient The values for _f range
_ Actual thrust Ideal thrust
(1-39) Values of the cient (Ct)vac pansion area are shown in Sample vacuum or altitude thrust coeffiplotted as functions of nozzle exratio e and gas specific heat ratio y figure 1-11. (1-3) chamber for the same ideal
from 0.92
to 1.00. velocity
Correction factor for effective and specific impulse Actual effective exhaust velocity _?v- Ideal effective exhaust velocity The values Correction for _?vrange factor Actual _v*The values Correction Ideal
exhaust
Calculation a thrust
Assume Actual specific impulse - Ideal specific impulse from 0.85 to 0.98. velocity velocity velocity
(1-40)
liquid propellant rocket engine as given in sample calculation (1-2), in which Wtc = 360.71b/sec; (Pc)ns = 1000 psia; (Tc)ns =6540 R; 111_ 22.67; = y= 1.20; e= 12. Determine the following: (a) Theoretical c*; (b) theoretical Cf at sea level and in space; (c.) theoretical (ls)tc at sea level and in space; (d) actual c*, if c* correction factor ?v*= 0.97; (e._)actual Cr at sea level and in space, if sea level Ct correction factor: W= 0.983; (f) actual (ls)tc at sea level and in space; (g) (Is)tc corm rection factor at sea level; (h) thrust at sea level and in space; (i._.) ctual At and Ae. a Solution (a) From equation (1-32a):
for characteristic characteristic characteristic
(1-41)
for _?v* range factor Actual
from 0.87 to 1.03. mass flow rate
for propella_t propellant propellant
mass mass
flow rate flow rate
_?w= Ideal The values
(1-42) Theoretical c* :- v'gyR(Tc)ns [ Y+_"
for ?w range
from 0.98 to 1.15. factors may be
,tI{
The relation between expressed as: correction
2 \k-_
yv = _v*'W _v = 1/rlw Actual ranges of liquid propellant rocket parameters are listed in table 1-3.
(1-43) (1-44)
_/3 2.2 x 1.2 x _ 1544 x 6540 0.7104 = 5830 ft/sec
engine (b) From equation (1-33a):
INTRODUCTION
TO LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
17
2.06
2.00 1.94 1.88 _1.82 i-. I.76 z tJ.i G 1.70

LI_ 1.64
= LIO"
1.58
n,,, p-_ hi a F-_ 1.46 1.52
,_ 1.4o 1.54
1.28
1.22 I Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 20 _,0 40 50 60 SO I00 NOZZLE Figure 1-11.-Altitude thrust EXPANSION AREA RATIO,( =As/At as function of area ratio and specific heat ratio.
coefficient
_/ 2y__ yz
Theoretical Ct:
+__!I
_ Pe
Y-__L
= 1.65 - 0.0582 = 1.5918
Pe - Pa +e(pc)ns Theoretical From sample calculation (1-2) Pe = 9.85 At sea level Pa = 14.7 psia: (c) psia:
In space: 14 7 _ = 1.5918+0.1764
Ct=
1.5918+12
= 1.7682
From
equation
(1-31): c* C!
Theoretical
Ct=2.247
T-
\
+12 9.85 - 14.7 At sea 1000 4.85 x 12 Theoretical
Theoretical
Is -g
level:
= 2.247
x _/1 - 0.4625
1000
(Is)to
-- 5830
1.5918: 32.2
288.4
lb sec/lb
= 2.247
x 0.734-
0.0582
In space:
18
Theoretical
(ls)tc-
5830 1.7682 = 319.6 lb sec/'lb 32.2 (1-41): c*
Thrust
F in space
: lt'tc (Is)to
in space
= 360.7 306 = 108 500 lb (d) From equation Actual (i) From equation F At =Cf.(Pc)n = (1-33): 99200 1.566x1000 -63.4 in 2
c* =_Tv*"theoretical
= 0.97 x 5830= 5650 ft/sec (e) From equation Actual (1-39): Cf
Ae=e'At=1263.4=760.8
in 2
Cr= W" theoretical
1.4 LIQUID
ROCKET
PROPELLANTS
At sea level: Actual In space: 14.7 C[= 1.566 + 12 x -1000 = 1 566 + 0.1764 (f) At sea level: 5650 x 1.566 -275 32.2 = 1.7424 Cf=0.983 1.5918 = 1.566
Actual
Actual
(/s)tc
lb sec/lb
The term "liquid propellant" used to deis fineboth liquidoxidizers(liquid oxygen, liquid fluorine, itric n acid, etc.)and liquidfuels (RP-1, alcohol,liquidhydrogen,etc.). In some cases additivesare used (water,ferric chloride, etc.). The propellants furnishthe energy and the working substance forthe rocketengines. The selectionof the propellants one of the most is importantsteps in the design of an engine. It greatlyaffectsoverallengine system performance as well as the design criteria oreach f engine component. The propellant selectionin turnis influencedby price,supply,handling, and storageconsiderations.
In space: Monopropellants Actual (ls)tc5650 x 1.7424 =306 32.2 (1-40): Actual (ls)tc at sealevel at lb sec/lb Liquid monopropellants may be either a mixture of oxidizer and combustible matter, or a single compound which can be decomposed with attendant heat release and gasification. A rocket monopropellant must be stable in a natural or controlled environment, yet should produce hot combustion or decomposition gases when pressurized, heated, or fed through a catalyst. A liquid monopropellant engine system usually does have the advantage of simplicity of tankage, feed plumbing, flow control, and injection. Unfortunately, most of the practical monopropellants, such as hydrogen peroxide (H202), have a relatively low performance. Thus, they are mainly used as secondary power sources in rocket engine systems, such as for turbopump gas generators and auxiliary power drives, and for attitude and roll control jets. Certain highperformance monopropellants, such as methyl nitrate (CH3NOs), are rather unstable and are
(g) From equation (Is)tc correction factor
_v at sea level
Theoretical (/s)tc sea level 275 = 288.----_-0.954
Or from equation
(1-43):
_Tv _?v*" W =0.97 0983 = 0.954 = (h) From equation Thrust (1-31): at sea level
F at sea level = Wtc (ls)tc
= 360.7 275 = 99 200 lb
19
considered unsafe for rocket applications. However, some monopropellants promising relatively high-performance and safer operational characteristics have been under development recently. If successful, these may effect wider application of liquid monopropellant engines.
Bipropellants In a liquid bipropellant system, two different propellants are used, usually an oxidizer and a fuel. Separate tanks hold oxidizer and fuel which are not mixed until they reach the combustion chamber. Present-day liquid propellant rocket engines use bipropellants almost exclusively because they offer higher performance, combined with safer operation. The combustion of many bipropellant combinations is initiated by ignition devices such as: (a) chemical pyrotechnic igniters, _ electric spark plugs, (_ injection of a spontaneously ignitable liquid fuel or oxidizer ("pyrophoric fluid") ahead of the propellant proper, (d) a small combustor wherein ignition is started by devices (a) or (b), in turn starting the main chamber by the hot gas produced. Other bipropellant combinations ignite spontaneously upon mixing. Those combinations are defined as hypergolics and permit greatly simplified ignition, but pose certain hazards. For instance, accidental mixing of the fuel and oxidizer due to tank and other hardware failures could cause a violent explosion. These hazards must be considered when designing an engine system using hypergolic propellants. Cryogenic Propellants
under development which should greatly reduce these losses. Adequate venting systems are needed for the developed gases. Storage and handling equipment and their components are extremely sensitive to atmospheric or other moisture; even minute quantities may cause a jamming of, for instance, a valve. Likewise, the design criteria, including materials selection for engine systems using cryogenic propellants, must consider the very low temperatures involved. The mechanical design of engine components for cryogenic propellant applications will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
StorableLiquid Propellants In contrastto the cryogenic propellants, certainother liquidpropellantsare stable over a reasonable range of temperatureand pressure, and are sufficiently nonreactivewith constructionmaterialsto permit storage in closed containersforperiods of a year or more. These propellants are defined as storables. Storable liquidpropellants permit almost instant readiness of the rocket engine and may result in greater reliability due to the absence of extremely low temperatures and the need to dispose of boiloff vapors. Their applic_ttion to military vehicles as well as to the upper stages of space vehicles has increased significantly during recent years. The mechanical design of storable liquid engine components will be further discussed in subsequent chapters.
Additives for Liquid Rocket Propellants Sometimes, additivesare mixed intoliquid propellants for one of the following reasons: (a) to improve cooling characteristics; (b_) to depress freezing point; (c_) to reduce corrosive effects; (d._)to facilitate ignition; and (.e.) to stabilize combustion.
Some liquid propellants are liquefied gases with a very low boiling point (-230 F to -430F) at ambient pressure and a low critical temperature (10 F to -400 F). These propellants are defined as cryogenics. The most common cryogenic propellants for rocket applications are liquid oxygen (02), liquid hydrogen (H2), liquid fluorine (F 2), and oxygen difluoride (OF 2), or mixtures of some of them. Cryogenic propellants pose storage and handling problems. Elaborate insulation must be provided in order to minimize losses due to boiloff, the complexity depending on storage period and type of cryogenic. Recently, novel insulating techniques have been
Optimum Mixture
Ratio
A certain ratio of oxidizer weight to fuel weight in a bipropellant combustion chamber will usually yield a maximum performance value. This is defined as the optimum mixture ratio. As a rule, the optimum mixture ratio is richer in fuel than the stoichiometric mixture ratio, at which
2O
theoretically all the fuel is completely oxidized and the flame temperature is at a maximum. This is because a gas wt_ich is slightly richer in fuel tends to have a lower molecular weight. This results in a higher overall engine systems performance. The optimum mixture ratio of some propellant combinations shifts slightly with changes in chamber pressure. Also, in actual application the mixture ratio may be shifted away from the optimum value for one of the following reasons: (a) lower chamber temperature to stay within the temperature limitations of chamber construction material; (.b.) required coolant flow; (c) improved combustion stability.
Density
Impulse
In addition to the overall system-oriented specific impulse which we thoroughly discussed in paragraph 1-3, a quantity called "density impulse" is an important propellant performance parameter. It is the expression for the total impulse delivered per unit volume of the propellant. It is defined as: Density wherein d :bulk density or propellant spec. weight (rw -1) rw 1 do+dr combination, impulse = Is d (sec) (1-45)
(1-46)
rw = (oxidizer/fuel) d o : bulk density di= bulk density
weight mixture ratio of the oxidizer, spec. weight of the fuel, spec. weight
tion gases, for high specific impulse. (2) Ease of ignition. (3) Stable combustion. (4) High density or high density impulse to minimize the size and weight of propellant tanks and feed system. (5) Ability to serve as an effective coolant for the thrust chamber (optimum combination of high specific heat, high thermal conductivity and high critical temperature). (6) Reasonably low vapor pressure at 160 F (a frequent specification value) for low tank weight and low net positive pump suction head requirement. (7) Low freezing point (preferably less than -65 F') to facilitate engine operation at low temperature. (8) Absence of corrosive effects; compatibility with engine construction materials. (9) For storables: good storability as assisted by a high boiling point (preferably above 160 F), by items 6, 7, 8 and by the resistance to deterioration during storage. (10) Low viscosity (preferably less than 10 cp down to -65'= F) to minimize pressure drops through feed system and injector. (11) High thermal and shock stability to minimize explosion and fire hazard. (12) Low toxicity of raw propellants, their fumes, and their combustion products. (13) Low cost. (14) Availability.
Liquid Rocket Propellant Physical Properties
Performance
and
The Selection
of Liquid
Rocket
Propellants
When selecting a propellant or propellant combination for a specific application, it is well to realize that most propellants, in addition to their advantages, may have certain disadvantages. Thus, propellant selection usually includes some compromises. The more important and desirable propellant features are listed below. Order of importance may vary as a function of application. (1) High energy release per unit of propellant mass, combined with low molecular weight of the combustion or decomposi-
Detailed methods to calculate the performance for any given liquid propellant or propellant combination can be found in the standard combustion engineering or rocket propellant textbooks. For the theoretical calculations, it is generally assumed that the ideal conditions exist as described in section 1.2 (Gas Flow Processes) of this chapter. The prime objective of propellantperformance calculations is to derive the quantities flame mean heat c*, Ct, and Is through evaluation of the or chamber temperature (Tc)ns; of the gas molecular weight _Ii; and of the specific ratio y for a given (Pc)ns, Pe and Pa. The
21
chamber temperature can be calculated from the heat of the chemical reaction of the propellants and from the specific heat of the gases. In practice it has been found that actual test results are usually 5 to 12 percent lower than the theoretical values obtained from calculations. In addition to the assumption of certain idealized gas conditions, the performance equations discussed assumed and employed certain singular values for the most important gas properties: y, _, R, (Tc)ns. For basic design information requiring greater accuracy, more rigorous calculations frequently employing electronic computers are usually conducted by specialists in the field. These consider that the gas properties are not necessarily constant along the path of flow. Two basic approaches can be taken: Calculations based on the assumption of unchanging or "frozen" gas composition along the nozzle axis, or based on the assumption of shifting composition. The applicable literature frequently uses the term "equilibrium" instead of "composition." In calculations based on frozen composition, it is assumed that no further chemical reactions take place in the gases after leaving the combustion chamber and entering the nozzle, and that the combustion products at Ae are in the same relative proportion as they were at Ai. The remaining principal variables then are pressure and temperature at the various stations. Assuming different initial sets of mixture ratios, chamber pressures, and gas compositions, a typical set of calculations, probably involving successive approximations, may be conducted to determine the optimum values of, for instance mixture ratio, chamber length, expansion area ratio, and nozzle contour, for a given propellant combination and vehicle trajectory. Calculations based on shifting composition take into account additional variations, mainly those of gas composition, as they result from, for instance, incomplete combustion, dissociation, and reassociation. These calculations are an attempt to consider more nearly the true physical processes. Due to their extreme complexity and unpredictability, however, the results are frequently no more reliable predictions of test results than those obtained from calculations assuming frozen composition. Thus, it is probably a matter of preference which approach should be taken. It is noted
the theoretical data based on a shifting compositionusually give values several percenthigher than those based on a frozen one. Therefore, in presentingperformance data, the assumption of the type of composition assumed must be specified. As a rule,the thrustchamber designer will be supplied with the basic parameters by departments specializing thisfield. We need not, in therefore, oncern ourselves further c with this matter. Performance and physicalpropertiesofnumerous importantliquidmonopropellantsand bipropellantsare given in tables 1-4 through 1-10.
1.5 THE BASIC PROPELLANT
ELEMENTS ROCKET
OF A LIQUID ENGINE SYSTEM
that
A vehicle system has occasionallybeen defined as a purposefulconglomerationof subsystems. One of these is the engine system. The definition f the scope of the various vehicle o subsystems has not always been uniform and probably,by necessity,never willbe. For instance, forvehicle systems in which the propellanttanks simultaneouslyserve as the vehicle airframe, itmay be a matter of opinion whether they are part of the structure or of the engine system. The decision to which subsystem they belong may well depend on the fact whether the tanks will be supplied by the engine manufacturer, or by a separate contractor. Similarly, some, notably the engine system supplier, may consider the guidance system a part of the payload, while the vehicle user will hold that anything without which the vehicle cannot fly reliably and accurately to its destination is not payload. Whatever the definitions may be, it is important that they are used uniformly and consistently in a given project. For the purpose of this book, we will define a vehicle as being composed of the following major subsystems: (1) Engine system (2) Vehicle structure (3) Guidance sys.tem (4) Payload (5) Accessories In the following, we will concern ourselves with the engine system only, except for brief references to the other systems, as required. We
22
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
o_
L_.
c_
..4
_._. _._.,
_ _
8
i
_ :._ ._ _
E) -=
I
;>
O L_r.
r.
r..
O b-
o0
O
c_
I
t
o ._
< -_._ r. 0 0 _" r.
A
r.
z L_
o L_
:E z z z
o
_
.. -,'0
=_
INTRODUCTION
TO
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
23
o o LO kl
,:5
G_
;>
= ,-; E
._ = r.,..
O
,_r,,
,-..1
,..4
... r._ o 3 0,3
o_
c_
o
f
,-.1
==
r. r,,, r,,,
=_.
..'E
r.=.. _ r,,.
._
"-.O
_ r,..
._
""_
.
.O
r,.
o"
o_ z
co
"=
e._ o
_-_
-,
0=
O
_._.
_=
_;_
_;
._
24
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
-_=
_=
:E
_.
_'_
=
_r
E_
.-_
..4
;=
,-_ .-
r.
.4
E_ _ _ ....
r_
c_
c7
.o
O.
-_
.=
o =
INTRODUCTION
TO
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
25
TABLE
1-6.-Perlormance
of
Some
Liquid
Rocket
Monopropellants
Specific Propellant impulse lb-sec/lb (H=O2) (95%) . 140 Is, a
Density impulse Id, sec gm/cc 198 Applications Remarks
Hydrogen
peroxide
Gas generators for turbopump and auxiliary drive; small control rockets Gas generators: rockets small control
Difficult
handling
Hydrazine
(N2H ,) ..............
205
207
Difficult compose ature)
handling at high
(can
de-
temper-
Nitromethane
(CH3NO
=) .........
180
204.8
Small
ordnance
rockets
Dangerous detonate
handling unexpectedly)
(can
Methylacetylene
...............
160
108.6
Gas
generators;
small
rockets
Safe handling; very smoky or frozen
dangerous and exhaust fumes equilibrium.
a Theoretical
value
at 300
psia
(Pc)ns,
sea-level
optimum
expansion,
frozen
gas
composition
TABLE 1-7.-Theoretical
Performance
of Some Medium-Energy Combinations

rw 2.99 3.24 rv 1.51 1.63 95 ,99 1.26 1.39 1,70 1.82 2A8 2.65 2.08 2.23 2.16 1.47 138 1,61 2,53 2.64 1.54 1,57 212 2,20 2.83 2.95 4.18 d 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.27 1 29 1.31 1.32 1.35 136 Tc !5340 !5315 5090 5100 5250 5220 5295 5270 5355 5330
Storable
Liquid
Rocket
Bipropellant
Oxidizer
Fuel UDMH ....................
}_ 23.7 24.2 20.8 211 22.4 23.0 24,1 24.5 25.8 262 25.1 25.5 246 .... .... .... 217 21,3 19.5 19.5 20.5 20,6 21,3 21.4 22,1 22.2 218 21.9
c* 5490 5435 5690 5665 5580 5510 5425 5375 5275 5225 5335 5280 5320
Ct 1619 1630 1.602 1.608 1.610 1.618 1.620 1.630 II.636 !1.646
i
Is ilsd 276 275 283 283 279 277 273 272 268 267 270 269 269 259 279 271 348 350 362 365 354 358 358 359 ]362 363 356 358 358 326 357 328
Applications Small air-to-air, air-to-surface rockets and upper stages of space vehicles
IRFNA
(15%
NO 2) .
Hydrazine
................
1.47 1.54
50% UDMH-50%
hydrazine...
2.20 242
Hydyne
...................
3.11 3.33
RP-1
......................
4.80 5.14 4,09 4.37 4.13 2,89 2.47 4.01 4.54 4.74 2.17 2,20
TMB-1,
3-D ...............
1.32!5325 1.33 5300 1.33,5310 1.26!4935 1.28 1.21 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.26 1.25 1,26 1.27 1.28 1.30 1.31 1.28 1.29 5290 5285 4800 4780 4675 4675 4760 4740 4765 4745 4785 4765 4770 4745
1.632 1.640 1628
JP-X 92.5%
(60%
JP-4,
40% UDMH)
E.A ................
5130_1.626 5550:1.618 5375 5530 5505 5655 5655 1625 ;1.620 !1.620 11.604 1.604
MMH ..................... TMA ..................... UDMH ....................
95% hydrogen peroxide
278 277 282 282 279 279 276 275
345 346 355 '355 349 351 350 352
Manned small
aircraft, air-to-air.
Hydrazine
................
50%
UDMH-50%
Hydrazine
..
3.35 3,47
5580:1.610 5560 5485 5465 5405 5390 1.615 1.'622 '1.619 1.627 1.620
air-to-surface rockets, and upper stages of space vehicles
Hydyne
...................
4,68 4.87
I
RP-1 ..................... TMB-1, 3-D ...............
7,35 7.58
273:355 271 274 272 355 351 351
432 J 6,20q3.49 6,45/3.63 i
544011622 5415 1.618
26
DESIGN
OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
TABLE
1-7.-Theoretical
Performance
of
Some
Medium-Energy (Continued)
Storable
Liquid
Rocket
Bipropellant
Combinations
Oxidizer Nitrogen tetroxide.
Fuel UDMH ................... Hydyne ..................
rye
IV
, T.l,lc.lc,
1.20 1.22 1.24 1.25 1.27 1 23 1.24 1.19 1.38 1 40 1.43 144 1 41 168 1.40 5685 5650 5655 5745 24.5 124.1 !24,7 25.7 55551632 55801 5525 544011 1631 636 5755265 5715 25.2 5710 5290 6305 6330 6220 6250 5890 5735 6035 25.9 .... 258 26.2 26.1 265 29.1 370 27.6 538511639 5495 1631 5425 5260 5630 5605 5555 5535 5140 4535 5330 1.645 1.635 1.602 1.589 1,599 1.595 1.618 1636 1608
1 Is 282
, I sfl 339 344 347 345 _348 342 344
Applications Manned ICBM, aircraft, IRBM,
I 2.95 I 2.71 295 4.04 4.50 J 3.55 i 3.90 J 2.59 ! 303 328 298 320
1.61 ] 1.61
I
626 ! 282 280 276 274 278 277
' RP-1 T_IB-I,
.................... 3-D ..........
1.75 2.26 2.51 196 2.15 1.45 131 1.42 1 40 150 1 42 566 1.39 1.57 1.37
ALBM. smallairto air, surfaceto-air rockets, upper space stages vehicles of
267 rr 318 280 277 386 ICBM, IRBM and small
% E.A .......... Chlorine trifluoride t UDMH .................... I Hydyne ...................
388 I ALBM.
274 276 258 230 266 261
395
RP-1
..................
320 12.80 3 17 3.60 3.35
rockets, upper stages of space 395iL air-launched 364 vehicles 386 373 374 453 Small air-launchec rockets
TMB-I,
3-D ..............
Bromine pentafluoride
Hydrazine
..............
1 43 186
6040 5570
28,1 ....
5280 5000
i1 592 1 565
_ 243
TABLE
1-8.-Theoretical
Performance
o[
Some
High-Energy
Storable
Liquid
Rocket
Bipropellant
Combinations
Oxidizer 95% Hydrogen peroxide Hydrazine

l
Fuel ............. ............
rw 201 270 _2.61 1.34 1.42 2.00 2.15 2.16 2.77 2.94 2.89 311 3.00
rv 1.41 1 188 1.42 .93 .99 1.24 1 33 1 31 1.53 1.62 1.42 1.53 1.44 85
A
Tc] 1 26 1 037 4775 5390 5685 5390 5415 5590 5570 5635 6550
_ 19.5 19 01 236 20.9 213 22.6 23 0 I ..... [232
C! c* I1 601 11600
Is
285
Isd
Applications
]CBM, IRBM.
359
Pemaborane Nitrogen tetroxide . . UDMH Hydrazine
6067 5735 15650 5845 5815 5725 5665 5720 5995 590 5795 5770 5763 6402
302 i
313
ALBM
................ ............. Hydra_ine
1.18 1.22 1 23 1.21 1.21 1 20 1.51 1.52 1.45 1.46 1,44 .796
1.624 1 610 1605 1.620 1 636 1.621 1 582 1 572 1 596 1.598 1,591 1644
285 292 290
336 357 357
!FBM, IRBM, upper
ICBM. ALBM. stages
50% UDMH-50% MMH ................. 2hlorine trifluoride ...
288 348 288 348 288:346 t294,444 292:444 287 416 286 285 327 417 410 261
of space vehicles
Hydrazine
.............. Hydrazine
FBM, IRBM, upper
ICBM, ALBM stages
6600'236 6385 24.5 6420124.9 6400 .... 4430 147
50% UDMH-50% MMH ................... Pentaborane
of space vehicles ICBMIRBM
Hydrazine
...........
............
1.4
INTRODUCTION
TO
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
27
TABLE
1-9.-Theoretical
Performance
of
Some
High-Energy
Cryogenic
Liquid
Rocket
Bipropellant
Combinations
Oxidizer RP-1
Fuel .....................
rw 2.00 2.40 2.56 2.73
rv 1.421 1.708 1.82 1.94 .78 .84 1.23 1.28 .80
d 0.998 1.012 1.02 1.03 .88 .89 .99 1.00 1.07 1.02 1.03 1.02 102 .98 .99 1.01 1,01
Tc 5760 6100 6150 6200 5055 5100 5640 5675 5660 5980 5905 5990 6030 6010 6065 6100 6120
_ 211 22.8 23.3 239 19.3 198 24.1 24.4 19,3 20.6 20.9 21.81 22.2 21.3 22.1 22.9 23.2
c* 5898 5953 5920 5865 5920 5865 5605 5585 6235 6160 6155 6035 6010 6115 6040 5945 5915
Ct 1,605 1.620 1.632 1.642 1.608 1.612 1.648 1.644 1618 11,628 '1.622 1,632 1.639 1631 :1.638 11.642 1.650
Is 294
Isd 293
Applications ICBM, [RBM, large and
Liquid
oxygen..
300:303 300306 299 308 296 294 287 285 313 312 310 306 306 310 307 303 303 260 261 2S4 285 335 318 319 312 312 30,t 304 308 306
space-probe space craft boosters
Ammonia 95%
.................
1.30 1.40 1,73 1.80 90
E.A .................. ................. Hydrazine.,
Hydrazine
50% UDMH-50% Hydyne ..................
1.30 1.03 1.37il.08 1.73_1.31 1.80 1.36 1.14 1.65
UDMH .................... TMB-1.3-D ................
1.83 1.27 2.28 ! 1.60 2.37 1.66
TABLE
1-10.-Theoretical
Performance
of pellant
Some
Very-High-Energy Combinations
Cryogenic
Liquid
Rocket
Bipro-
Oxidizer
Fuel
r., ..... 4.02 19.50
rv 0.25 1.20 1.54 1.61 .35 1.10 1.48 1.53
d 0.28 .65 1.31 1.32 .45 .82 1.18 1.18
Tc 4935 4960 7955 7980 6505 8230 7715 7745
,_ 10.0 23,4
c* 7980 5300
CI 1.578 1.610 1615 1.614 1.578 1.592 1.605 1612
Is 391 265 363 362 410 372 357 357
Isd 109 172 476 478 185 305 421 422
Applications Space space stage Space stage probe and
Liquid
oxygen
..........
Liquid
hydrogen
craft upper and booster probe upper
Liquid
fluorine
..........
Hydrazine Liquid Ammonia
.......... hydrogen ........... .....
2.30 2.40 7.60 23.70 3.29 3.40
19,4'7245 19,6 18.5 19,3 19.5 7225 7515 7155 7140 11.818365
NOTES (1) Conditions are based (a) (b) upon = chamber pressure pressure = ambient ratio = 1000 which the performance
FOR calculations
TABLES
I-7
THROUGH tw = Propellant fuel)
I-i0 weight mixture ratio (wt. oxidizer/wt.
Combustion Nozzle (optimum ation) exit
psia = 14,7 psia oper-
tv
pressure
= Propellant fuel)
volume
mixture
ratio
(vol.
oxidizer/vol.
nozzle
expansion
at sea-level
(c)
Chamber contraction throat area) = infinity Adiabatic Isentropic composition combustion expansion or shifting
ratio
(chamber
area/nozzle
= Bulk density of propellant combination (gm/cc). (The density at boiling point was used for those oxidizers or foels which boil below 68 F at one atmosphere pressure) chamber molecular temperature, weight _F products
(d} (e)
Tc =Theoretical of ideal gas with shifting = Average at Tc c* =Theoretical
of combustion
equilibrium
in the nozzle
(2)
Symbols:
characteristic
velocity
(ft/sec)
28
NOTES C[ :Theoretica] thrust coefficient
FOR
TABLES
i-7
THROUGH
I-i0
(Continued) 99 98 97 95 93 91 88
900..................................... 800 ................................. 700................................ 600 .................................. 500 ................................. 400 ............................... 300................................
Is : Theoretical maximum specific impulse, lb-sec/lb lsd= Theoretical maximumdensity impulse, sec-gm/cc (3) To approximate Is and lsd at other chamber pressures. Pressure (psia): I000 ............................... Multiply byi00
further define that the engine system shall comprise all parts without which the propulsive force cannot be generated. Thus, we will include the propellant tanks and their accessories. A system thus defined frequently is called a propulsion system. We know, from the above, that by including the tanks, we may be "infringing" on the vehicle structure by other definitions. Thus prepared, we may now proceed to subdivide the engine system further into major components or subassemblies as follows: (I) Thrust chamber assembly (2) Propellant feed system: One of the following two is generally used: Pressurized gas propellant feed system and turbopump propellant feed system. The latter includes some type of tank pressurization system (3) Valves and control systems (4) Propellant tankage (5) Interconnect components and mounts Depending on the engine system selected, one or another subsystem may not be required or may be integrated with another one. Typical liquid propellant rocker engine systems are shown in figures 1-12 and 1-13. The rocket has occasionally been called the simplest propulsion system known. The simplest form of a solid propellant rocket or of a pressurized gas-fed storable liquid propellant rocket appears to come close to this ideal. Unfortunately, simplicity frequently is synonymous with inflexibility. Due to vehicle requirements, substantial departures from the basic simplicity may become necessary to meet requirements such as: light weight, high performance, thrust control, thrust vector control, restartability, cutoff ira-
pulse control, propellant utilization control (sometimes called propellant management), storability, ease of handling, etc. Thus, modern rocket engines contain more subsystems than their basic principle of operation may suggest, to meet the often stringent vehicle requirements. This is true for both liquid as well as solid propellant systems. In general however, the liquid propellant engine is the more flexible one, particularly where large systems are considered.
A Check valve B Pressurizing diffuser C Fuel tank D Pressurizing diffuser E
gas
K High-pressure helium bottle L Pressure regulator M Heat exchanger N Fuel tank vent and relief valve O Oxidizer tank vent and relief valve P Oxidizer tank fill and drain valve Q Oxidizer duct R Main oxidizer valve S Thrust chamber assembly gas feed liquid system.
gas
Pressurizing gas line F Check valve G Oxidizer tank H Fuel duct I Fuel tank fill and drain valve J Main fuel valve
Figure 1-12.-Typical pressurized propellant rocket engine
INTRODUCTION
TO LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
A B C D E lr G H I J K
Check Fuel Check
valve tank valve gas tank line
L M N O P
Pressure Heat Turbine Thrust Fuel valve
regulator exhaust chamber tank vent duct assembly and relief V U
cryogenic nation) Fuel valve Oxidizer valve tank
propellant fill and
combidrain
exchanger
Pressurizing Oxidizer Fuel High Gas duct pressure generator starting
tank
fill
and
drain
helium and
bottle
Q R S
Pressurizing Pressurizing Oxidizer valve Inter-tank quired tank
gas gas vent
diffuser diffuser and relief
W Oxidizer X Y Z Oxidizer Fuel Gear pump box
duct pump
valve spinner
assembly Turbine Gas Main turbine fuel valve Figure 1-13.-Typical
insulation for cryogenic feed liquid
(reand nonpropellant
AA Main
oxidizer
valve
turbopump
rocket
engine
system.
Chapter Rocket
2,1 THE MAJOR ROCKET PARAMETERS ENGINE
II
Engine
DESIGN
Design
Implements
To fit the engine system properly into a vehicle system, engine systems design and development specifications will have to cover the following parameters above all: (1) Thrust level (2) Performance (specific impulse) (3) Run duration (4) Propellant mixture ratio (5) Weight of engine system at burnout (6) Envelope (size) (7) Reliability (8) Cost (9) Availability (time table-schedule) As the design progresses, numerous additional parameters will have to be considered. Before turning to the latter, let us briefly review and discuss those listed above. It should be noted that the last five items are closely interdependent. For instance, making an engine available in the shortest possible time ("crash program _) will raise the cost and will unfavorably affect reliability. A longer design and development period may not necessarily reduce cost, but it will offer higher values in exchange for the dollar; higher reliability, refined (lower) weight, and an optimized (smaller) envelope.
results from the decision whether a single- or a multiple-engine system is to be used. This decision is often strongly influenced by the availability of already existing engines, which would eliminate, or at least drastically reduce, the design and development cost for the propulsion system. The selection of individual engine thrust level also is-or at least should beinfluenced by the general state of the art, particularly if sizes substantially larger than previously developed are considered. More recently, largely as a result of the advent of manned rocket flight and of the high cost of very large vehicle systems, the decision to use a multiple (clustered) propulsion system consisting of several engines rather than a single one has been additionally affected by safety considerations, to permit mission completion, or at least safe return of the crew, in case of an engine failure. This "engine out" principle is analogous to the consideration of multipleversus single-engine airplanes. Extensive studies have been conducted in this field for rocket vehicles to establish the "break-even" point regarding the minimum and maximum number of engines profitably employed in a cluster. Failure of single-engined rocket vehicles not only might destroy the vehicles themselves but also could cause severe damage to expensive ground facilities. This explains the great emphasis placed on thrust subdivision. Thrust levels for first-stage booster engines, which start at or near sea-level altitude and stop at a specified higher altitude, are usually quoted for sea-level conditions. Additionally, the specifications may contain information on thrust level at altitudes above sea level, frequently form of a graph (see fig. 2-1). in the
Thrust
Level
This engine parameter is a basic one, similar to the power rating of a gasoline engine or electric motor. It will affect most of the other engine parameters and many of the development considerations. The total thrust requirement of a rocketpropelled vehicle is predominantly governed by1. The total takeoff weight of the vehicle (including engine!) 2. Minimum and maximum accelerations permissible Selection of the proper engine thrust level
The nominal thrust of engines in stages starting and operating at or near-vacuum conditions is quoted for that environment. Most engines are designed for a single nominal thrust (sea level or altitude), for which they are calibrated by 31
32
ROCKET ENGINES
I SlEC S_C_FE q_PUL_ m CUTO=r
,oo T
zr_* F_ IZSO'
its true Kgrmgn
significance. observed:
In June
1959,
Dr. von
L_Crr
]t is my personal belief that the length of the period of attaining reasonable reliability in the development process could be essentially reduced if simple design were emphasized as a leading principle, even if we had to make some sacrifice in the quantitative measure of "efficiency." Essential elements have to be designed as simply as possible, even if this means a reduction in quantitative efficiency and a certain increase of bulkiness andsor weight. Undoubtedly, these a noticeable builder as or at least capabilities observations trend well as were on the the part of customer, nearly sysamounted
so
go ALTITUDE
L2o (FT
_r_ X I0 $)
prompted both engine perthe to sacrifice, all other tem
by
engine
Figure
2-I.-Typical lormance as
graph function
o[ rocket of altitude.
to compromise, of a rocket which sometimes
propulsion
for Is increases, than 1 percent.
means quently, designed require discussed Control."
of propellant with some the type aid for variable in section
line
orifices
or,
less Engines
frealways
to less the life
of regulators. thrust (throttling) This "Engine
Frequently, engineering especially capacities. may have
increasing can reserves with The weight need in the
emphasis be traced initial assumptions for competitive
on Is during to marginal vehicle and design tank
of a project
of regulator. 7.3,
will
be Level
Thrust
bidding
contributed other hand,
to this the
situation. Is which will case pay can off sub-
Performance Although rocket ber impulse parameter cific is the impulse, dimension measured engine (Is) is As the general strict c*, term _performance" covers prime of a a num-
On the be obtained stantially. medium-range 1 second approximately
highest
without For
compromise in the missile, effect a range miles.
instance,
of a typical of of terms, As flight those whether be corn-
in the (Is,
sense Cf, the
ballistic in Is will 15 nautical of less as these
an increase increase In other percent
of parameters was also
etc.),
specific performance I, the specific spethrust, is not of the lb/(lb/ It is imporof Is or to the a of Is value
considered seen referred but (specific
in chapter to as which
an Is increase results impressive range engine the are, vehicle
than figures be kept
one-half
in a range
increase
of I percent. for increased in mind determine not that
in seconds, of time,
obviously
an abbreviation impulse), value system,
it should will fly
dimension sec) tant refers thrust is to state
lb-sec/lb thrust), whether complete only. "actual" an to the The propellant and as quite
properties
which at all
will
(specific
respectively. a specified engine Frequently, value values are With less have
should
to the chamber
Duration Because, carries its the cluding as takeoff mum and by definition, own complete its oxidizer, a rocket propellant run duration balance thrust level, vehicle supply, inis limited, between and miniConsequently, liquid-propellant narrow band,
by stating theoretically for the well
percentage linked possible. known lished become
or "practical"
maximum theoretical
better estab-
combinations a result predictable. disappointments practical
a result
of an optimized trajectory, maximum times
values
have well-known often rein
weight,
accelerations. of most large
combinations, sulted. the use been
run-duration rocket about
Therefore, of theoretical
great caution is advisable values which have not test. of a rocket impulse, far beyond
engines fall into 50 to 400 seconds. specifications (such and duration as qualification times,
a relatively include
verified
in an actual years, expressed considerable the
User stration (PFRT) mulated
a formal flight rating requiring breakdown,
demontests accuof
In recent engine, has as received
performance by its specific attention,
preliminary tests) without
ROCKET ENGINE
DESIGN IMPLEMENTS
33
many duration PFRT
times
the
comparatively six full
short duration
rated tests
flight for
This exit tude,
is analogous velocity and of the
to a cannon, projectile, of the such gun not gun as barrel system, only
where gun-barrel emplacement (neglecting wind). the
muzzle attiwill enviWith intricate the have of trajecsteep, a re-
(typical: of an ICBM).
location the rocket, point influences
These engine of the erations (1)
specifications, design considerations, areas,
therefore, with flight-run which to the
govern the
most consid-
determine ronmental ballistic placed components three the any basic capability or all angle guidance
of impact
exception
following are which supply
for weight
the guidance
is literally predetermine but also the is too for deviations
by the
tailored tank employ
duration: power
of which parameters of them. near the If,
Auxiliary
capacity, a separate
for systems turbine
mentioned for instance, of cutoff compensate final signal,
to compensate
(2)
Propellant-tank it is part of the
pressurization engine system
supply,
if
tory the
point will
system the the that cutoff several
accordvelocity, simultaneground repeatable impossible cessation: transmit considerapropellants Figure 2-2 the a finite to by
(3)
Lube
oil tank
capacity, nozzles
if applicable
ingly, slightly ously
by calling delaying considering covered.
for a higher cutoff distance a prompt signal reasons,
(4) Temperature of uncooled
nonequilibria, such as those
over and it is thrust
Closely related to the run duration are the start and shutdown characteristics of an engine for both of which the quality may system, the requirements The "start," engine (l) characteristics or "thrust are judged Compliance time
already execution However, effect time cutoff time; tions below shows is
It is obvious of the for a truly required signal; structural are the valves
is imperative.
be very stringent in a given vehicle system. and buildup," bywith specified thrust versus of the rocket of a liquid
instantaneous to sense closing (hydraulic have thrust an and
then
of valves residual effect. decay
requires
hammer)
characteristics rate buildup from surges and thrust overoscilof increase at any time
superimposed;
(2) Maximum during (3) Freedom shoots
a typical us recall:
diagram.
Let
(4) Smoothness lations)
(freedom from damaging
Ft = may
(5) Repeatability from run to run and from engine to engine These characteristics will be discussed greater detail in chapter X, "Engine Design Systems in
Thrust multiplied by time equals mass velocity increase, or Ft m
times
Integration." Suffice it to state, at this Difficu_rr ro ca.as[ F.Y. IOO
Av=
point that a rocket engine is not easy to adapt with special thrust buildup requirements. communication and ing the engine between contractor. by both the vehicle Thorough contractors culties in this area can arise from inadequate contractor understandis vital, or by this the term to in a
TIWE F_OI, I CUTOFF S_ONAL {SEC ) 0
of the The
problems
characteristics decay" are considerations. let us consider implies, a desired direction the payload the speed from coasts
of engine predominantly To the case missile. missile
"shutdown" influenced
"thrust guidance better, "ballistic" impart desired which
understand As
of a single-stage, is designed payload, after target. Figure to the
ground-to-ground,
ballistic
to a known a desired freely
point,
2-2.-Typical
thrust
decay
diagram.
34
The velocity increase following cutoff signal is a function of the residual thrust acting on the vehicle mass m, and is integrated over the time from cutoff signal to final thrust cessation; this integral is commonly referred to as the "cutoff impulse." A typical value for a well-known earlier rocket (Redstone) was 16 000 lb-sec z2500. Note the tolerance. This deviation will obviously influence missile accuracy. Reduction of the tolerance is thus an important design and development goal. It might be concluded that a substantial reduction of the tolerance is the principal task, zero deviation being the optimum. This is unfortunately not so because the final vehicle mass m, on which the decaying thrust force acts, is unpredictable within certain limits, due to weighing tolerances of the initial vehicle mass, and to flow rate and mixture ratio tolerances. The engine designer and developer will have to concentrate on reducing both: base value and tolerance. A glance at figure 2-2 shows that the area under the thrust curve is a function of not only decay time but also of main-stage thrust level. In fact, the major portion of the shaded area is accumulated prior to the beginning of thrust decay. This observation has led to the utilization of vernier thrust systems. A vernier cutoff system is characterized by a substantial thrust reduction before final cutoff. This can be accomplished by thrust reduction, for a few seconds, of the main engine itself (V-2 fashion) or by shutdown of the main engines, while much smaller engines continue for a brief period (typical: 0-25 seconds, depending on final __v required). It should be emphasized that any components that must be added to improve cutoff characteristics are basically undesirable, since engine complexity is drastically increased. The addition of such components should be avoided at all costs. Here again, close coordination between the vehicle (guidance) designer and engine designer, and thorough understanding of their common problems, is vital. Mixture Ratio
amount
of oxidizer.
That
mixture
ratio
which
effects complete combustion, with no leftover of either fuel or oxidizer, is called the stoichiometric mixture ratio. This ratio depends on the type of propellants used. Tbeoretical temperature and heat release are maximum at this ratio. In rocket engines, however, where the highest possible exhaust velocity is desired, optimum conditions often prevail at other than stoichiometric ratios. Equation 1-18 indicates that the gas properties strongly affect exhaust velocity. The expression for the specific gas constant, R, in equation 1-18 may be rewritten as-
where R' is the universal gas constant and is the molecular weight of the gas (see table 1-1). The lower tile molecular weight, the higher the exhaust velocity, other things being equal. Analytical and experimental investigations will determine the optimum point of balance between energy release (heat) and composition (molecular weight) of the gas, a portion of which will consist of gasified but unburnt propellants. The optimum point may also be affected by(l) Stay time of the burning gas in the combustion chamber.-Stay time is a function of combustion chamber volume and of gas volumetric flow rate. Complete combustion, even though desirable, requires a finite time which is not available unless the chamber is relatively large, and correspondingly heavy. A compromise in chamber size, therefore, is often made. This leaves unburned a small percentage even of those propellants entering the nozzle, which could have burned given sufficient time (chamber volume). This percentage must be considered for accurate determination and optimization of the composition of the combustion gases and when optimizing the gas properties with energy release and system weight. (2) Cooling conslderations.-The temperatures resulting from stoiehiometric or nearstoichiometric mixture ratios, dependent on propellant type, may impose severe demands on the chamber-wall cooling
As is well known, complete combustion of a given amount of fuel requires a corresponding
ROCKET ENGINE DESIGN IMPLEMENTS
35
system. A lower temperature, therefore, may be desired and obtained by selecting a suitable ratio. Once the optimum mixture ratio has been determined for a given engine system, based on the major factors just discussed, it is obvious that deviations from it would result in engine performance penalties. Since the vehicle powered by an engine will have been sized and tanked to conform with the specified engine mixture ratio, it is important to know that deviations will also result in reduced vehicle performance, namely: (1) Reduced engine duration, due to premature exhaustion of one of the propellants (2) Reduced mass ratio, due to excessive residual amounts of the other propellant (increased burnout weight) Since the relationship between engine performance (/s) and mixture ratio for many systems is usually relatively flat near the optimum point (fig. 2-3), the effects from duration and burnout weight may well be the most influential ones for vehicle range. The effects of even minor discrepancies in mixture ratio (propellant utilization) are substantial. For instance, in a typical single-stage medium-range ballistic missile, each pound of excess burnout weight will result in a range decrease of approximately 0.2 nautical miles. For long-range vehicles, the penalty is still higher. The close target tolerances that have occasionally been reported for test flights illustrate the remarkable degree of accuracy which can be achieved from all contributing subsystems.
Weight The parameter of weight, as no other, dominates the thinking of those employed in rocketry. Weight of payload flown over a distance, or placed into orbit, is the ultimate accomplishment. Success is often gaged directly in pounds of payload flown per dollar spent. The importance weight rightfully carries does not necessarily mean that it is all important. For instance, a somewhat smaller payload placed into orbit more reliably, or at a lower cost per pound, may be preferred. By and large however, weight is a most important consideration. As we have seen earlier, a vehicle's final velocity is a function eters, its mass ratio. of, among other paramThe smaller the final velocity. However, be as high as possiapplied to all those are not payload. This of vehicle-structures
mass, the higher the final since payload mass should ble, the weight squeeze is vehicle components which includes the engine. To isolate the influence
320
weight, a parameter called "propellant fraction" has come into increased usage. This factor expresses the ratio of the total propellant weight to the fueled vehicle weight without payload. Typical values are 0.94 for turbopump-fed systems, and 0.89 for pressure-fed systems. For turbopump-fed engines, the ratio of thrust to engine weight is a useful additional yardstick. Larger modern liquid rocket engines may fall into a range from 75 to 125 pounds of thrust/lb of engine weight. These figures represent asubstantial progress over the past (see fig. 2-4). As was seen with residual propellants, excessive dead weight at burnout imposes penalties. Therefore, whenever rocket engines can be made lighter without compromising reliability and structural integrity, the payoff in range and payload will be sizable. Engine and vehicle builders usually distinguish several types of engine weight: (1) Dry weight.-The net weight of the engine as it leaves the factory. (2) Burnout weight.-The engine dry weight plus residual, measurable propellants remaining in the engine at cutoff. In a typical engine design, burnout weight may be 4 percent higher than dry weight. Burnout weight is significant for vehicle mass ratios (eq. 1-30).
,.-zao 0
Z60
G e 0 I
/
LO O/F I 2 MIXTURE L4 RATIO 1.6 L Jr 2D
_
Figure 2-3.-Theoretical thrust chamber performance vs mixture ratio for N204/N2H4 at Pc = 1000 psia shifting equilibrium and optimum sea level expansion.
36
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
(a) (b) _arly Navaho Engine 1953) Early I Engine 1952) German (c) l Engine lb lb
Redstone
V-2
(Rocketdyne
(Rocketdyme
(1942) Tb_ustsL: 56,000 Dry _elght: 2484 Iss L = 199 sec
ThrustsL: 120,000 ib Dry Weight: 1230 lbs Is3 L = 230 sec
ThrustsL: 75,(>00 ib _ry Wei___ht: 1475 lb Iss L = 215 sec in ratio lb, dry 1475 o[ thrust weight: Ib, sec.
Figure by: war (I942),
2-4.-Substantial (a) postwar (1952), thrust: engine 56 000
progress (1953), Ib,
has
been
made 120000
to engine 1230 Ib, sec;
weight IssL (c) =230
as
demonstrated sec; (b) postV-2 engine
thrustsL: 75 000 lb, 2484
engine
thrustSL:
dr}, weight:
lss L =215
German
dry weight:
lb, lss L --199
ROCKET ENGINE
DESIGN IMPLEMENTS
37
(3)
Wet all
weight.-The propellant
engine within it,
dry
weight
plus
during
main wet dry for loca-
ing and location
routing of lines, of valves. of the
avoidance
of traps,
and
stage. weight weight.
In a typical Wet weight
design, is
engine higher than
Because rocket shows engine
importance
of weight employ
control,
may be 6 percent
manufacturers
engineers Table 2-i
significant
specifically in charge of this area. used by the Rocketdyne can Aviation.
vehicle in-flight tion and moments (4) Wet gimbaled weight earlier the
center-of-gravity of inertia. portion mass
a typical weight progress form, as it is Division of North Amera useful tool to raise In our arbitrary example However, based the almost the data are Itis revised and reissued periodit becomes
weight.-That engine this meant and designs less
of wet which In wet refers This actuator re-
ically. Thus
representing designs
early danger warnings. a slight underweight table also shows that
is gimbaled thrust
for steering chamber In later
purposes. essentially injector it often parts.
is shown.
entirely on estimated
and calculated figures, results. This of design More often is
weight. to the small weight loads sponse Ideally, equal: in the not dry that engine be can 2600
rather than on actual weighing
entire amount is and
engine
a relatively
characteristic for the earlier phases and development of a rocket engine. than not, the weight advantage
of stationary
significant guidance
for gimbal control loop
will disappear
gradually as the design firms up; then the squeeze will be on. For convenient display of the weight tendencies shown The over time, a graph such as
characteristics. and burnout weight should In practice, However, through proper the should be trapped this engine design, sizwill be
weight is,
no propellants at shutdown. possible. do much
in figure 2-5 will be useful. weight changes of the various compo-
always
nents as well as of the entire engine affect centers of gravity and moments of inertia. Through
designer
2450 REV SPEC BURNOUt 2300
2150
BURNOUT 2000 _" ......_ /
//
1
9 I0 II 12
REV SPEC DRY
)85o
/
1700 / ENGINE ACCESS BURNOUT ..................... ENGINE ACCESS DRY
ORIGINAL
IS PEc 'r...........................
ORIGINAL
................
1400 I 2 3
i SPEC I.......................
4 5 6 7 8 13 14 15 16
GO AHEAD
MONTH , weight history.
Figure 2-5.-A-2 stage rocket engine and accessory
38
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
_= E;
oj
4. + _4-
-_-
"7,
c_
L_.
E_
ROCKET
ENGINE DESIGN IMPLEMENTS
A-2
STAGE
ROCKET
ENGINE
CENTER
OF
GRAVITY
AND
MOMENT
OF
INERTIA
DATA
ISSUE DATE
ENCLOSURE PAGE I OF r
(
NOTE: (_erns about (I) thru specified U_e moment
(
_"'_
LOX
Pump
I
y
F uet
Pump
I
_ GIHBAL ( Y 0 )
I
(31 Tepcesent C.G,'s. the items about the rnorr_t o( iner',ia (41 and (S) represent referenced gJmbal axis. of inerti_
WEIGHT DESCRIPTION LBS. t, Y - CENTER(OF ARH X GRAVITY - ARM INCHES ARM Z -
MOMENT
OF
INERTIA
- SLUG
FT 2
Y-Y t76
X-X 391 4tl 408 672 688
IZ-Z 362 379 375 649 662
(I) (2) (3) {4) (5)
RocketEnsine Rocket Rocket Gimb_lled Gimballed Engine En|ine Mass Mass
_ Ace;_ Act. . Ace. Dry Wet -
DrX Wet Burnout
2181 2317 2292 2061 2086
.233 -225 -227 -25.2 -246
. IS .15 .I -I 6 5
07 --0 -0 I 2
185 184 I_ 177
0.2 -02
. I S
Figure
2-6.-Typical
data
sheet
for
center
of gravity
and
moment
of inertia.
issue parties changes
of a data concerned as they
sheet can occur.
as be
shown kept
in figure informed
2-6, on
all
Vbo
-- Cvc
g" (Is)on Stage
in Stage +payload+ weight + weight Stage inert weight.) / \
usable
Note that the data presented

figures engine multistage later 2-5 and system space chapters. Let weight weight magnitude us has now on varies will explore the the 2-6 are which vehicle for the is a part
in table 2-1 and

150K A-2 stage treated in where of an assumed
propellant weight weight
(2-1)
configuration
influence system, design
structural takeoff how its of Stage for Stage system engine weight . guidance T weights, not structure, and other which are payload equations is an even system that (2-2) Stage inert_ Stage residual weight propellant and
performance vehicle with the
and gross parameters individually
of a rocket
weight
at burnout
different
relationships each case. Equation burnout stage
vehicle systems.
be evaluated
The quantitative
(1-30)
can
be rewritten of any system
for the vehicle, individual
stage or the stage It can for a given weight trade be concluded burnout off between from velocity, stage these there
velocity velocity
of a single-stage increment, vehicle as:
of a multistage
engine
4O
weight of all decrease increase For except between and other the a fixed engine the stage items in the stage payload were stage
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
weight. kept constant, system capacity assuming increment,
If the
weight will
vehicle vehicle 1 pound, weight tional fined load) causal weight. value, as
trajectory. system
Therefore, exceeds its of the by a certain result. vehicle of added
if one weight total Growth
part
of the by system is depayby the
a pound weight by 1 pound. other the Vbo, items and
allotment vehicle factor (including divided
engine
an increase at takeoff pounds the will total increase
payload and
number
of addi-
payload, weight stage system as velocity
to be constant, weight for a given
relation system
system inert that is a band.
weight It is but weight system
at takeoff, the not
stage engine can be written
increment
and/or growth
payload factor, a
emphasized system, within
for a given
vehicle varies
a precise For instance, in an exaddition of a but etc. In
Vbo = k 1 In where
k(__. Stagestage ++ engineengine system _]
weight._
(2-3)
small isting
increase may only small enlargement the the breaks next The growth
of a component require the amount
corresponding = constant Stage not residual require case, that use like. Accordingly, another straw = constant = constant decrease decreasing an inwhich will the or the
of propellants, tanks, will back," size, will may valves, be small.
k_ = Cvcg(Is)oa
of the factor
k2 = Stage payload weight , Stage lca = Stage Since more engine crease pay rapidly weight. in burnout off in longer For payload, cific system a given the weight impulse usable k 2 < k3, than
+ propellant weight at burnout structure, and other propellant the the guidance weight weight+k: will with payloads, realized orbit. and of stage as for a fixed overall engine spe-
weight the growth
increase
be "the requiring duet size,
camel's valve factor the engine
of the
larger
then factor
be large. of a preit of
In general, vehicle liminary attaches the For then increase weight can system design
however, is of an
growth tool to the system,
denominator numerator, for fixed is
a useful value weight.
during
the
because weight payload." small factor accuracy system
Thus
a tangible may changes,
importance
velocity range burnout
engine-system single-stage
A systems "uninvited and relatively growth of the
or higher velocity stage
be considered vehicles, the value with Total
required (ls)oa can
average
in terms
be expressed
sufficient vehicle
as
be established
weight Growth k3 , + system Stage ('s_oa:k4.'/in k 2 + system weight engine weight ] \ (2-4) For any stage value system as Total Equation engine-system pulse requirements parameter is For the growth instance, Another of weight system. nent (2-4) shows that the with decreasing specific the weight to adjust propellants of other the i.e., composame and Growth factor = Stage imThe vehicle lower growth system stage can factors weight Growth factor = of a multistage of the growth facto[Payload
at takeoff (2-5) weight vehicle, factors the against can be
/
/ total
approximate where Vbo k 4 = C--vcg = constant vehicle
weight
at takeoff
expressed
vehicle
system (2-6)
weight Stage
at takeoff weight against of the the same or
weight,
overall
payload stage
decrease. illustrating factor if the importance vehicle for this Vehicle system weight at same stage or lower ignition (2-7) payload weight of a compoof any at ignition as
of a rocket
be expressed
increases, the thus as
it is possible weight possibly a pump, of the that
by increasing loaded nents, required and such
to maintain
vehicle
performance;
payload
ROCKET ENGINE DESIGN IMPLEMENT5
41
Sample
Calculation
(2-I)
A three-stage rocket vehicle system has the following weight data: Total vehicle system weight at takeoff, 40000 pounds. Vehicle system weight at second-stage ignition, 7500 pounds; vehicle system at third-stage ignition, 2200 pounds; payload weight, 700 pounds. For each pound increase of engine system weight of first, second, and third stages, respectively, determine (at a constant vehicle performance): (a) increases of total vehicle system weight at takeoff; (b.) increases of vehicle system weight at second- and third-stage ignition. Solution Payload weight of first stage = vehicle system weight at second-stage ignition = 7500 pounds Payload weight of second stage =vehicle system weight at third stage ignition = 2200 pounds Payload weight of third stage = actual system payload weight =700 pounds From equation (2-6): (1) Growth factor of first stage against vehicle system takeoff weight = Vehicle system takeoff weight weight 44000 =_=5.86 7500 stage against weight = _^ =gu (a)
For each pound increase of third-stage enginesystem weight, the increase on vehicle system takeoff weight = 62.9 pounds (b) Note that the weight growth of lower stages will not affect the upper stage weight growth. For an increase of first-stage vehicle system weight, there will be no weight changes on second and third stages, and for an increase on second-stage vehicle system weight, no weight change is required for third stage. From equation (2-7): (1) Growth factor of second stage against vehicle system weight at second-stage ignition = Vehicle system weight
at second-stage ignition 7500 3 Sec'-ond-stag------_ayl----oa--d p wei--_ht =2_ = .41 (2) Growth factor of third stage against vehicle system weight at second-stage ignition = Vehicle system at second-stage Third-stage weight ignition weight-
payload
7500 -10.72 700
First-stage
payload
(3) Growth factor of third stage against vehicle system weight at third-stage ignition = Vehicle system weight at third-stage ignition Third-stage payload
(2) Growth factor of second vehicle system takeoff
2200 -_=3.14 weight700
Vehicle system takeoff weight 44000 Second-stage payload weight = _ (3) Growth factor of third stage against vehicle system takeoff weight =
Therefore: For each pound increase of second-stage engine system weight, the increase on vehicle system weight at second-stage ignition = 3.41 pounds For each pound increase of third-stage engine system weight, the increase on vehicle system weight at second-stage ignition = 10.72 pounds, and the increase on vehicle system weight at third-stage ignition = 3.14 pounds The correctness of results can be checked by recombining the individual stage growth factors to obtain the growth factor for the entire vehicle system: 3.14 3.41 5.86 = 62.9
Vehicle system takeoff weight Third-stage payload weight Therefore:
=44 000 = 62.9 700
For each pound increase of first-stage enginesystem weight, the increase on vehicle system takeoff weight = 5.86 pounds For each pound increase of second-stage engine-system weight, the increase on vehicle system takeoff weight = 20 pounds
42
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Envelope
(Size)
The linear dimensions of liquid propellant rocket engines require relatively elaborate description and frequently cannot be made clear without a drawing. In those cases where only approximate values are required for comparison or for overall estimates, the term "envelope" is preferred. For instance, definition of a hypothetical smallest cylinder, cube, or sphere into which the engine would fit conveys a good feeling of engine size or bulkiness. Obviously, engine size directly affects engine weight, the importance of which was emphasized above (fig. 2-4). Aside from the engine itself, mnnerous other areas are directly affected by increasing engine size: (1) The vehicle structure, which becomes heavier, especially with upper stages. Engine size directly affects the size and thus weight of the aft end and/or interstage structure. (2} Handling equipment and procedures become more costly (3) Servicing becomes more difficult (4) Manufacturing machinery becomes larger (5) Storage and transportation means become more bulky In several of these areas, there is a definite upper limit, such ances on bridges machine tools. as railroad tunnel and underpasses, sizes, clearand available
The selection of the thrust-chamber expansionarea ratio has a very pronounced effect on engine envelope. When optimizing the thrust chamber expansion area ratio, which is also influenced by performance, weight, pressure drop, heat transfer, and other considerations, its effect on envelope, and thus on other vehicle systems, must be considered (section 10.9).
Reliability The subject of reliability has become almost a branch of science by itself. In addition to the designer, to the development engineer, and to the user, mathematicians, statisticians, and "human factor" and "man rating" specialists are involved. Numerous books have been written on the subject and manufacturers maintain entire g['oups to predict, monitor, tabulate, and evaluate
the reliability of their products. This emphasis on reliability is well justified and is of particular significance to rocket engines. The advent of manned space flight has placed even greater emphasis on rocket-engine reliability. Reliability may be defined as the capability of the engine to perform according to specifications, whenever "the button is pushed." The degree to which this is met can be expressed in figures and graphs. If the evaluation is made following a test series, reliability can be simply expressed as the ratio of success to failure, say 98 percent (2 failures and 98 successes in 100 runs). As there is no guarantee, however, that the system under test will perform identically in subsequent tests, reliability predictions are made, the accuracy ("confidence level") of which increases with the amount of previous information available. The interrelation of reliability and its confidence level is something the statisticians have much to say and write about. What can the rocket engine designer do to achieve the highest possible reliability, as early as possible? Below are compiled a few pointers and thoughts which have proven valuable, not only in rocket engine design. They will be followed by specific details for the implementation of a reliability-assurance program. First of all, painstaking execution of all calculations and drawings that are part of a given design is an obvious requirement. This includes the thorough study of previous experience, one's own as well as that of others; familiarity with and correct application of accepted and proven design standards and procedures; clearly written statements and instructions; clear line drawings. It cannot be overemphasized: it pays to spend that extra hour in carefully checking repeatedly every detail of a design and its contemplated mode of operation, before its commitment to manufacture and subsequent use. Neglectmay have to be paid for by many months of toilsome, tearful, embarrassed "corrective action," often causing losses of hundreds of thousands, even millions of dollars. When making these checks, the most pessimistic assumptions of what someone else may do wrong during manufacture, assembly and use, are not out of place. The designer should not rely solely on his own judgement. Careful and independent checking of all calculations and designs by superiors
--..__
_.
--
43
and by independent checkers is important. Early availability of a wooden (or "soft") mockup of the engine under design will be an invaluable tool to avoid costly errors that subsequently may seriously affect schedules and reliability. Specific recommendations for design and checking techniques will be made in section 2.2. "Reliability" is sometimes treated as being synonymous with "simplicity." Undeniably, simplicity of a design contributes significantly to increased reliability. Parts which do not fulfill a truly useful purpose should be omitted. This may include many of the so-called safety features and interlocking devices, which often cause more trouble than they prevent. Early designs of liquid-propellant rocket engines have indeed frequently suffered from such an overdose of sophistication and safety devices. Many of the more recent designs have been substantially improved in this area, to a point where caution must be exercised not to overshoot the target and not to lose that flexibility which only liquidpropellant systems can provide, as compared to solid-propellant systems. Simplifications, like all other design features, must be carefully planned and evaluated. Simplification by elimination of a useful component must not become an excuse for failure to improve that component if its absence could severely penalize other subsystems, or maintenance and servicing procedures. For instance, to avoid a troublesome sealed connection it may be decided to omit flanges and seals and to weld it. However, if one of the lines thus connected were inadvertently pinched in the field, removal of the entire engine from a vehicle under preparation for launch would become necessary. Thus, a simple replacement may be magmfied into a major operation. To be sure, welding or preferably brazing may indeed be the best solution for many problem connections. The point is, this will not be true for all connections. Careful analysis of all aspects including handling and in particular mishandling by the user, is necessary. In another example, tests may have shown that an engine could readily be set up and calibrated to specifications by means of orifices, eliminating previously-used regulators. Engines are delivered accordingly. With rocket engines, it is entirely normal that many months, if not
several years, may elapse between final use. Much can happen during For instance, changes of plans for may have made another thrust level able. In this case, the adjustment orifices, in particular its verification, major operation. While the omission
delivery and this period. the mission more desirby means of becomes a of a stra-
tegic regulator was indeed an engine simplification, for the vehicle system it turned out to be a complication. The point here again is; the careful evaluation of a planned omission must consider all aspects, including changes of plans.
Reliability
Assurance
The emphasis on reliability must not remain an empty slogan. Fortunately, implements are available to the rocket engine designer which can assist him effectively to achieve the highest degree of reliability. One of these, an effective failure reporting and correction system, will be discussed in section 2.2. Equally, if not more important, is a most effective failure prevention system. The numerous activities contributing to the latter may all be considered part of a reliability assurance program. The quality of design, without question, is the program's foundation upon which all subsequent phases rest. The characteristics of a reliability-assurance program, then is that its most significant steps (analyses, design reviews, design improvements) are taken before the design of a component is finalized; before the development test program is initiated; and again before the first vehicle is committed to launch.
Definitions The definitions used in rocket vehicle reli-
ability assurance programs vary widely with individual preferences, with the object under design and development, and with the missions contemplated. The definitions given below are typical, have been used in actual rocket engine and vehicle programs, and can be readily adapted to others. For the sake of clarity, irrelevant jargon and detail have been omitted.
Reliability The probability that a part or system will
44
function properly and if necessary under rated operating conditions, specified load and time limits.
repeatedly within the
Man Rating Design and operational provisionsto assure crew survivaleven in case of mission failure. Thus, man-ratedreliability must be higherthan mission reliability. For instance, overall vehicle reliability to achieve mission success may be 95 percent. By the addition of an escape mechanism, man-rated reliability may be increased to 99.5 percent. Caution is advised not to become entirely "wrapped up" in man rating, at the expense of mission reliability. A single launch of a man-carrying space vehicle costs several hundred million dollars, all told. Investment in means to save the mission as well as the man, therefore, appears to be prudent. Table 2-2 illustrates this clearly. For optimum reliability of spacecraft and launch vehicle including the engines, the need for a crew escape system is minimized. Both, mission and crew survival are assured with high reliability.
Mission
Success
Completion of the rocket vehicle mission objectives within specified tolerances. All subsystems, including the engine, contribute to the success. It is an inherent characteristic of mission-success analysis and assurance that they anticipate the probability of certain part and subsystem malfunctions, offsetting them with appropriate countermeasures (such as redundancies, emergency power sources, power and propellant reserves, and others).
Mission
Failure
Failure of the rocket vehicle to complete the mission objectives. Mission failures can be classified as: a) Catastrophic, b) Critical, and c) Deferred.
TABLE
2-2.-Relationship to Flight Reliability
of Vehicle Safety
Reliability
Catastrophic A failure
Failure in which the time between the failis less must be
Flight safety Probability of crew survival
ure event and a subsequent crew hazard than 500 milliseconds. Abort sequence automatically initiated.
Spacecraft and launch vehicle 0.50 090 0.999 Engine Out
Escape system 0.998 0.99 0.00
0.999
Critical
Failure
A failure in which the time between the failure event and the hazard ranges from 500 milliseconds to five seconds. Abort sequence may be initiated automatically or manually. Deferred Failure
Design and operational provisions to permit limited or complete mission continuance in case one engine fails to fire, or malfunctions and is shut down. Possible only with vehicles having engine clusters. See airplane analogy under "Deferred Failure," above.
A failure in which the time between the failure event and the hazard is five seconds or greater. Action to cope with the failure is deferred to allow analysis by the pilot or an automatic logic, to decide whether corrective action can be taken or an abort sequence should be initiated. Typical example: shutting off an engine with a feathered propeller in a four engine airplane and reaching destination safely though with a delay. Analogous provisions are anticipated for manned rocket flight.
Failure
Mode
The manner in which a part or system malfunctions. This may be a "short" or "open" circuit, an incorrectly "closed" or "open" valve, an engine out, or similar malfunction. Order of Failure The number of components in a system which
45
would have to fail, regardless of their failure mode, to cause systems or mission failure. First-order failures are failures caused by a malfunction of a single component or part. Secondand higher-order failures are defined in a like manner. Typical example: a stuck pressurizing valve causing overpressure in a vessel would rupture it only if the safety valve failed to open; this would be second-order failure. However, continuous venting of a properly opening vent valve may prematurely deplete gas supply. A thorough failure-effect analysis will reveal all ramifications. In the example, depletion would not occur instantaneously, this would be deferred failure. The designer can do something about it in advance: provide an overriding closing valve for the pilot, which remains completely inactive when not needed, but adds weight.
Failure
Modes of Engine
Components
The failures of rocket engine components may be attributed to one or a combination of several of the following principal modes: (1) Functional failures (2) Fatigue failures (3) Over-stress and over-strain (4) Failures pertaining to combustion devices (5) Failures pertaining to electrical devices (6) Manufacturing and material defects (7) Unexplained failures (8) Human errors
Functional Failures These are malfunctionsof parts or components due to reasons other than structural failures. For instance,an "0" ringmay failto seal due to impropergroove depth specifiedin the design. Or, a plunger may freeze in the bore of a guiding bushing,because of improper surface finishand/or noncompatibility materials. To of minimize possible functionfailures the design in of engine components the followingprecautions are recommended: (I) Choose proven designs with an established servicerecord. (2) Use standardmechanical elements (bolts, nuts, threads,gears, pins, rivets, springs,seals, tube fittings,istons, p keys, shafts, bearings)wherever possible. (3) Select simple designs, but without impairing flexibility.n particular, I minimize the number of moving parts and sealing surfaces. (4) Allow adequate functional margins in the design of components (spring forces, actuating powers, supply of lubricants, supply of coolants). (5) Subject newly-designed parts to extensive functional testing, under simulated working and environmental conditions, before "freezing" the final configuration. (6) Provide redundancy. This is a "buddy plan": where one component would be sufficient, two of the same type are actually provided. If one fails, the other takes over. This can be achieved in two ways: by noncomplex and by complex redundancy. Intelligently applied,
Failure-Mode-Effect
Analysis
An orderly and qualitative listing of the modes in which components or parts of a system can fail; the effects of the failures on the engine's or vehicle's ability to complete the mission; and the order of the failures. Such an analysis should distinguish between the prelaunch, launch, and cutoff phases. Also, all identified failures should be classified as catastrophic, critical, or deferred.
Failure
Mode Cause
Analysis
An analysis listing all the conceivable reasons why each mode of failure could occur. Likewise, reasons for each potential cause not occurring should be explained in detail.
Emergency
Detection
System
(EDS)
The EDS comprises the electromechanical devices, including sensors and discriminators, to detect an imminent malfunction. Depending on the type of failure (catastrophic, critical or deferred) it may initiate immediate action, or defer but store and/or display it in a suitable manner (timer; visual gage or light). Inputs to the EDS must be analyzed, selected and provided by the designer, in particular the engine designer, at the outset.
4G
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
redundancy reliability. (7) At all times,
can pursue
significantly a rigorous
increase program of
A typical gency circuitry. battery
example with
is voltage
an electric sensor
power and
emer-
switchover
product
improvement. Fatigue Failures failures than those They failure the part. destructive samples failures surface there. gradual The start because actual are fractures at stresses causing are the The be Checking failure. failures most ability checked is tests at random. a crack stresses failure of these will part start and at or are will cracks. will on stress concentrathreads, irregularifailure. of apt caused by rein a single common of a part withpossible,
Noncomplex The ment. failure typical examples valves.
Redundancy Fatigue function of identical equippeated ably load type out load lower applications consider-
simultaneous Application mode wh example, are:
depends upon the - is to be eliminated. _ve dual figures (series) 2-7 and seals,
particular For a 2-8. parallel Other
application. of mechanical fatigue through destroying
to resist however, with
cannot
endurance selected with
representative Most fatigue
PRESSURE SWITCH :IS I POWER
SOLENOID VALVE_
near result
an outside from point upon
to be greatest
propagation the Any crack of the notch
PRESSURE 2 SWITCH = Figure (This 2-7.-Noncomplex type of redundancy called
1 paraI1el guards upon redundancy. against fail-
The depend surface raiser, tion, cracks. SOLENOID VALVE oil ties is holes, are
at which the
geometry
conditions. being Fillet all a point radii
or other stress too small, surface of fatigue
ure to close
when
to close.)
of highest starting that and are similar point
a potential keyways potential a part or the of minute or various itself, and
for fatigue
POWE R
sources
Although SWITCH Figure (This vertent upon =1_" I s e tie guards closing SWITCH s _ 2 geometric grooves 2-8.-Noncomplex type of redundancy i.e., redundancy. against when not inadcalled number tool marks, material matter neer Complex The ponent. switching component, tained The from can potential the Redundancy original Failure devices when function sensors, energize needed. carried logic out by one and standby obadditional circuitry. merely shifted commay are it may equipject and joints subject welding design. com-
may be designed having it may still raisers. identification like,
to be free no shoulders, contain These
irregularities, stress inherent such as
a great may be in the stamp
marks,
scratches,
closing, to close.)
discontinuities inclusions The effort
of foreign design part In the out engisubject for stress
quenching make every
cracks.
should
to avoid
concentrations to repeated rigid surface forgings load specifications finishes. are
in a highly-stressed applications. should For repeated preferred preferred be called load
design, services,
circuits
an identical The offset advantages by the be
generally are
to castings. to material prone
be completely of sensing problem this when days to also and area to the
complexity
switching may failure-detection
Ductile materials to become brittle. In welded to almost fatigue should and
constructions, all types failure. be minimized loads. must Wherever
the of stress
joints
are
sub-
equipment However, (e.g.,
concentration welded of parts for in the out design procedures
ponents. involved
standby long subject mission
redundancy times where backup and the
possible, in the Rigid
be advantageous be undesirable ment to prolonged
or weeks)
to repeated inspection
be called
operation.
tli_.
7,
-,
47
Over-Stress
and Over-Strain design to prewill be disof
Failures
of Combustion
Devices
vent
Stress analysis in mechanical over-stress and over-strain
cussed in section 2-4. The interrelationship stress and reliability of mechanical parts is illustrated in figure 2-9.
_z m
Under steady-state operating conditions, combustion devices in liquid-propellant rocket engines are exposed to hot gases with temperatures ranging from 1000 F to 6000 F. The walls of these devices are either made from hightemperature-resisting (refractory) materials, or are provided with effective cooling, through heatabsorbing effects, ablative cooling, propellant film and/or regenerative cooling. Structural failure may occur because of erosion, from wall temperatures exceeding the values assumed during design. Or failure may occur from a combina-
-ID WORKING STRESS _-_ _
RELIABILITY MARGIN . /-.I_
iV\
STRESS
tion of excessive temperatures and pressures. Under certain transient or unstable conditions, STRESS such as during engine start or stop, combustion O,ST.,BOT,ON instability or abrupt pressure surges may occur and cause a failure. See chapter IV, "Design of Thrust Chambers and Combustion Devices."
DAMAGING
Electflcal
Failures
Figure 2-9.-Interrelationship of stress and reliability as related to mechanical parts. Two stress levels exist for every part in a given engine component: the working stress, and the damaging stress at which failure occurs. The failure may be either a fracture, or a deformation beyond allowable tolerances. Each of the two stresses are mean values of a distribution about a mean. The difference between the working and the damaging stress mean values is indicative of the stress reliability margin of the part. The deviations from the mean working stress result mainly from variations in the dimensions of the part, and from operational and environmental conditions. The distribution about the mean damaging stress results from variations in material properties, fabrication processes, quality control and maintenance practices. The area Pt, where the two distributions overlap represents the probability of failure, or unreliability. Close control of functional and environmental loads may decrease the variation of the working stress about the mean. Likewise, better materials and strict quality control should increase the damaging-stress mean value, and decrease the variation about the mean. Thus, the area of overlap may be substantially reduced or eliminated, and reliability increased.
Although predominantly an assembly of mechanical parts, a modern rocket engine employs a number of electrical devices without which it cannot function reliably. Among the electrical components used most widely are: power sources (batteries), converters (DC to AC), wires and harnesses, connectors, switches, relays (electromechanical and solid-state), timers, pressure switches, diodes, solenoid valves, servomotors and position indicators. All of these devices are, to various degrees, potential sources of failure, the consequences of which are just as detrimental as failure of mechanical parts. By proper design and assembly instructions, and by careful selection of the elements, the designer can forestall electrical failures and thus assure overall systems reliability. Most common potential electrical failures which must be prevented are: Cold solder spots in connectors, wirings and electrical elements. They result in often sporadic discontinuities, particularly under vibration. Short circuits in wirings, connectors and other electrical devices. This may be due to poor design, leaving insufficient separation between connector pins, lugs and the like; excessive solder; damaged insulation due to
48
poor harness installation, chafing under vibration and poor handling; overload and/or overheating in solenoids; moisture in connectors. Fused relay contacts, due to overload and/or incorrect current rating of the elements. Relay and switch contact loss under vibration. This is really an electromechanical malfunction. It can be prevented by proper relay selection, shockmounting, orientation of installation, replacement by solid-state circuitry where possible. Power failure resulting from one or more of the causes listed above. Prevention means include emergency batteries and overload switches, combined with subcircuit isolation through diodes. A liquid-propellant rocket engine usually includes additional electrical elements as required for instrumentation and telemetry. These may include instrumentation power supplies, end organs (sensors, pickups, thermocouples, accelerometers, position indicators), signal conditioners (analog-to-digital), and wiring. Although, as a rule, instrumentation is not required directly for proper function of the engine system, its failure may indirectly cause engine malfunction, by interference with engine operation. For instance, a pressure pickup may rupture and cause premature depletion of a gas supply; the same event in the fuel system may cause an enginecompartment fire; improper installation of a thermocouple may block a vital lubricant or other line. The engine instrumentation. this peripheral attention. Manufacturing designer's task includes engine It is obvious, therefore, that system, too, will require his full
cal properties, fabrication and heattreating characteristics, and possibly of other properties as the application may demand. (2) Traceability. By the time a materials defect is detected, many more parts may have been made from the same lot or batch of raw material. If accurate records have been kept, for what parts which numbered material lots have been used, it will be possible, without a "panic," to withdraw and replace all parts made from the faulty lot. The importance of accurate and complete records is obvious. (3) Process inspection. This refers to all shop inspections made of the parts as they are being processed. Its purpose is to check the performance of the operators and tools or equipment, and to sort out faulty parts as soon as errors are detected. (4) Salvage. This includes the decision whether defective materials or parts can be corrected or will be scrapped. (5) Final inspection. This is the inspection of the completed component parts to insure they are within the limits required by the design. (6) Checking of actual service performance. This includes investigation of complaints and studies of actual service performance of the part in the engine system (see "Failure Reporting System").
Unexplained
Failures
and Material
Defects
Manufacturing and material defects of engine component parts directly affect the reliability of the components. These defects can be prevented only by strict quality control. The areas of quality control may be subdivided as follows: (1) Materials inspection. The extent of inspection and testing conducted with raw materials depends upon the nature of the part for which they will be used. Inspection of materials includes testing of their composition, uniformity, mechani-
From time to time failures occur which cannot readily be isolated as having originated in a given component or part. This may be because several causes were present simultaneously and could not be separated. Or instrumentation was inadequate, recording only the ultimate effects but not the cause. Or that an incomplete investigation was conducted, maybe in the hope it would not happen again. Classification of a failure as _unexplained" should never be done as a matter of convenience, but only as a last resort if the most thorough investigation did not establish a clear cause. Complete and accurate records must be kept of
49
the details associated with the failure. Through special statistical methods it may be possible to isolate the cause or causes at a later date. Also, special instrumentation may immediately be added in the areas of suspected but unproven causes. But the most sophisticated explanation of a failure cannot transform it into a success.
mostly known methods and common sense, the rocket-engine designer can do much to prevent human error by the design of his parts and by mandatory actions during their building, checking and handling. The following are only typical examples of a probably infinite number of possibilities of preventing human error by design. Clear marking of bolts, lines, connectors, wires, etc. Use of dissimilar connectors, dissimilar threads, a variety to make incorrect of keyways, and the like, electrical and mechanical and mechanical
Human Error Experience with early manned rocket flights has shown that certain functions could be performed better by trained men than by automatic devices. It appears certain that future spaceflight efforts will continue to employ combinations of automatic and manual systems, the ratio of the two depending on mission requirements. Even in those missions which are unmanned and therefore appear to be fully automatic, man is still directly involved: during launch preparations, and through postlaunch commands for trajectory-correction maneuvers, information playback, and similar actions. We must realistically recognize that even a fully-trained, and very alert individual is subject to error. He may commit an error at a desk while using a slide rule, or while connecting a number of hydraulic lines, or under stress while pushing buttons. The history of rocketry is full of glaring examples. Whenever it happens, the most eloquent regrets are probably voiced by the designers of the system involved: if someone had not done something to their perfect creation, it would have worked faultlessly. The reaction is understandable, but wrong. For whatever reason a system failed, it obviously was not perfect. Its designer did not consider human nature, nonideal operating conditions, nor emergency situations. Clear and complete drawings, specifications and other written instructions are important but they will not prevent, by themselves, human errors, because they can be misplaced, misread, or not read at all. It is not surprising that the elimination of human error, or more positively, the perfection of the integration of man with the machine, is becoming an independent branch of engineering. It would be beyond the scope of this book to go into the details of "Human Engineering" or "Human Factors Analysis." Simply by applying
connections impossible. Safety wiring; electrical interlocks.
Painting bright red, and/or attaching bright red streamers to, auxiliary devices which must be removed before operation. Storing of components and systems which have successfully passed all inspections and checkouts, in locked rooms requiring two different keys from two different individuals. Intentional attempts at improper handling, assembly, checkout and operation of components and systems, to assist "foolproofing," during development. None of these and numerous similar steps will eliminate human errors completely. However, they will substantially reduce their possibility and thus contribute to overall reliability.
Design
Reviews
for Reliability
The reliability of rocket engines and their components depends on many factors. Design reviews are among the most potent methods for increasing reliability. In practice, a design review is the progressive evaluation of a design. It starts with the preliminary schematics, layouts and specifications and extends through the release of all final drawings. Those conducting reliability design reviews should include: reliability specialists, design engineers, development, test and service engineers, and various specialists for structures, materials, manufacturing, and quality control. A minimum of three design reviews is recommended for each design: Preliminary design review.-This is preliminary review of work statements, basic concepts, schematics, layouts, and analyses.
5O
It determines development needs and results in decisions for the next design phases. This review should uncover misapplications, critical areas and marginal designs at an early stage, when changes can be effected without difficulty. Critical design review.-This is the most important review for decisions and approvals. It includes formal review of all reliability aspects of layouts, analyses, planned development tests and procurement specifications. Final design review.-This is the final review of overall design layouts, detail and assembly drawings, analyses, process specifications, and R&D test results, before production release. The (1) (2) (3) reviews should emphasize: Structural integrity Function and performance Customer (vehicle) connections and envelope (4) Materials compatibility and component interfaces (5) Produceability and cost (6) Reliability and repeatability: malfunction effects
the program, is very costly indeed. The rocketengine design can contribute substantially to prevent it.
Cost Cost considerations should enter a design at the very beginning. Not only from the viewpoint of competitive bidding and narrow profit margins but of available and/or developed national resources as well. A major rocket vehicle program quite possibly may tax the resources of certain materials, facilities, and services to the limit. Moreover, it should be ascertained that the program does not rely on facilities, and on supply of materials and of propellants that may not become available for several years. The rocket engine under design may well be for a project costing a total of hundreds of millions of dollars. Savings of even fractions of a percent can therefore amount to millions of dollars. Cost, as far as the designer is concerned, will be affected by the selection of materials; by the machinery required to make the parts; by the time and skill required to make them; by the difficulty of assembling, testing, and servicing the parts; and last, but not least, by the experience of the people making the design.
(7) Environment and servicing (S) Special requirements It is highly recommended that the agreed-to layout bear the approval signatures of the groups involved. A reliability checklist tailored to the individual designs may be used as a guide during the various design review phases. The "Design Check-Off Sheet" shown in section 2-2 may be used for this purpose. Design reviews are valuable and cost-saving tools for improving reliability. A well organized and staffed review group will assure a meaningful review and instigate effective recommendations and actions. Complete documentation of all review details will provide valuable data for future reference. Under "Manrating" the cost of a single launch was mentioned. Press releases give the cost of a major space program as about 3.5 billion dollars a year-10 millions a day! To save a mission, or just a single day of preparation, by improved reliability, quite clearly, is worth the effort. Likewise, the loss of a launch, or a day in
Availability (Scheduling) The best design,the most perfectdevice, may be useless ifitis not availablewhen needed. In a way, the design of (inour case) a rocket engine is a productby itself.Itmust be planned,prepared,and made. Itresultsin physicalproducts: drawings,writteninstructions,nd procedures, a which allmust be faultless and availablewhen needed. Delays in the releaseof drawings can become very costlyindeed. In a manufacturer's overall plan of action, the design will be timed and synchronized with other activities. If the drawings are not available on schedule, sizable portions of a machine shop or an assembly plant may be forced to stand idle.
2.2 THE
IMPORTANCE
OF
DESIGN
QUALITY
Even today many people still regard the design of technical objects as not much more than the act of putting pencil lines on large
ROCKET
ENGINE DESIGN IMPLEMENTS
51
pieces of design not ideas their of the their tion even
of paper. is much occupy solutions,
Of course, broader. a drawing devoted to the to the
the Many board,
general since
concept may may of and many retain he
knowledge, judgment A number to the end designer Design force release. Design systematic the product
analytical of the designer tools his Among
capabllltms, himself. are design these available and are:
and
a designer of basic checking
of time-proven to optimize it describes. checkoff designer from See change evaluation all sample
be completely and
creation
the sheets
numerical
validity, most board, may be.
or to the of a design successful their most their
planning, team. designers valuable position to state with unless test,
direction, By contrast, always tool
sheets.-Checkoff to check imaginable sheet his design angles,
integration
sysbefore for for
tematically
of creation, organiza-
on next
page.
however
advanced
in the that the can
checkoff
sheets.-Used changes systems,
of design affected the vehicle.
It is a commonplace project design. tested, specified With this considered to follow. the effort well grind the the which known, design chain This necessary detailed man, built ters tail, field should times, bility, are: (1) (2) (3) (4) Experience, subcontractors Adequate Clear and spection Full use receiving complete and of the and parts failure but not from and are based will stand or fall until how and
a technical of its been operate can be actions are All this that links of the at a forechapdein the of only is it.
effects including sheet is
on
all potentially
quality be built, it has and
Obviously, or used first
no device
the user and shown below. reports.-The of his corrective control.-A and serial minimize and number,
A sample to the in the de-
Failure signer for immediate Change scrutinize and by engine be made.
feedback product action. projectwide proposed monitor if the
to build, a completed
of failures
field,
in mind, a set For
design
of instructions instance, of an their May final extensive, release.
for shop drawings diversified
effort changes; change
to
end product
to establish
implementation must
preceded yet and
sometimes the designer
forgotten it suffice are
in tim daily to state
of a project.
Specifications.-Detailed
specifications,
principal some
in a project. book attempts tools to supply required special "set to arrive shop
often based on applicable Government specifications, to establish the exact execution of all manufacturing parts
SO on.
processes, tests
materials
used, and
purchased,
to be performed,
of instructions an engine for test. to the latest state
_ to the could The
which prepared
be actually following technical art 2.3 SYSTEMS LAYOUT So far, designer at all reliathese tions cussed. and may of and the occur what It would describe for intion execution, young works designs, from can ject the of design and numerous engine detailed important design engine will to start, the now basic have design examples follow. how results. scope their of this of the breakdown, release. and reader has this specific in liquid a subderocket will be book generatheir The to considerabeen disANALYSIS AND DESIGN
devoted on the
necessary
of the
of liquid There are consider
propellant numerous early increase and
rocket areas keep
engines. which the in mind Among
for rocket The
procedures as they The
for overall and
of quality of cost.
and
treatment are are
of typical
for reduction
in practice where the
questions reliability, and and their inspection instructions control of others: reputation products
to proceed,
expected
be beyond detailed drawings, the
mechanics system uses the and knows.
quality
for their this The future book
experience out-of-plant existing
engineer, in industry, be assured (usually needs. techniques design. exhaustively,
who that
already
in-plant (5) (6) Use small tive system (7) Last,
student employer
of suitable and
to subsystems application and the of an effeccorrection analysis least,
manual specific sign experience, engine
voluminous) which following they are The as Many
covering is slanted are used
Availability
to his
of these
techniques
52
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
LIQUID Project: Subsystem:
ROCKET
ENGINE
DESIGN
CHECK-OFF
SHEET
Supervisor: Answer Item & initials Date Answer & initials Date
of demgner
of supervisor
1. Have designs for similar earlier projects thoroughly reviewed and understood? 2. Have principal contacted? a list participants m those Has their advice been prepared
been
projects solicited? which
been
3.. Has
been
of all problems related
were encountered including their 4
in previous, solutions?
projects,
Has the new engine system been reviewed for hidden Has the number been reduced bility and (In particular: achieved?) of components to a minimum, has
schematic diagram "won't works?" and their complexity without loss in flexifor maximum of moving reliability? parts been
5.
serviceability,
minimum
tlas a thorough (Assessment ponent system. vehicle
malfunction of malfunction
analysis effects
been made? of each com-
on all other parts Include external and GSE.) existing inclusion detail
and on the complete systems, such as the
7.
Have
all
designs
been
reviewed to the
for new
possible design? 8. Have
and'or
adaptation
standard
parts
been
used
wherever by customer
possible;
permissible: specifications? 9. Has the number connections")
or as prescribed
of external been held
connections ("customer to a minimum? of customer connections interest of the customer?
10.
tlas the locatmn and type been chosen in the best Has he been the need reduced consulted? for ground
11.
Has
support
equipment by number as
(GSE) well as
been
to a minimum, '_ reasons is different
by complexity 12 Are there good
it support from the
eqmpment one supplied
used to
during R&D the field? 13.
Have all environmental ered, including those occur? (Salt spray, etc.)
conditions not likely sand, fungus,
been considbut possible humidity,
to
temperature, 14 Has resistance
to vibration In all planes?
and
shock
effects improper
been
considered? handling? 15. Have acceleration
Including
effects
been
considered?
In all
planes?
ROCKET
ENGINE
DESIGN
IMPLEMENTS
53
LIQUID
ROCKET
ENGINE
DESIGN
CHECK-OFF & initials
SHEET--Continued Answer Date & initials Date
Answer Item 16. Has the use of criticalmaterials been held to a minimum? (Chromium, Molybdenum, Tungsten,
of designer
of supervisor
Cobalt, etc.?) 17. Has it been made absolutely certain that no cheaper materials will do? 18. Has it been assured that no electrolytic action can occur due to attachment of dissimilar metals? 19. Can the engines be gimbaled according to specifications? 20. Can the engine be clustered, if necessary? 21. Can the engine be attached to air frames other than the one presently contemplated? 22. Has it been confirmed that all parts can be made? 23. Has it been confirmed that there is no cheaper way of making these parts? 24. Can the parts readily be assembled, mum of special tools? with a mini-
25. Has it been made impossible to incorrectly assemble and install any part? (Or incorrectly reassemble and reinstallthem in the field?) 26. Will all parts requiring service be readily accessible, prior to and following mating of the engine with the vehicle? 27. Have all markings correctly? been called out completely and
28. Do instructions for inspection and quality control leave no gap? 29. Has it been ascertained that (without penalty) the design cannot save further weight? 30. Is the envelope the smallest possible? 31. Can the system be drained, readily and completely? (Avoidance of traps, low spots, etc.) 32. Have engine propellant feed system components, including pumps and thrust chamber been designed for minimum trapped propellants after cutoff? 33. Has the the (Minimum purchasing applicable? In one or several pieces? wet weight) been appraised sources, of
department of mandatory
significance
(proven)
where 34. Can
it be transported?
54
DESIGN
OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
LIQUID Project: Change No.: Item Assuming of this change that it has been understood of changed to other test stop parts
ROCKET
ENGINE
DESIGN
CHANGE
CHECK-OFF
SHEET
Supervisor:
I Initials of designer
ascertained and parts and and systems, GSE. inbeyond implemented doubt (has itg) that a design areas:
Date
l Initials must
of supervisor check that
I the
Date effect
change
be made,
is fully
in the
following
1. Interchangeability 2,. "Chain cluding 3. 4. 5 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Engine Engine Reaction" vehicle, start and
facilities, sequence, including
performance, with all
gain
factors.
Conformance Weight, Reliability. Instrumentation, Packaging, Development Human persons factors:
specifications. moments of inertia, loads
envelope,
e.g.,
data shipping, and
recording, storage.
telemetry.
qualification. skills, training, notification of
concerned. equipment and (spare other parts tooling materials. parrs. user and procedures
12. 13 14. 15. 16. t7. 18. 19 20.
Field
servme
Handbooks Logistics Manufacturing Purchased
documents.
maintenance). and processes.
Subcontractor-supplied Funding. Agreed-to Customer dehvery notification dates.
and
approval.
applied in subsequent chapters, in connection with the discussion and demonstration of various component designs. The activities discussed below are not clearly separated phases, following one another in a rigid sequence. Rather, they overlap, frequently occur in parallel, and are tightly interwoven. One of the first drawings the liquid-rocket designer will most likely prepare is a schematic diagram of the engine system. A typical example is shown in figure 2-10. This diagram shows how the principal components are linked together. The schematic may be accompanied by a sequence diagram, showing the operation of each compo-
nent
in relation
to the other
as a function
of time
(fig. 2-11). Concurrently, analyses will have been conducted to establish preliminary engine performance parameters and operating characteristics, as well as individual component configurations and operating principles. A typical example of a performance diagram is shown in figure 3-1. Engine and component starting and operating characteristics can be analytically predicted with a high degree of accuracy by computers. Thus, important knowledge required for optimum design is obtained long before the part is actually built and tested. Savings in time and cost are
_am.- ----
_ m,,L_ 55
:-_uuto
_ecK
_,_c_
AOOBTI_
_,Jeu _hJEct1_m
',
Figure
2-10.-Typical
START
engine
system
schematic
CUTOFF
diagram.
I: ....
_dECONDS
SECONDS
Figure
2-I l.-Typical
engine
system
sequence
diagram.
substantial. These analyses and computer programs will draw heavily upon experience with earlier systems and on advanced design studies. Once _he prototype schematic diagram is considered completed, and performance parameters have been established by the analysis, the first actual "engine picture" will be drawn. This very likely will be a general, in-scale preliminary layout of the engine system and components. A typical example of an engine system preliminary layout is shown in figure 3-2. Through continued analyses, calculations, consultations, and joint reviews by all participants, the layout will gradually take final shape. In this process, nothing should be left to chance.
Consultations with specialists in their fields and rigorous calculations doublechecked for accuracy and presented in a readily understood form, will contribute materially. Layout drawings should be made accurately and to true scale. In this manner, all components of the engine systemwill have been designed and optimized for one another, rather than "hung on a mounting frame in Christmas-tree fashion." Before working drawings are made from the layouts, they should again be reviewed, and revised as necessary, taking into consideration all design aspects, the basic considerations, and the reliability assurance aspects, which were discussed earlier.
56
ROCKET
ENGINES
2.4
STRESS
ANALYSIS
Analysis Effects and weight stress of engine the to fail They The but not requirements analyses compoin under genis to manner also goal In stress working
of Working Loads
and Environmental
Stringent call during nents. which anticipated erate design strength means a part for rigorous the Stress
reliability and analyses part working to prevent with detail. with shape on mechanical
analyses and jointly. call
for mechanical environmental Stresses parts loads, are effects and affected such
design, effects should instrains forces, signifias etc. temperaFurthermaterials thermal or
complete design predict
loads
be considered duced which cantly ture, more, are stresses gradients corrosion a of the the part. For and ronmental is essential: (1) (2) The The the we will chemical the affected are can material,
in mechanical by environmental
by external
a mechanical
is likely
conditions. failure.
reactions,
corrosion, properties as a result
sufficient,
excessive,
mechanical induced the change as
of most Sometimes,
in every
by temperature. within part. the well as
In conjunction the approximate based satisfactory design lished, similar preliminary the environmental determination step terials. stress (1) by step, The analyses: Analyze
the
engine parts of the is made.
design will past.
layouts, be estaband First, on
of temperature reactions properties and shape of
of the designs
Chemical mechanical the size
functional
requirements
sketch
Subsequently, loads, stresses, is made of mafor and endur-
determination
of probable effects, of the together following and final with steps determine effects life various from the failure
working
analysis effects,
of working determination
loads
and
envi-
deflections, dimensions the
of the
following
selection typical loads
type
of load: value the of load
constant, and
impact,
or
are the
repeated maximum load; duration and the of a conminiloads stant (3) The maximum
vironmental ing (2) part duced loads (3) Select the useful Evaluate
to be expected of the possible stress and part. modes strain working
mum value nature trated and,
for repeated rate loads,
or varying per unit
application:
concenof time number of
of in-
or uniform; for repeated cycles load effects with ductile with
total
within the part by the and from other effects. the materials properties conditions. of failure, of the arrive part. stress procedure. and
working (4) Vibration (5) (6)
establish under
their a likely final
mechanical working theory dimensions (4) Apply refine the part results. In certain lightweight finement refinement of stress of the complex stress effects, true cases, must
anticipated
Load effects material: Load effects
respect to the or brittle respect to the on
nature shape stress
of of
Applying at the
a part: effect concentration to (7) Temperature high-temperature strength, (8) Chemical reaction
of geometry thermal creep and
experimental the above
analyses
effects:
stresses, reduction embrittlement effects: of
Redesign on the
if necessary,
depending
low-temperature stress a proper a design expected in turn
or corrosion
such
as with further The more indicate
highly stress greater the the
stressed analysis the methods strength of reA part than design the the
embrittlement, will have with
concentration margin limit working of safety load larger The than load. smaller if
members,
be obtained. the must This
it is designed
desired, analysis
nearly
maximum limit load
true
should loads
be
member. states and
requires
consideration stresses, effects, which The
calculated and yield
damaging inaccuracy Damaging load, The the loads below. limit
because
of the in stress endurance
of stress, other within of the above. influences the
residual dynamic member. steps
uncertainty analyses. the limit are sis, the load, defined the design
involved include: ultimate accurate margin damaging
concentrations, stresses
inelastic following analy-
loads and allowable and
determine
load, the loads.
which analy-
more
is a discussion sis enumerated
four
of stress
smaller
between
57
Below are given typical recommended criteria for the working loads, the design limit loads, and the damaging loads (yield and ultimated loads). The proof-testing loads applied to component design are also defined. (1) Design limit load: Select the largest of the following: 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 x load load load x load (A) (B) (C) (D)
(2-8)
where Load (A)= Working load under normal steady operating conditions Load (B)= Working load under normal transient operation conditions, such as during normal engine start and stop Load (C)= Working load under occasional transient operation condition, such as load during irregular starts Load (D)= Mandatory malfunction load which must be taken into account. For example, in a clustered engine configuration, certain mount members may carry the greatest load when one engine ceases to fire while the others are still operating (engine-out capability). In certain instances it is mandatory that an individual rocket engine continue to operate when a given component fails. If this causes significant structural loads, these are considered mandatory malfunction loads. (2) Yield Yield load = 1.1 design limit load (2-9) load is the load which will induce a
When a part is subjected to an indefinite number of cycles during service life, such as in rotating machinery, the endurance limit of a material should be applied instead of the ultimate strength. The endurance limit is the stress which can be repeated an infinite number of times without causing failure of the material from progressive fracture or fatigue. The endurance limit of metals, depending largely on range of stress variation, is as low as between 20 to 60 percent of their ultimate strength in tension. An additional design margin of safety should also be allowed for dynamic impact loads. When the shape of a part changes abruptly, as with a groove, a notch, a hole, or where a small section joins a large one, the value of unit stress at points close to the abrupt change or discontinuity increases steeply. The amount of stress increase generally ranges from 100 to 300 percent of the mean stress in the section.
Sample
Calculation
2-2
stress equal to the yield strength of the material used under rated ambient conditions. (3) Ultimate load = 1.5 design limit load (2-10) Ultimate load is the load which will induce a stress equal to the ultimate strength of the material used under rated ambient conditions. (4) Proof test load = 1.0 x design limit load (2-11) Proof test load is the load which is applied to test the part during the acceptance inspection. Its value can be adjusted for material properties if the rated ambient conditions cannot be duplicated for the test.
Tim hydraulic accumulator of a large liquidpropellant rocket engine has the following design parameters: (a) Required volume (fluid capacity), 7238 cu in.; (b) working pressure (load) under normal steady and transient operating conditions, 2000 psia; (c) occasional surge pressure, 2200 psia; _) mandatory malfunction pressure, 2450 ps!a; (e) maximum ambient temperature, 300 F; (f_) material selected, AISI 4340 H.T.-180. (Strength at room temperature: Ultimate, 185000 psi; yield, 170000 psi. Strength at 300 F: Ultimate, 178000 psi; yield, 150000 psia.) Determine the following: (a_) Lightest possible configuration and resulting dimensions; _) required proof test pressure at room temperature.
Solution (a) Since a sphere is the lightest pressure vessel for a given volume and pressure, we will use this configuration. For a 7238-cu-in. volume Required inside diameter of the sphere
=_ = 24 inch
=_/_
7238
58
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
From largest
equation of the
(2-8),
design
limit
pressure
a material failure,it may ponent or system.
cause a part to perform
following: 1.2 x 2000 1.0 2450 Selected: = 2400 = 2450 2450 yield psia; psia; psia psia pressure = 1.1
improperly with resulting malfunction of a comThe other two-plastic deformation and fracture-are material failures influenced the part. Each of the three failure modes is characterized by certain criteria. For elastic deflection, by material properties, load and conditions, and by the shape of
1.1 x 2200=2420
environmental
From 2450= Thickness
equation 2695 psia
(2-9),
strain is the criterion. For plastic deformation of sphere Yield

Z
wall pressure diameter strength of sphere
and fracture, the criterion is stress. In the process of stress analyses, following load determina-
4 x yield
at 300 F
tion, tilepossible modes of failure of the part can be established in relation to the criteriainduced by the loads. Failure cause can thus be deter-
2695 x 24 - 4"_ _--_0---_-0 = 0.108
inch
mined, and the failure prevented through design changes. Some of the possible combinations of failure modes and criteriaare listed in table 2-3 suggested design remedies.
or from
equation
(2-10):
together
with
Ultimate pressure = 1.5 x 2450 = 3675 psia Selection Thickness of sphere Ultimate wall pressure x diameter strength of sphere For of a part ronmental or ability : 0.124 inch these are We will inside (b) pressure use the the higher sphere value 0.124 wall inch. = 24-inch thickness. proof test with loads shear cation and : Design = 2450 limit psia pressure tion loads determined specimens. such are as applied, The From most be selected. the process of finalizing all selected be known. working without the loads failure, Material tests all dimensions and envito endure conditions of the must of Materials and Dimensions
4 ultimate 3675x24 - 4"_. _ 8-'_'0
at 300 F
the strength to withstand properties conducted conceivable torsion, and appliin graphs with applica-
material
through
materials tests, with vibration, are tables,
In these tension, often results these
Therefore, diameter From
dimensions nominal
compression,
x 0.124-inch (2-11),
simultaneous or chemical compiled materials
equation
of temperature, tables. can
at 300F
environment. properties
suitable
for a particular
Proof test pressure ature conditions:
corrected
for room
temper-
Experimental A rocket
Stress engine
Analyses part may a way, alone cases advances the be of such that design is difficult theoretical in stress shape, based and stress methanalysis of effective or
=2450x
Yield
strength Yield
at room
temperature
may
be loaded
in such analysis In such supplement
strength 2780 psig
at 300 F
on theoretical unreliable. analyses ods. can Many can
experimental
= 2450
x 170000= 150 000
recent
be attributed
to the methods.
development
Evaluation There elastic tion, and
of Failure are three
Modes types the of failure plastic first type modes: is not
experimental Applying sible those measurements These loads
loads
simulating
as
closely
as
pos-
basic
deflection, fracture.
permanent Although
deforma-
expected to occur in actual use, of strains and stresses are made. can be applied to full-size prototype
(
59
TABLE
2-3.-Failure
Modes
and
Their
Criteria
Failure 1. Elastic
mode
Conditions
Criteria
Design
remedies
deflection: Loads within elastic limits Strain; linear or angular displacement (stretch or bending) Buckling: ratio of applied vs. critical load Amplitude, frequency transmissibility, resonance Change of shape or dimensions (stiffening); material selection Change sions of shape or dimen-
a. Stable equilibrium...
b. Unstable
equilibrium.
Loads within elastic
limits
c. Vibration ...........
Within elastic limits: abrupt changes of loads; repeated application of load at or near natural frequency Loads exceed elastic limits
Stiffening; change of natural frequency; damping
2. Plastic deformation: a. Yield .............. b. Creep .............. 3. Fracture: a. Overload ........... b. Brittleness .........
Stress;permanentset Stress;slow permanentset
Change of dimensions material Change of dimensions material
and 'or and or
Loads may or may not exceed elastic limits; elevated temperatures Load increase beyond yield point to.ultimate strength Load above ultimate strength
c. Impact or shock ....
Abrupt load application ductile materials
to
d. Fatigue
............
Many repeated load applications within elastic limits
Change of dimensions and 'or Stress:elongation; area material reduction; rupture Stress;rupture with little Change of dimensions or and. or material: change of heat no yield treatment; change of contour Selection most duclile of Stress; behavior like brittle materials material: increased mar,'.4'In of safety Stress; number of load appli- Change of shape and dimencations sions: change of material; increase of endurance lilni[s
parts, rial tions applied rated These margin The ses strain quers,
to scale or from loads levels, "tests of safety tools gages; and of full-scale
models parts.
made Not
from material,
the
real
mate(3) beyond
of the liquid Required ties; specific Poisson's corrosion
extreme rocket density, heat, ratio, physical
temperature engines and thermal coefficient
conditions proper-
in
special are until
plastic intentionally failure
or to por-
infrequently, increased part establish design. stress and models, analyoptical lacoccurs. the actual
chemical
conductivity, of expansion, ratio, with
of the will
to failure" achieved
strength-to-weight compatibility to fabrication, castability, and
in the mechanical, plastic
resistance, as related forgeability, machinability, availability and and
used electrical,
in experimental
propellants (4) Considerations such ability, (5) Cost and as
a function
of temperature weld-
include
photoelastic paints.
formability
2.5
SELECTION The selection rocket function,
OF
MATERIALS most part and suitable will shape hardness, material
(6)
Existing industry standards temperature with ratios the need drastically
Government corrosion the with conditions choice the cryogenic probyield and of
of the engine size,
Extreme combined weight available low lems.
for a given by(l) (2) The
be governed of the and part
for very-high-strength-tonarrow extremely
materials.
In particular, encountered
Required stiffness ductility,
mechanical or rigidity, with
properties;
strength,
temperatures have As a rule,
liquids
introduced tensile
serious strength
materials
particular
consideration
60
strength increase with decreasing temperature. However, ductility is seriously affected. Apart from selecting the best alloys for extremely low temperatures, highest purity of the metals is mandatory. The increased usage of liquid hydrogen has introduced additional problems which further narrow the selection of available materials. Specifically exhibit: for the LH: application, metals must
Resistance to Chemical Reactions While low-temperature hydrogen is considered essentially noncorrosive, gaseous hydrogen forms hydrides with some metals, such as uranium and titanium. For up-to-date detail on material properties, the reader is referred to material handbooks, industry (material supplier) information, and Government publications (Bureau of Standards). The principal groups of materials used for liquid rocket engines are as follows:
Resistance to Low-Temperature Embrittlement This can also be referred to as toughness or resistance to brittle fracture. Toughness, in general, describes resistance to fracture under shock-type loads and stresses. Most rocket engine parts are exposed to these loads; however, conditions are much more severe at the extremely low liquid-hydrogen temperatures. The tendency of various alloys to brittle failure is measured experimentally by the notched/unnotched tensile strength ratio. Typically, for 2014-T6 aluminum at -423 F, the ratio is 0.94 (longitudinal) and 0.83 (transverse). Resistance to Thermal Shock This is a measure of a material's ability to resist weakening or fracture as a result of sudden heating or cooling. The following properties appear to be requirements for high thermal shock resistance: High tensile strength (Ftu), high thermal conductivity (k), low modulus of elasticity (E), and a low coefficient of thermal expansion (a). The ratio Ftuk/Ea provides a relative measure of thermal shock resistance for comparison of different 5 to 8 for stainless 2014-T6 aluminum. metals. Typical values steel and 40 to 48 for are
Low-Alloy
Steels
Uses for rocket engine components include pins, bolts, shafts, brackets, mounts, thrust chamber structure members, ducts, injector bodies, and certain pressure vessels. The standard grades AISI 4130, AISI 4140, AISI 4340, MAS 6434 are prominent in this group of steels. The low-alloy steels are normally used in the temperature range from -60 F to 600 F. They are not suitable for corrosive environments. Elevated temperatures produce excessive creep, thus reducing the strength. Also, very low temperatures tend to induce brittleness in most of them. An exception is AMS (SAE 9310).
Austenitic
Stainless
Steels
(3{}0 Series)
Resistance to Hydrogen Embrittlement Certain metals, such as steels and titanium alloys, have a tendency to embrittlement in a hydrogen atmosphere. This tendency is greatest in the intermediate-temperature range, but disappears at low and high temperatures, The effect is often delayed until a critical hydrogen concentration in the metal is reached when cracks start to appear, as a result of a marked decrease in ductility. Also, the embrittlement effect decreases with increasing strain in the metal. Heat-treated steels are more susceptible to it than annealed ones.
Steels in this group possess the highest corrosion resistance in the family of stainless steels and are highly qualified for storable liquid propellant application. They are inherently tough and well adapted for fabrication by deep drawing and other similar means. They can be welded easily, can be soldered by proper technique, and are well suited for machining and forming under normal conditions. Ordinary sand castings, precision investment castings, and forgings can also be produced from these steels. They are widely employed in rocket engines using cryogenic and storable propellants. Parts such as regenerative-cooled thrust-chamber tubes and manifolds,injector bodies and domes, valve poppets and bodies,propellant ducts and tanks are made from these steels.
Martensitic-Type StainlessSteels(400 Series) The steelsin thisgroup are hardenable,in
61
which condition they exhibit their best mechanical as well as corrosion-resisting properties. The thermal conductivity of these steels is low but still the best of the stainless-steel family. They are specially suitable for hot working or forging. Their cold-forming characteristics are fair. They are well suited for most applications requiring high strength, hardness, and resistance to abrasion, wet and dry erosion, and moderate corrosion. They are not suitable for cryogenic applications, because of brittleness and shock sensitivity under these conditions. They are used for turbopump ball bearings and shafts, gears, valve actuators, and cams.
spinning, stamping, and shape bending. Most of them are also adaptable for forging, welding, brazing, and soldering. Aluminum alloys can be cast by all three common casting methods: sand, permanent mold, and pressure die casting. Mechanical properties and workability of aluminum castings are excellent. Aluminum alloys are the most widely used materials in rocket engine construction except where elevated temperatures are encountered. Typical applications are valve bodies and poppets, injector domes, propellant tanks and ducts, pump housings, impellers and inducers, and structure mounts.
SemiausteniticStainlessSteels The steelsin thisgroup can be formed in the soft stateand then precipitation ardened. They h are intended foruse in parts requiring corrosion resistance and high strength at operating temperatures up to 800 F, and where such parts may require welding and soldering during fabrication. However, the corrosion resistance of this type of steel is not as good as that of the austenitic stainless steels. Rocket engine component parts, such as thrust chambers, pump shafts, levers, brackets, bellows, ducts, springs, clamp rings, valve poppets, housings, and pressure vessels, have been made from the steels of this group.
Magnesium
Alloys
Magnesium alloys have found many applications in rocket engines and vehicles because of their excellent strength-to-weight, fatigue and stiffness characteristics. These alloys are used to make pump housings, valve bodies, and structure mounts and are available in sheets, rods, and castings. Magnesium sheet alloys can be formed at elevated temperatures. They are also suitable for various machining processes. They can be joined by fusion and resistance welding as well as by adhesive bonding. Magnesium alloys can be cast by all three common casting methods: sand, permanent mold, and pressure die casting. Certain cast alloys can also be welded and heat treated.
Aluminum Alloys Pure metallic aluminum has a relatively low High-Temperature Nickel-Base Alloys
strength. However, the strength can be greatly increased by alloying aluminum with one or more metals or metalloids. This can be accomplished without affecting appreciably the other desirable properties of aluminum, such as low weight, corrosion resistance, ductility, good thermal and electric conductivity. Wrought alloys of aluminum are generally of two types: one group that can be hardened by cold-working only (non-heat-treatable), such as 1100, 3003, 3004, 5050, and 5052 and a second group that will respond to both cold-working and heat-treatment, such as 2011, 2014, 2017, 2024, 6061, 6066, and 7075. Wrought-aluminum alloys are suitable for fabrication processes such as machining, shearing, drawing, stretch forming,
The metals included in thisgroup are used primarily fortheirstrengthat temperaturesup to 1700 F. The majorityof them contain aluminum or titaniumas precipitation-hardening agents and are vacuum melted. Their resistanceto oxidationand corrosionis excellent. These alloys have found wide application rocket engine in components such as: turbinehousings, wheels, and blades; thrustchamber tubes and injectors; gas generators;high-temperature gas ducts, bolts,and fasteners.
Special
Alloys extreme temperature condi-
The ever-present
62
tions in liquid rockets calls intensive materials research, the advent of liquid hydrogen tion to the metals discussed paragraphs, other metals and increasing attention. Among
for continued and particularly with systems. In addiin the preceding alloys are receiving these are:
ered
Columbium.-This for cryogenic
metal has been considapplication, but is liable
to become embrittled at very low temperatures. Titanium-base alloys.-These alloys have attracted considerable attention because of their larly high strength-to-density at very low temperatures. ratios, particu-
Copper base a11oys.-These metals exhibit excellent ductility and toughness at very low temperatures Typical representatives are Berylco-10, -25 alloys, and Fe-Si bronze. Cobalt base a11oys.-The properties of these metals, such as Haynes-25, are similar to those of the nickel alloys. Tantalum.-Tantalum, when pure, has good properties at both low and elevated temperatures.
Nonmetallic
Materials
For gaskets, seals, lubricants, thread compounds, and the like, liquid rocket engines require compatible nonmetallic materials. A great variety of commercial products is available. In advanced LOX-pump designs, as well as in liquid-hydrogen pumps, the pumped fluid is used as the lubricant.
Chapter Introduction
3.1 APPROACH It is a major the student with in liquid and component industry tems that tively, istic feeling for the space associated this book goal the of this detailed book rocket The to familiarize used sysfeel effecof reala good major were and their for made by engine authors subject a set between calculations calculations were not As especially multistage prepared or of sion
III
to
Sample
lant levels. permit would teacher and the combinations, In practice multiple be chosen. using this For what propellant would combined intended Alpha use
Calculations
feed systems, fewer the and thrust or to and the
for logistics of parts, In fact, book instance, engine-design A-2 and combination; be obtained into one,
reasons, student
techniques
combinations
propellant design.
may find the the
it interesting chosen by student parameters may wish to use design and A-3
to convey nothing sample for the engines vehicle.
a feeling serves calculations.
for this better than
instructive authors.l result
to modify
designs
To promote
to determine would the A-4 and same were
interrelationship principal These of a hypothetical
if stages
A-3
were or,
subsystems,
the
what
parameters throttling It is not for the
if stages capable nominal
of restart thrust. mis-
designs and engines. are
to 30 percent
related the are
to existing
to suggest vehicle be the
a specific
planned liquid quent sumed out the the space
various discussed
subsystems in subsesample of that asthrough"Alpha" of four 3-1
However, landing on the to Earth. follows:
a "primary of an un-
rocket chapters,
engines most will which book. will A-3,
mission" manned samples sequence Stage Stage tude Stage inject Stage First and Earth
for it could scientific and may A-I: A-2: and A-3: into A-4: start: Moon start: to its return then Boost Boost inject
of the thus For
supporting engines will appear the
payload them be as
Moon The
to gather staging
calculations vehicle, entire
be for the
simplicity
of reference,
to 250000-foot to 300-nautical-mite into Earth parking
altitude. altiorbit. velocity and
vehicle A-l, A-2,
be called and A-4. Alpha
vehicle: stages: the major The though chosen tions a different and
it is assumed parameters Alpha not vehicle necessarily propellant for each designs stage
to be composed Table of the
lists
Accelerate a translunar
to escape trajectory.
vehicle. is For has sample realistic, instance, been calculapropel-
combination optimized. combination to permit
Deceleration landing Moon main takeoff
for lunar of scientific for return
orbit payload to A-4
soft
Second In addition will require
for a number
of typical
powerplant,
stage
very-low-thrust for a given retains
attitude-control "primary a certain mission," degree of
TABLE
3.1.-4-Stage
Space
Alpha
Vehicle
jets. Even if designed a vehicle combination
Takeoff weight, 2 100 000 lb; Payload a for 300-n.mi. orbit. 109 500 lb. Stage thrust, lb 3000000 600000 48000 15000 of stages Number of engines 4 4 3 2 , Engine thrust, lb 750000 150000 16000 7500
Stage
Propellant
A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4
............. ............. ............. .............
LO2/RP-1 LO2/LH 2 LF2/LH 2 N204/N2H 4 pay-
a Consisting load.
3 and 4, and of the mission
t Several good books on astronautics and space dynamics are available from which student and teacher may gather mission data for their own engine selection _tnd design. Among them is a little book by Dr. Wernher yon Braun, "The Mars Project" (University of Illinois, Urbana, 1962, $0.95). Most of the calculations in this book were made as early as 1948. yet are still fundamentally applicable. They appear ideally suited for the reader to design his own up-to-date engine system for the manned Mars mission described, for which all necessary vehicle data are presented. 63
64
flexibility. Within the limits of existing propellant tank configurations, the following principal possibilities of modification exist: Omission of the upper two stages, for Earth-orbital tankers, shuttle vehicles, spacestation assembly, and supply ships. Omission of stage A-4, for unmanned deep space probe assignments, with no return intended. Off-nominal tanking of one or more stages. This may yield some overall performance gains for special missions. It is emphatically not intended to say that the stated modifications can be made a few days before launch. Rather, the stages and certain of their subsystems, in particular the engines, should be regarded as building blocks. Their availability can permit meeting a new requirement within, for example, a year, as compared to several years when "starting from scratch." In such ways, substantial gains have been obtained in practice. The earlier Thor, and the Redstone and Atlas Mercury boosters are well-known such cases. Brief mention should be made here of a special type of system: experimental engine systems, sometimes referred to as breadboard engines. Because of time and fund limitations, the design and development of liquid rocket engines for a given mission rarely permit the investigation of novel ideas and principles. New ideas must then be tried out independently, detached from rigid schedules. Here the test effort can be conducted with full awareness that many of the principles under investigation will not "make the grade." However, while those that succeed can be applied to advanced operational systems, the eliminated marginal ones are just as valuable, as they were early prevented from finding their way into operational engines. If experimentally verified advances are selected for operational use with strong emphasis on vehicle application, true progress will have been made. The major U.S. liquid propellant engine manufacturers have been conducting experimental engine programs with excellent results for a number of years. The reader will now be acquainted with some of the characteristics of the engines which have been selected for the different stages of the Alpha vehicle. While discussing and implementing these in greater detail in subsequent chap-
ters, and through calculations and layouts, this summarizing description can serve as a guide and reference, throughout the book. 3.2 A-I STAGE ENGINE
Four engines of 750 000-pound thrust each were selected for a combined thrust of 3 million pounds (3000K), as a compromise between number of engine systems, and thus complexity on one hand, and flexibility on the other. Flexibility is offered through the possibility of including engine-out capabilities; of using existing smaller systems or designs; and for guidance and packaging considerations. The propellant combination of liquid oxygen and kerosene type RP-I fuel was selected for the A-I engine. The selection was guided by the consideration that high performance is not as critical for first booster stages as it is for upper stages. Both propellants are abundantly available and comparatively inexpensive. The fluids and their combustion products are "docile"; their corrosivity is nil. Both fluids are relatively dense. Liquid propellant rocket engine systems using these propellants are well developed and reliable, and many "off the shelf" components and designs are available for them.
General
Engine
System
Description
The A-1 engine is a single-start, fixed-thrust, gimbaled, bipropellant system. The fuel, RP-1, is also used as the turbopump lubricant and as the engine control system actuating fluid. The major components of the A-1 engine are a regeneratively fuel-cooled, double-pass, tubular-wall thrust chamber with bolt-on injector; a directdrive turbopump consisting of two centrifugal pumps and a single-stage, two-wheel turbine; an uncooled gas generator with dual-ball valve; butterfly main valves; and required controls. The gas generator uses the same propellant combination as the thrust chamber. Table 3-2 presents all necessary operating parameters on which engine component designs will be based for the A-1 engine system. The A-1 engine system schematic diagram is shown in figure 2-7. This diagram identifies clearly all major engine components and their interconnecting plumbing. For the various
INTRODUCTION
TO SAMPLE
CALCULATIONS
65
TABLE 3-2.-750K
A-1
Stage
Engine Operating
conditions]
Parameters
[Sea-level Engine (turbopump feed): lb ........ sec .......... sec ........ lb/sec lb/ft ..... 3 ...... 750000 165 252.4 1967.7 71.38 892.3 50.45 2.20
Line Main
pressure valve
drop ................ pressure orifice ............... pressure drop ....
psi psi
........... ...........
10 15 110 45 1720 4790
Thrust .......................... Nominal single-firing Specific Oxidizer Flow impulse LO2:
duration
......
..................
Calibration Pump:
psi .......... psia psia .......... ........
rate ..................... .......................
Inlet pressure ................. Discharge pressure ............ Developed Pump: Flow pump rate head .............
Density Fuel RP-I:
ft .......... lb/sec .......
Flow rate ..................... Density ....................... Mixture Thrust ratio ..................... (tubular cooled wall construction by fuel):
lb/see... lb/ft 3 ...... O/F ........
.....................
892 11 790 65.8 7000
Shaft power ................... Efficiency .................... Shaft speed ...................
bhp ........ Percent ..... rpm .........
chamber
regeneratively
Turbine: Inlet Inlet Gas Shaft Shaft Shaft Auxiliary Shaft Gas pressure .................... temperature ................. ratio rate ................................ .................... lb/sec bhp ........ Percent rpm ......... in-lb ....... ..... ........ flow psia ......... F ......... 640 1400 23.7 92 27 140 58.2 7000 20380
Thrust Specific Injector Nozzle Oxidizer Fuel
.......................... impulse .................. end pressure .............. stagnation pressure ........ flow rate ................ rate ....................
lb ........ sec .......... psia psia Ib/sec lb/sec O/F Percent ft/sec Percent Ac/Ae ........ ........ ...... ....... ........ ..... ...... ....... .......
747 000 270 1095 1000 1941 827 2.35 97.5 5660 98 1.532 1.6 14 487 45 80 percent bell
Pressure
power speed torque drive: power
...................... ....................... ...................... ......................
flow
Efficiency
Mixture
ratio .....................
c* efficiency ..................... c* .............................. Ct efficiency ..................... Ct ......................................... Contraction ratio ................. Expansion ratio .................. Throat area A_ ................... L* .............................. Nozzle contour ..........................
...................... system:
bhp ..........
500
Ae/A t ........ in s .......... in ............
generator Oxidizer Flow Line
side: rate ..................... loss ................. drop ............. .... lb/sec ...... 26.7 25 25 615 10 120 65.3 25 25 800 20 140 0.408 710 70
Entrance
psi ........... psi ........... psi psi psi lb/sec .......... ........... ......... ......
Oxidizer
side: psi .......... psi .......... psi ........... psi ........... psia .......... psia ........ ft .......... lb/sec ...... 200 150 25 35 55 1505 2930 1971 14 850 70.7 7000 3
pressure
Injector pressure drop ............. Torus dome pressure drop .......... Line pressure drop ................ Main valve Pump inlet pressure pressure drop .......... ...............
Control-orifice pressure drop Valve pressure drop ............ Injector pressure drop .......... Fuel side: Flow rate ..................... ................ drop ............. pressure drop drop ............ drop ..........
Pump discharge Developed pump Pump: Flow rate
pressure .......... head .............
Entrance loss Line pressure Control-orifice Valve pressure Injector Gas pressure generator: Mixture ratio Injector Combustor Thrust vector end
psi ........... psi ........... .... psi .......... psi ........... psi .......... O/F ....... .........
.....................
Shaft power ................... Efficiency .................... Shaft speed Heat exchanger ................... ...................
bhp ........ Percent ..... rpm ......... lb/sec .........
.................. pressure pressure ........... drop ........
psia
psi ...........
control: acceleration velocity ................... ............. ................. rad/sec: deg/sec deg .......... ....... ....... 1 10 _q4
Fuel
side: Minimum pressure drop ............. and manifold pressure psi .......... psi .......... 200 290 Maximum Displacement
Injector Jacket
drop.,
6G
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
MAIN
OXIDIZER
VALVE [
_P-_OXIDIZER PiN = 55
INLET PStA
P= 1505 PSIA LDX-DISCHARGE DUCT WC, =27 #/SEC GO INJECTOR _P
W= 1971 :/'SEC OXIDIZER PUMF
ORIFICE_ I10 PSi /
PINJ END = 109,5 PSIA PC = t000 PSIA MAIN FUEL VALV E
P =1720 PSIA FUELDISCHARGE
VI,/=892-'#/SEC
FUEL PUMP PIN=45 PSIA INLET
=65 #/SEC W= 92.'fk/SEC-
4--
FUEL
GENERATOR = 1400 F
== 6"1.0 PSIA
TURBINE
TURBINE
EXHAUST
P=27PSIA
A-I THRUST CHAMBER 750K First Stage Engine
Fuel Developed Flow rate Efficiency Nominal Propellants: Liquid RP-1 Thrust Specific Mixture (sea engine parameters Horsepower Speed oxygen density level) impulse ratio Thrust Expansion area Throat area Thrust Specific Mixture Flow impulse ratio ratio chamber 14 487 747 270 2.35 1941 827 density 71.38 50.45 750000 262.4 2.20 lb/ft lb/ft lb sec 3 3 Developed Flow rate Efficiency Horsepower Speed head Oxidizer head
pump 4790 892 65.8% 11 790 7000 pump 2930 ft bhp rpm ft lb/sec
1971 lb/see 70.7% 14 850 7000 Turbine bhp rpm
in 2 000 sec lb Pin Pressure TemPin Efficiency Horsepower Exhaust thrust ratio 640 psia 23.7 1400 F 58.2% 27 140 bhp 3000 lb
rates: oxidizer fuel
lb ' sec lb sec
Figure
3-1.-A-I
engine
performance
diagram.
INTRODUCTION
TO SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
67
phases been basic formance
of engine found engine useful diagram."
design to work This
and
development, an "engine
it has perof the perdiagram is
chamber. on these plumbing ment discharge Rather,
All two
other
components or are them.
are either located This without
mounted in the
from the A-1
assemblies, between
is a combination and principal engine
system
arrangepunlpflexure. by weighs wet, its pounds and 3-2,
schematic
permits
engine
gimbaling
formance shown reader the
parameters. in figure prepare three simplicity 3-1. his stages.
The It is own
high-pressure thrust-vector the entire 7500 pounds dimensions of the
propellant-duct control engine. pounds A-1 are is achieved The dry, The engine shown engine 7900 system in figure
suggested
that
the for
performance
diagrams
gimbaling approximately and 7830
other For
at burnout.
preliminary
of mounting is attached
and
compactness, to the thrust
design overall
layout
the
turbopump
directly
1555 42,0 ._LCI"u ATOR ATTACH : FOX / DOME/" _ f_FUEL MANIFOLD CHAMBER
G_MBAL_-..
95.9
I II_.-, BEAR,NG / _ | VEHICLE I#/ / ATTACH/
FLEXBILE DISCHARGE
PROPELLANT DUCTS _ ,3.1
OX INLET GENERATOR VALVE
--,//
--4o.5--_,\\
' OX PUMP \LFUEL _FUEL INLET PUMP
iNLET OUTLET 8
Figure System The ladder are used Operation starting sequence under method start," (figs.
3-2.-A-1
750K
first
stage
engine spark
system plugs. remains
preliminary At this closed, until pressures
layout. point, since the the main valve oxidizer spring higher by the level turbopump. pressures is main convalves. is
of the 2-7 and
A-1 2-8).
engine with
is the pressure
valve prevents actuating
"main-tank-head
combined
opening fuel
substantially are developed
Propellants to
vehicle-tank-head
pressures
initiategas generator operation. pump starts to accelerate, main
As the turbopropellant preslevel.
pump later in the The low initial sufficient This, available to start to the upstream the in turn,
sequence. gas generator and gas gas accelerate the generator, still
power the which
increases of the
propellant closed
sures "bootstrap" the system Starting After pleted surized, activated four-way closing sure ator open erator opening valve and all and the Sequence vehicle the gas main launch propellant dual signal is and fuel
to mainstage
nected preparations tanks are are presare com-
As a result, "bootstraps" (valve valve The presto the genervalves gas genby the sequence in turn igniter Hypergol combustion with the spring opens.
generator-turbine fuel pump the oxidizer linked The to the its outlet main valve
system pressure oxidizer stroke, fuel valve
itself. rate selection), the
At a predetermined
generator a given valve vented tank main The where
sparkplugs and the engine outlet gas
upon control side is
During and
energized pump is
to open. admitted and
an integral
mechanically is actuated. fuel as pressure rupturing
igniter sequence hypergol enters and by the
valve admits cartridge, (such oxidizer
(50 psia side admit
from of the both
head) gas
oxidizer
diaphragms. the ignites main
actuators.
generator to the are ignited
triethylaluminum) igniter being elements admitted just
propellants they
chamber
combustor,
68
oxidizer sustains The monitor to the combustion main valve. the is valve. fuel which enters and chamber Fuel igniter
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
following flame. resulting
the
hypergol from the fuel igniter ignition pressure opening
equally are
true
for liquid available. vapor-is combinations, like of the aspect Most
hydrogen. Their the most solid gases the
Both
elements of all Telemattenuasignals, and theo-
abundantly
combustion harmless low or liquid. of the on ItF guidance yield
pressure sufficient This valve valve
product-water propellant etry tion effects engineers
to actuate admits opening
it because exhaust for vehicle
actuator,
the valve, Main fuel ber pressure
is the last step in the sequence. the combustion chamber; chamthrust climb to the rated level.
an important telemetry. impulse retical
important, combination for chemical
in specific to the Only are Howand fluorine components less the
of this maximum
is close reactions.
Cutoff Upon four-way The valves pressure vent, by and all the
Sequence receipt control of a cutoff valve of all power the held the valve signal, valves and the engine to close. vent; main propellant closed closed the tanks position valve by adport, cutoff of that duct oxidizer valves vol-
certain slightly is deenergized
fluorinehydrogen higher (approximately
combinations 4 percent).
ever, the extreme compounds, both of combustion attractive
toxicity of fluorine as a liquid and as makes use.
opening close.
pressures Turbine While are oxidizer
products,
fluorine
chamber
for operational
By building
decay. valves Note main
main in their gas are
A-1 and A-2 stage a little larger, the load can be obtained as with fluorine. all advantages of liquid the oxygen great and
same payHowever, hydrogen of available are
springs.
that
generator closing by that
retained, experience.
including
amount
mitting while force decay time (no need precision
actuation the only. main
pressure fuel valve has
to their is closed shown
spring
Hydrogen principal rather one bulky
does is tanks.
have low For
its
drawbacks. resulting oxygen-to-
The in
Experience is largely
density, a typical
influenced and has The however, by the fast
by turbopump cessation smallest case the closing from
characteristics flow the which valve, below cooling some
propellant
hydrogen mixture ratio of 5:1, the corresponding volume ratio is inversed: 1:3. This disadvantage, stages expected will further however, by the that is high the successfully energy improved vehicle increase effect unless Because large input the stages. of low tanks of the surface per the unit low sharply and low area density lines density, of the is a high are properly and containmass of liquid air heat boiloff is vital. insulation are rates. on the is of and yield state tank superiority offset (Is). for upper It can be
in this
jacket). timing,
water-hammer
of the
art of
considerations.
ultralightweight
constructions of hydrogen
3.3
A-2 For
STAGE the same
ENGINE reasons has as been with the A-1 stage, a
systems boiloff insulated. the ers, the high. hydrogen tank Tank transfer and
for upper rate,
A secondary a four-engine total pounds vehicle use stages, vacuum per cluster thrust engine). chosen, pounds of the obtainable in upper and liquid having (150 through booster hydrogen the For atten000 substantial
of 600 000 Because gains propellants (LO2)
resulting the heat is rates, line
hydrogen to liquefy increases therefore, vehicle weight
performance liquid oxygen
Furthermore, sufficiently This
temperature
of high-energy
surfaces.
(LH2) have been selected decades this combination tion of rocket only engines are experimenters relatively reached in active
as propellants. has attracted and recently maturity.
resulting insulation,
in extreme
developers. has the Several or in art of
Although are highly incurred. Overall, ance gain
techniques developed,
of rocket some
However, hydrogen major early
penalties
systems flight
development
however, can
a substantial for upper
net
perform-
application. the years, the production liquid matter; It can near future a routine and oxygen its handling (LO 2 or price has
be obtained
stages.
Through of the "LOX') come
cryogenic down
propellant
has become
considerably. that in the
be reasonably this will be
General The
Engine A-2
System
Description fixed-thrust,
expected
engine
is a single-start,
INTRODUCTION
TO SAMPLE
CALCULATIONS
69
TABLE
3-3.-150K
A-2
Stage [Vacuum
Engine conditions] Shaft Turbine: lnlet
Operating
Parameters
Engine Thrust
(turbopump
feed): lb ........ duration ...... see .......... see .......... lb/sec lb/fi lb/sec lb/fi O/F ....... 3 ...... ...... 3 ....... ........... 150 000 250 434 288 71.38 57.6 4.42 5
speed pressure
................... .................
rpm ......... psia F ......... ......... ...... .....
8600 700 1200 16 1.58 1940 543 8600 14200
.......................... single-firing impulse ..................
Nominal Specific Oxidizer Flow Density
LO2: rate ..................... ....................... .....................
Inlet temperature ............... Pressure ratio ............................... Gas Shaft Shaft Shaft Fuel side: Injector Jacket Line Main Pump Pump Pump Pump pressure and pressure valve manifold pressure orifice drop ............. pressure drop pressure drop flow rate .................. ................... .................... ................... ................... power speed torque
ib/sec Percent
bhp ......... rpm ......... in-lb .......
Fuel LH2: Flow rate
Efficiency
Density ....................... Mixture ratio .....................
Thrust
chamber
(tubular cooled cooled
wall construction by fuel. Nozzle by turbine exhaust
regeneratively extension film gas): 149 500 440 875 800 285.2 54.5 5.22 97.5 7480 101 1.895 1.60 40 98.6 26 75 percent bell
psi psi
.......... ...........
100 325 20 20 60 25 1400 44 800 59.8 6080 2.2 6100 ....... 80 27 000
.. psi .......... psi ........... psi ........... psia psia .......... ........
drop ................ .......... drop ....
Thrust Specific Injector
.......................... impulse end .................. .............. ........ pressure
Ib ........ sec .......... psia ......... psia ......... lb/sec ..... lb/sec ...... O/F ........ ..... ...... ...... ...... Percent fi/sec Percent AtAt
Calibration
Nozzle stagnation pressure Oxidizer flow rate ................ Fuel flow rate .................... Mixture ratio ..................... c* efficiency ..................... c* .............................. Ct efficiency ..................... Ct ......................................... Contraction ratio ................. Expansion ratio .................. Throat area, At ................... L* .............................. Nozzle contour ..........................
inlet pressure ............... discharge pressure .......... pump head ............. weight flow rate ............. volumetric flow rate ......... bleed .............
Developed
ft ......... Ib/sec ...... gpm ........ Ib/sec .......
Heat exchanger Pump: Shaft Shaft power speed Efficiency
................... .................... ................... bleed .......... for
bhp ......... Percent rpm ........ Ib/sec .......
Ae/A t ........ in 2 ......... in ............
Chamber coolant passage fuel tank pressurization Turbine;
2.2 700 1200 16 4.32 6100 62.5 27000 14 250
Inlet pressure ................. Inlet temperature ............... Pressure ratio ............................... Gas Shaft flow rate .................. ................... .................... ................... ................... thrust chamber for turbine power speed torque from
psia ......... F ......... lb/sec Percent rpm ........ in-lb ....... drive: lb/in F 2 ........ ......... ...... .....
Oxidizer
side: psi .......... psi ........... psi ........... .......... drop .... psi ........... psi ........... psia psia .......... ........ 160 40 20 20 60 35 1175 2305 290,5 1830 2,5 1910 ....... 64 Tapoff
bhp .........
Injector pressure drop ............. Torus dome pressure drop .......... Line Main Pump Pump pressure valve drop ................ pressure orifice drop pressure
Efficiency Shaft Shaft gas
Calibration
inlet pressure ............... discharge pressure .......... ............. ............. rate ......... (oxidizer .............
Pressure Temperature Weight Mixture Thrust
........................ .....................
750 1200 5.9 0.90
Developed pump head Pump weight flow rate Pump volumetric flow Heat exchanger bleed tank pressurization) Pump: Shaft power
ft .......... lb/sec ..... gpm lb/sec ........ .......
flow rate .................. ratio ..................... control: acceleration velocity ............. .................
lb/sec ....... O/F ........
vector
Minimum ................... .................... bhp ......... Percent Maximum Displacement
rad/sec deg/sec
2 ....... .......
2 15 6
Efficiency
....................
deg ...........
70
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
gimbaled, ber features
bipropellant a combination film cooling
system. of fuel with is axial
The
thrust
cham-
passage A small oxidizer changer
to pressurize portion pump and
the
vehicle oxygen is heated main
main bled
fuel from
tank. the extank
regenerative exhaust by two inde-
of liquid discharge
cooling, gas. pendent, For gases chamber in the level. Their chamber ratio for the ratio the trols. which engine pass). 30:1 the chosen. are The
and
turbine fed
in a heat oxidizer
chamber direct-drive
assembly centrifugal
used of the
for vehicle A-2 engine
turbopumps. pump may be Hot orifice speed. combustion gas thrust in parallel. thrust area cooling area above (1!4 the conused by The trifluoride used elechydroto turbine and a ground coolant are
pressurization. A listing eters that is schematic engine ditions. stage tire starting operating The on in figure based and customary, for its stage, not A-2 is paramengine 3-3. vacuum Note conif a enthe presented diagram parameters This starts duration. altitude is justified and performs case of 250 000 In the in table is shown are 3-3.
fuel, Each
an alternative operates the off from controls are are gas
at optimum the the routed 30:1 main engine turbines.
tapped to power duct turbines
A hot coupled to the
tapoff The exhaust and
in vacuum of the feet
gases injected Thus the
in the gases from
expansion film
an absomay
plane. nozzle plane. plane, Helium could is
provide there of the
portion The gas freeze
to the cooled
40:1
lute vacuum, be considered Thrust-vector the entire
but for atl absolute. control
practical is achieved
purposes
remainder is regeneratively is used or any at low by the spinner. hot
chamber,
by gimbaling 2181 pounds the are prelimishown at
engine. dry, The 2317 layout overall
It weighs pounds of the wet, A-2
apploximately and engine 2292 and
to actuate other gases fluids temperatures.
pounds burnout. nary
No lubricants started
dimensions
design 3-4.
generated
in figure
a solid-grain (C1F3), ignite spinner trically source gen which the and until
turbine combustion igniter first-stage from the
Chlorine with Both insulated from Gaseous
is hypergolic chamber. fluid are conditioned
LH 2, is
System The 3-3 and fast nal
Operation starting 3-5) method of the spin 2 seconds power A-2 engine (figs.
temperature
is a "turbine (less stage). than Starting
start," from is
for very start furnished sig-
takeoff. thrust chamber
buildup to main
is bled
OXIDIZER-PUMP INLET / /OXIDIZER
FUEL.PUMP INLET _ .._ FUEL PUMP
OXIDIZER TANK PRESSURANT-HEAT EXCHANGER HYPERGDL CARTRIDGE AND MONITORINGVALVE MAINOXIDIZER VALVE PU CONTROL CHAMBER.GASTAPOFF MANIFOLD
_._
PuMP
-----1 _
"r" I _
\_-//
"
II
H
FUEL TURBINE
TURBINESPINNER
_'Jl ==_ _ _ -\ \ ,1 I/ _
HYPERGOL SEQUENCE VALVE d_ '=='_ FUEL BLEEDVALVE "_ ENGINE-CONTROL 4.WAY VALVE RETURN TO
A,N CN. ER THRU. ANIFoLDTOR IHE EXHAUS.

Figure 3-3.-A-2 st3ge engine
\ (
system schematic
FUEL AIH VALVE TANK FOE .EL,U TANK

diagram.
INTRODUCTION
TO SAMPLE
CALCULATIONS
71
THRUST
CHAMBER.u
FUEL
I
II
7?..5" D
I L i
EXHAUST GAS MANIFOLD
Figure 3-4.-150K
START
A-2 stage engine system
preliminary layout.
CUT OFF
E,._._.__'_'_TURBINE
SPINNER
IGNITES
i
I' ENGINE CONTROL ENERGIZED FOR 4-WAYVALVE SOLENOID OPEN CONTROL ENGINE CONTROL 4-WAY VALVE SOLENOID DE-ENERGIZED FOR CLOSE CONTROL
I
TU_BOPUMP BUILD UP
MAIN _,'X_, 1
I
OXIDIZER MAIN FUEL SEQUENCE BLEED _'*_
VALVE VALVE VALVE
CLOSES AND HYPERGOL CLOSE FUEL
_\-_,,_ \,__
MAIN FUEL VALVE AND SEQUENCE VALVE OPEN; VALVE CLOSES.
HYPERGOL FUEL BLEED
I
_MAIN OX. VALVE OPENS 1_-__ _ _ THRUST BUILD UP
VALVE
OPEN DECAYS
=_--_-_:*
THRUST
iii'
0 .4 .8 L2 1.6 2.0 Figure 3-5.-A-2 engine system 0 .2 .4 .6 sequence diagram.
I
I
.8
I.O
72
by a turbine spinner. bootstrap the turbine level is established.
Chamber and main
tapoff gases then stage operational
3.4 A-3 STAGE
ENGINE
Starting
Sequence
As part of the separation and staging sequence, a vehicle programer furnishes a start signal to the engine, which ignites the turbine spinner and supplies hot gases at 2000 F to turbines and combustion chamber. This signal also energizes the solenoid of the engine control valve, which vents the closing side of both main propellant valve actuators and pressurizes the opening side of the fuel valve actuator with helium gas. Simultaneously, the hypergol sequence valve, which is mechanically linked to the main fuel valve, is opened and the actuator of the normally open fuel bleed valve is pressurized to close. The fuel flows through the chamber cooling jacket under increasing pump discharge pressure and injects into the combustion chamber. Ignition is achieved by the hypergolic reaction between hydrogen and the slug of chlorine trifluoride forced into the chamber by increased oxidizer-pump discharge pressure. When the main fuel valve reaches the 90percent open position, ports integral with the actuating piston open and permit helium gas to flow through the hypergol monitor valve and to pressurize the open side of the main oxidizer valve actuator. The main oxidizer valve opens, admitting oxidizer to the chamber where pressure builds up rapidly. Chamber tapoff gases bootstrap the turbines to main stage operation. The spinner will burn for about 1.2 seconds. After the main stage is achieved, the propellantutilization servo system will begin to function.
The totalthrustof 48000 pounds is subdividedintothree engines of 16 000-pound thrust each. This effects shorter a overallpropulsion system and a shorter, lighter vehicle interstage. Furthermore, the liquid fluorine/liquid hydrogen propellant combination was chosen because of the relatively stringent performance requirements for upper stages. Fluorine is the most reactive and energetic chemical element. It has vigorous and reliable hypergolic ignition characteristics, and superior specific impulse capabilities with most fuels. The high density of liquid fluorine, combined with high performance with liquid hydrogen, results in maximum payloads. As mission requirements become more ambitious, payload advantages from the fluorine-oxidized propellant combination should compensate for handling problems caused by fluorine toxicity and corrosiveness. Past experience has indicated that the operation of a fluorine-oxidized engine is practical at this thrust level (50000 pounds or less). Fluorine when used for gaseous passivation of metals renders a metallic surface resistant to future chemical reaction. Thus, once a metallic fluoride film is formed, further action by the liquid fluorine is either prevented or significantly retarded, making handling or storing of liquid fluorine less of a problem. No known elastomer is completely compatible with fluorine; however, flow tests of liquid fluorine with Teflon have given satisfactory results.
General
Engine
System
Description
Cutoff
Sequence
The cutoff signal, received from the vehicle programer, deenergizes the engine control valve causing it to close. This vents the open side and pressurizes the closing side of the main propellant valve actuators. The main oxidizer valve is made to close faster than the main fuel valve, by proper orificing of the helium lines, to assure a fuel-rich cutoff. Engine thrust decays. The fuel bleed valve opens after the helium pressure in its actuator is vented.
The A-3 engine is a multiple-start, gimbaled, bipropellant system. The basic system includes a thrust chamber assembly using a combination of fuel-film (LH2) and radiation cooling; propellant ducts; valves; and a control subsystem. Ignition is achieved by the hypergolicity of the propellants. These are fed directly from pressurized propellant tanks, through main propellant valves, to the tl_rust chamber inlets. The propellant tanks and their gas pressurization system are considered part of the engine propellant feed system. Gaseous helium supplied from a high-pressure helium bottle located inside the main fuel tank is used for main oxidizer tank
INTRODUCTION
TO SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
73
pressurization. ized by gaseous
The
main
fuel
tank
is pressurfrom a liquid
highly reactive and toxic nature of fluorine. Welded joints are used extensively. seals are employed. metal-bellows type. are shown in figure 3-7. No rotating
hydrogen
supplied pressurized inside the are thrust are heated expanded
hydrogen bottle which is and which is also located tank. changers extensions pressure lant main purge A-3 conditions, pulsion figure The governed components. 3-6. design of the This is entire tanks. valves the Both pressurants at the they and gas before regulators Helium and propellant the
by helium main fuel ex-
Sliding seals are of the
in heat through to the
A preliminary design layout of the A-3 propulsion system and dimensions The
located
chamber
nozzle propelthe to
fuel tank is pressure stabilized rather stabilized. The thrust loads
transferred is used
than mechanically tank.
to operate and start.
are transmitted to the payload between
through the fuel
gimbal manifolds
actuators, during
Both tanks are insulated, as are the ducts tanks and engine systems. by gimbalEach basic engine dry and 365
engine are system
operating presented schematic
parameters, in table diagram propulsion minimum is
for vacuum 3-4. The shown system number of of the proin is
Thrust-vector control is achieved ing the thrust chambers. weighs pounds approximately at burnout. 330 pounds
It has a cylindrical space propulsion system (includ-
envelope
of 5 feet 4 inches diameter by 7 feet
by simplicity
and
6 inches length. The
essential
because
ing the three engines and the tankage) weighs
OXIDIZER TANK THRUST CHAMBER
FUEL TANK
\
HELIUM SUPPLY TO PURGE AND ACTUATING SYSTEMS (NOT SHOWN) TANK FILL AND DRAIN VALVE =O PRESSURANT FILL VENT AND RELIEF VALVE
,-_PRESSURE
REGULATOR
=_
PRESSURANT VALVE
SHUT-OFF
TANK RELIEF VALVE CHECK VALVE Figure 3-6.-A-3 stage
MAIN PROPELLANT VALVE
propulsion
and
engine
system
schematic
diagram.
74
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
TABLE
3-4.-16K
A-3
Stage
Engine conditions]
Operating
Parameters
[Vacuum Engine Thrust Nominal duration Specific (pressurized gas-feed): lb ......... sec .......... sec .......... lb 'ft 3 .... lb'sec... lb/ft lb/sec O/F film on cooled nozzle * .... ...... ........... and radia16 000 300 446 94.16 80.78 4.42 5.13 6
Calibration Oxidizer Total duration 1 percent oxidizer
orifice tank
pressure (300
drop .... sec
psi ........... psia .........
17 170
.......................... total multiple-firing .................. ........................ impulse
pressure weight
............
for 3 engines, plus residual) ..............
lb ......... ft 3...........
27950 305
Oxidizer LF2: Density ....................... Flow rate ..................... Fuel LH2: Density Flow Mxxture Thrust ratio ....................... ..................... (solid wall
Oxidizer tank volume (including 3 percent ullage volume) ......... Pressurant (helium) flow rate (assuming tank gas temperature 400 _ R) ........................ Total other pressurant requirements weight (including system) presin the
lb/sec
....
0.1555
rate .....................
chamber
by fuel extension): lb .........
(assume storage bottle final sure 350 psi, plus 2 percent reserve) Pressurant ....................... storage tank, volume
tion cooled Thrust Specific Injector Nozzle Oxidizer Fuel Mixture ......................... impulse ..................
lb ............
60
16 000 446 110 100 30.78 5,13 6 98 7910 102 1.817 2 35 88 28 Fuel
see .......... psia ......... psia ......... lb/sec ..... lb/sec O/F Percent ft/sec Percent Ac/At Ae/At
in 2 ...........
end pressure .............. stagnation pressure ........ flow rate ................ rate .................... ..................... ratio
(assume 200 _ R storage temperature, including 3 percent ullage volume) .................. Pressurant pressure storage tank, initial .......................
ft s .......... psia ........
7.35 4500
flow
...... ........... ....... ...... ...... ......... ........
c* efficiency ..................... c* .............................. CI efficiency ..................... Ct ......................................... Contraction ratio ................. Expansion ratio ................. Throat area At ................... L* .............................. Nozzle contour ..........................
side
(pressurized
by heated
hydrogen): psi ........... psi ........... psi psi psia ........... ............ ......... 25 10 10 5 160
Injector pressure drop Inlet manifold pressure Main Line Fuel
............. drop ........
valve pressure drop .......... pressure drop ................ tank pressure ................
in ............ 70 percent bell
Total fuel weight (300 sec duration for 3 engines, plus 1 percent residual) ....................... 3 perft 3.......... rate lb/sec (assuming 350 lb ........... 108 ..... 0.346 1087 lb .......... 4660 Fuel tank volume (including cent ullage volume) ..............
Thrust
vector
control: acceleration ............. tad/sec 2 ....... 2 15 7
Minimum
Pressural_t (assuming
(hydrogen) tank vapor
flow
Maximum velocity ................. Displacement .................... Oxidizer Injector Oxidizer Main Line side (pressurized drop pressure by heated ............. drop .......
deg/sec ....... deg ........... helium): psi ........... psi ............ psi ............ psi ............
temperature
300 R) ........................ Total pressurant weight storage bottle final
pressure
pressure dome
25 5 8 5
psia, plus 4 percent reserve) ...... Pressurant storage tank, volume (liquid percent Pressurant hydrogen ullage storage including volume) tank, 3 ........... pressure..,
valve pressure drop .......... pressure drop ................
ft 3.......... psia .........
25.2 350
approximately 5130 pounds dry, 37 900 pounds wet, and 5530 pounds at burnout. System Operation
Figure 3-8 shows the operational sequence of the A-3 stage engine. In conjunction with figure3-6, this illustrates the system starting and shutdown operations. 3.5 A-4 STAGE ENGINE
The A-3 propulsion system is designed for automatic start, on receipt, of a signal from the guidance system. A similar signal effects automarie engine shutdown. One or more restarts can be made by merely sending additional start and shutdown signals to the propulsion system.
For the A-4 stage, two engines of 7500pound thrust each were selected, for a combined thrust of 15 000 pounds. It is assumed that the mission assigned to this fourth and last stage of
INTRODUCTION
TO
SAMPLE
CALCULATIONS
75
(L H2)TANK CHAMBERS [L F2) TANK (3)
l
12'D
160 PSIA 170 PSIA
VECTOR CONTROL GIMBAL ACTUATORS (6)
I J
l
i
ITERNAL TANK INSULATION
-HIGH-PRESSURE HELIUM BOTTLE INTERSTAGE LIQUID-HYDROGEN PRESSURANT BOTTLE CONNECTING SKIRT
Figure 3-7.-48K
A-3 stage propulsion system preliminary design layout.
our space vehicle may require prolonged cruising periods prior to ignition and possibly even longer waiting periods prior to reignition. While it would be desirable to utilize the high-energy propellants of the second and third stages, the fact that they are cryogenics poses some prob-
lems. probably niques, systems Solid the
Although be they used were
cryogenic with not refined
propellants insulation because of out
could techof this because the size. of
selected for
complication propellants were repeated
a vehicle ruled and
also starts
need
for
throttling.
START I
|
CUTOFF .,'-CUTOFF I F" j SIGNAL
I
PRESSURANT SHUTOFF VALVES OPEN
I_
k_._,_N]j
I
I_ !
'
THRUST I _'_'%."_\X_,'X_\_X_ _ _'_\'_"'"-'"_ I_ STAR T SIGNAL
I
PRESSURANT SHUTOFF VALVES CLOSE
I
CHAMBER PURGE TANKS PRESSURIZED I i_._-_= PROPELLANT
l
THRUST CHAMBER PURGE
I
]
I
MAIN PROPELLANT VALVE CONTROL SOLENOID VALVE OPEN & PURGE STOPS MAIN PROPELLANT VALVES OPEN _l MAIN I_ROPELLANT THRUST I 4 I 5 DECAYS VALVES CLOSE _TANK I I I MAIN PROPELLANT _I SOLENOID PRESSURES DECAY VALVE CONTROL PURGE STARTS
VALVE CLOSES
I , j-_'
I _
TH_ST BU_LD-UP I
0 I
I
I 0 I I I 2
i
I 3
1
2
I
3
TIME, SECONDS Figure 3-8.-A-3
TIME, SECONDS stage engine and propulsion system operational sequence.
76
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
A hypergolic, possesses ute to high since vessels certain
storable
propellant
combination which contribsimplicin
before
expansion to the
through
a pressure tanks.
regulator Helium gas
characteristics Among ease these can
and transfer
propellant
reliability. and tile over
are
is also used to operate the main valves and the gimbal actuators. A-4 engine operating parameters and propulsion system shown The thrust of the forward vehicle thrust through 4 The gine fairings ing and boost. Both throttling achieved are propellant controlled with system. and propellant-utilization the degree The vehicle vector the thrust apat of valves. by the positions conof openof guidance propellant conin figure 3-9. engine mounts oxidizer of the structure. loads the systems are gimbal which tank. oxidizer As blocks are The tank in the fuel are fastened to the tank to aft end schematic at vacuum engine
ity of ignition nance, closed ranges
of propellant
mainte-
propellants reasonable periods high changes
be contained temperature of time without
condition are presented in table 3-5. The or under-
for considerable excessively
diagram is
developing going
pressures, in composition.
unacceptable the
Among combinations trifluoride tetroxide
applicable with high
storable performance (N2H4)
propellant are and chlorine nitrogen as thermal can be C1F3/N2H a
attached
is attached an integral the payload assembly. tank and covered enby heat-
(C1F3)/hydrazine (N20,)/hydrazine. is prone However, the
to form A-3 to the tank fuel
Hydrazine, to explosive condition The
system,
monopropellant, decomposition. remedied combination the N204/N2H4
transmitted
pressure-stabilized ducts are between against resistance routed outboard
by certain has
additives. higher
propellant
slightly combination.
performance Handling
than
and
of C1F3, bethis
for protection for lower air
aerodynamic during
however, requires special design cause of its thermal characteristics. reason, was note parable Teflon material grades series that the the to that and in the after 300 N204/N2H4 for the A-4 performance of LO2/RP-1. Teflon A-4 100X engine can propellant engine.
provisions For
first-stage
combination It is worthy is as of comseal while deMost alloys, can be trol ing the be used
chosen
are valves
by varying
of N204/N2114
of both
system quantity trol
in conjunction measuring
a vehicle Thrust
system. with
Kel-F, N2ll4,
a satisfactory
material short-term stainless
for use service steels,
is accomplished The 150 It has 6 inches The two 725 basic
by gimbaling single engine space by 5 feet propulsion and dry, the The tanks) pounds dry and
in N204. aluminum alloys
chambers. proximately burnout. 3 feet length.
weighs envelope 9 inches system weighs wet,
170 pounds
nickel, and nickel-base used as construction
brazing materials.
a cylindrical diameter
complete engines pounds at burnout. A-4
(includapproxand design shown in
General The system
Engine A-4
System
Description variableThe basic utiassembly
ing 795
the
imately engine is a multiple-start, thrust, gimbaled, bipropellant system. includes a thrust chamber lizing combined
19 649 pounds preliminary system is
pounds of the 3-10. that
layout figure Note slightly been upper the best fluence
propulsion
ablative and radiation cooling,
for the than operate practical ratio
A-3
and
A-4 A-2.
engines area While and ratio
a ratio has all three can for inwill use
propellant ducts, valves, and control subsystems. Thrust chamber ignition is achieved One by signifthe hypergolicity of the propellants. icant feature of this engine system tering of two thrust chambers The from pellant Gaseous bottles propellants the propellant valves helium is used are fed tanks thrust
smaller specified stages
nozzle
expansion
for the in the
vacuum area
is the clus-
largest the
expansion other chosen.
to one propellant directly main inlets. pro-
performance,
considerations
feed system and one set of propellant controls. by pressurants through chamber from the
actually
to the
supplied
high-pressure of both tanks.
System The system.
Operation propulsion upon During system a signal main-stage is designed from the operation, to start guidance engine
for pressurization
The pressurant is heated in heat exchangers located at the thrust chamber nozzle extensions
automatically
--A.
--
,lUswn.
INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
77
TABLE
3-5.-7.5K
A-4
Stage
Engine conditions] Main
Operating
Parameters
[Vacuum Engine Thrust Nominal duration Specific Oxidizer (pressurized gas-feed and throttlable): lb .......... sec .......... sec .......... lb/ft 3 ...... lb/sec .... lb/ft 3 ..... lb/sec .... O/F ......... 7500 410 320 90.88 12.78 63.25 10.65 1.2
valve
pressure orifice
drop pressure
.......... drop ....
psi psi
............ ............
4 8 10 165
Calibration .......................... total multiple-firing at full thrust ............ impulse N:O,: .................. Mixture Oxidizer Total
ratio control tank pressure oxidizer weight
reserve ....... ............ (410 sec full plus
psi ........... psia .........
thrust duration for 2 engines, 08 percent residual) ............. Oradizer 2.5 tank volume ullage (inch,ding votume) ........ percent
lb ......... ft 3...........
10 560 120
Density ....................... Flow rate ..................... Fuel N_-I,: Density ....................... Flow rate ..................... Mixture ratio .....................
Nominal pressurant (helium) rate (assuming tank ullage temperature Total pressurant bottle storage 7GO R) .............. weight final 400
flow lb/sec .... 00225
(assuming psia, plus lb ......... ft 3........... psia ........ R ..... helium): psi ........... ........ psi ............ psi ............ psi ............ psi ............ psi .......... full ........ lb .......... ft 3......... flow lb/sec ..... 0.025 8840 143.5 25 4 4 4 8 155 560 12.95 4.3 4500 max.
temperature
Thrust
chamber
(ablatively cooled nozzle extension):
and
radiation
cooled
on
191 R, pressure 2 percent Pressurant Volume
Thrust Specific Injector
.......................... impulse .................. end pressure .............. ........
lb .......... sec .......... psia ......... psia ......... lb/sec ..... lb/sec ..... O/F ......... ....... ...... ...... .........
7500 320 110 100 12.78 10.65 1.2 98 5540 101 1.858 2 35 40.4 32
reserve) ............... storage tank: .......................
Pressure ...................... Temperature ................... Fuel side (pressurized pressure manifold by heated drop pressure ............. drop
Nozzle stagnation pressure Oxidizer flow .................... Fuel flow ........................ Mixture ratio .....................
Injector Inlet Line Main Fuel Total
c* efficiency ..................... c* .............................. C[ efficiency ..................... C[ ......................................... Contraction ratio ................. Expansion ratio .................. Throat area, A_ ................... L* .............................. Nozzle contour ..........................
Percent ft/sec Percent AtAt
pressure drop ................ valve pressure drop .......... orifice pressure ................ (410 sec residu'M) (including ............... (helium) tank ullage drop .... tank pressure fuel weight duration
Calibration
Ae/.A_ ........ in 2 ......... in ............
thrust
for 2 engines,
70 percent bell
plus 1.2 percent Fuel tank volume 2.5 ullage Nominal rate volume) pressurant (assuming
Thrust
vector
control: acceleration velocity ............. ................. tad/set deg/sec 2 ....... ....... 2 15 7
Minimum Maximum Displacement Oxidizer Injector Oxidizer Line side
temperature 700 R) .............. Total pressurant weight (assuming storage bottle final temperature plus 191 '_ R, pressure 2 percent reserve) Pressurant Volume Pressure Temperature 400 psia. ...............
.................... (pressurized drop pressure by heated ............. drop .......
deg ........... helium): psi ........... psi ............ psi ............
lb .......... ft a.......... psia R ........ ..... 560
14.4 4.77 4500 max.
pressure dome pressure
25 3 5
storage tank: ....................... ...................... ...................
drop ................
thrust
level
and mixture
ratio
are controlled
con-
restart operated and tional full
an at
indefinite any thrust Figure of
number level 3-11 A-4
of
times. 10 the engine.
It
can percent
be
tinuously through the engine control package by the guidance and propellant utilization systems. Upon a shutdown signal, engine shutdown is effected. The propulsion system is capabIe of
between shows stage
thrust. sequence
opera-
the
78
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
CHECK TANK VENT AND RELIEF VALVES
MAIN FUEL FUEL TANK OXIDIZER TANK ACTUATOR MIXTURE
TO VALVE AND.,__ GIMBALACTUATORS
REGULATOR
THRUST CHAMBERS EXCHANGERS ]MAIN OXE VALVE
START VALVE TANK FILL DRAIN VALVES BOTTLES HELIUM VALVE ,IUM FILL VENT VALVE Figure 3-9.-A-4 stage engine and propulsion system schematic RELIEF
AND
diagram.
FUEL (N2H4) TANK
OXIDIZER (N204) TANK
5'--
9"
'- HIGH PRESSURE HELIUM BOTTLES (2)
3'--6"
}SS PSIA
165 PSIA
/
PRESSURANT DIFFUSER IHTERSTAGE CONNECTING SKIRT _-THRUST CHAMBERS THRUST VECTOR CONTROL GIMBAL ACTUATORS (4] (2) 7'D
Figure
3-I0.-15K
A-4
stage
propulsion
system
preliminary
design
layouL.
INTRODUCTION
TO
SAMPLE
CALCULATIONS
79
START
SHUTDOWN
PRESSURANT SHUTOFF _.LV E OPENS
PRESSURANT SHUTOFF VALVE CLOSES
PROPELLANT TANK PRESSURIZATION
_7_PROPELLANT TANK PRESSURIZATION TERMINATES THRUST CHAMBER
_ "/////////////////;'_
THRUST PURGING
CHAMBER
I
_/7_ OXIDIZER "/t OPENS VALVE OXIDIZER VALVE CLOSES
I I I
_FUEL VALVE OPENS _. FUEL VALVE CLOSES
I
THRUST LEVEL AND MIXTURE RATIO CONTROL ACTIVATES THRUST BUILD-UP MAIN STAGE AND THiUST 0,5
I I
RATIO
THRUST LEVEL AND MIXTURE CONTROL DEACTIVATES
I I
DECAYS
II
1.0
15
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.5
I.O
1.5
2.0
?_,5
SECONDS
Figure 3-II.-A-4 stage engine operational
SECONDS sequence.
_L_=41_o '__ _._rT
Chapter Design Other Of Thrust Combustion Chambers Devices
IV
And
While the proud designers of the various subsystems of a rocket engine each consider their product as "the heart of the engine," the thrust chamber assembly undeniably embodies the essence of rocket propulsion: the acceleration and ejection of matter, the reaction of which imparts the propulsive force to the vehicle. The designer's goal is essentially to accomplish this with a device of maximum performance, stability and durability, and of minimum size, weight, and COSt. The design of thrust chambers is one of the more complex subjects in the field of liquid propellant rocket engineering. This is primarily due to the fact that the basic processes, especially the combustion within the thrust chamber, are comparatively difficult to define and to study analytically. Thus, during most engine development programs, a major effort must be expended toward the design and development of the thrust chamber. A rational approach to this effort is attempted here.
4.1
THE BASIC ELEMENTS
THRUST
CHAMBER
2. The droplets are subsequently vaporized by heat transfer from the surrounding gas. The size and velocity of the droplets change continuously during their entrainment in the combustion gas flow. 3. The vaporized propellants are mixed rapidly, further heated and promptly reacted at their stoichiometric mixture ratio where ever they are formed, thus effecting a continuous increase of the gaseous mass flow rate within the combustion chamber. This gas reaction is further aided by the high-speed diffusion of active molecules or atoms. The combustion is essentially complete upstream of the chamber throat, when all liquid droplets have been vaporized. Under certain conditions, shock and detonation waves may be generated by local disturbances in the combustion front, possibly caused by instability of mixing process and propellant flow prior to reaction. These effects may trigger sustained pressure oscillations at certain frequencies within the thrust chamber, resulting in destructive combustion instability. A major portion of the design and development effort, therefore, is directed toward achievement of stable combustion. 4. As the gaseous products of the combustion process pass toward and through the throat, they are accelerated to sonic, and then to supersonic, velocities within the diverging nozzle section, and are finally ejected to the rear. The basic elements of a thrust chamber required for its function, include a combustion chamber section, an expansion nozzle section, an injector, an ignition device (for nonhypergolic propellant combinations), propellant inlets and distributing manifolds, and interconnecting surfaces for, component and thrust mounts. The construction of the various thrust chamber elements depends largely on their specific operational function. However, low weight and simplicity, which make manufacturing easier, are two important factors to be considered at all times. 81
The thermodynamic processes governing the generation of thrust within a thrust chamber have been treated in chapter I. The primary function of the thrust chamber is to convert the energy of propellants into thrust. In a liquid bipropellant rocket engine, this process is characterized by the following basic functional steps: 1. The liquid propellants, at their proper mixture ratio, are injected into the combustion chamber through orifices in an injector, as jets at velocities ranging from 20 to 150 feet per second. These jets either impinge to form a mixed droplet spray, or run straight into the chamber hot gas as a series of droplets. Part of the combustion reaction may already take place in the liquid state.
82
ROCKET ENGINES
Figures bly. The composed elements;
4-1
and
4-2 illustrate
a typical
liquid assemis
into
the
return
tubes. fuel and
The
fuel
then into through
flows the radial the fuel
bipropellant rocket engine thrust chamber illustrated thrust chamber of four major subassemblies namely, thrust chamber and igniter. body subassembly
through injector
an injector passages,
screen finally
assembly
or basic
body, injector,
injector orifices tion zone. The are made of 4130
into the thrust fuel manifolds steel members, or 347 such
chamber combusof this chamber stainless as tension steel. bands, of
liquid oxygen dome, The
thrust chamber
is of a
Other
structural rings, The dome port and to the (fig. following principal chamber
venturi shape, consisting of a cylindrical section in which the combustion occurs; a section narrowing toward a throat; and a bell-shaped, expanding nozzle section through which wall of this chamber the combody bustion gases are expelled (fig.4-1). The
stiffening 4130 the central directly orifices The tics thrust 4-1: and steel. LOX
and outriggers oxidizer is liquid (liquid
were
all made enters dome
oxygen) within the
under
pressure distributed oxygen the
through passages
a screened and
is constructed of nickel
4-2). are similar operating one characterisshown in figure LOX:'RP-1 2.80 5400 1.489 249 402 100000 . 520 480 dimensions to the of a hypothetical
tubes running longitudinally, joined by silver brazing, and retained by external tension bands. The tubes, of 0.012-inch wall thickness, are of rectangular cross section of varying area, to conform to the thrust chamber shape. This concooling
1. Propellants ........................ 2. O;F mixture ratio ................... 3. Characteristic velocity, c*, ft/sec .... 4. Thrust coefficient, CI (sea level) ..... 5. Specific impulse (ls)tc (sea level), sec .............................. 6. 7. 8. 9. Total propellant flow rate, lb/sec ..... Thrust (sea level), lb ............... Chamber pressure (injector end), psia Chamber pressure (nozzle stagnation), psia .............................
struction permits simple thrust chamber tubes which form the chamber wall.
during operation, by flowing fuel through the The fuel, body under pressure, enters the thrust chamber alternate thrust-chamber down tubes.
at the fuel manifold inlet and is distributed to It then flows nozzle exit toward the thrust chamber
where the fuel return manifold reverses the flow
"x\
..&..C
C_,GE,.
SC_E_'r'
Ja.<j"
;C
Figure
4-1.-Thrust
chamber
assembly.
Figure
4-2.-Thrust
chamber
injector.
DESIGN OF THRUST CHAMBERS AND OTHER COMBUSTION DEVICES
83
I0. 11.
Average gas specific heat ratio (y) .... Combustion chamber cross-section area, in 2 ......................... Throat area, in 2 .................... Nozzle exit area, in 2 ................ Combustion chamber volume, in 3 ...... (above Combustion chamber length, in ....... (injector Characteristic chamber length, L*, in Overall thrust chamber length, in ..... Design contraction area ratio, ec ...... Design expansion area ratio, e ........ The thrust plate, passages, and the The held liquid seals are body selected chamber honeycombed leading of 4130 steel in position oxygen between of the injector with with (fig. circular
1.233 244 (at injector) 140 1120 5820 the throat) 28.5 to throat) . 38 73 1.60:1 8:1 is a It is sur-
the made
injector of 304 This
are
sealed
by a spiral-wound strips is with designed
gasket asbestos specifi-
stainless-steel type of gasket and
fillers. cally
12. 13, 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
for cryogenic
elevated-temperature
applications. The secured means start only electrically centrally of a threaded and must an electrical through the fired to the joint. pyrotechnic injector igniter by for one firing. wires is surface after signal exit. each from
It is designed firing
be replaced
It receives connected
nozzle
4-2) orifices.
4.2
THRUST
CHAMBER
PERFORMANCE
round inner faces, below bolts. chamber rubber (RP-1). ter has the are
and radial
PARAMETERS The express chamber 1.3 significance or influence operation I. has Before chamber of the the been parameters discussed the the and of the III. which in section details
to drilled at the dome 0-ring with type, injector
constructed
nickel-plated fuel and manifold thrust of fuel
efficiency discussing design,
of thrust
high-strength made the in the The rings are and Fuel each fuel fuel The propeloxygen primary a 0.416-inch a 40 included Inother separaon combustion Liquid the fed
of chapter thrust
of actual summarizes their them use
following
for compatibility hole face igniter concentric orifices systems. by an alternate ring, through fed fuel the from inlet elaborate rings. through is
with
these for design engine discussed
parameters calculations systems
illustrates by applying Alpha vehicle
A threaded injector chamber
provided
cen-
of the
to permit installation. copper and
pyrotechnic injector which from
to the was
thrust contain
which
in chapter
20 circular the main kept
injection
Specific From
Impulse, equations
ts
(sec) 1-31 and 1-31c:
propellant separate feeding the
Fuel
oxidizer flows alterdisk valve oxyinThe overall was generated tures." specific quality impulse of the earlier, for what figure indicates how much the design. thrust expendiAs is F c*Ct
distribution
system, through nate which through gen lants zone liquid orifices distance jection is
outermost ring, and
inner an
a central an igniter port. that (liquid The with and rings.
(ls)tc-
.
Wtc
separately ignition from are in the
emerges orifices impinge
remaining so angled pattern thrust-chamber
thrust-chamber it shows propellant
learned
"running
in a like-on-like oxygen are and arranged fuel
on
fuel).
in pairs,
between angle, impingement are made
centerlines for both angles impingement impingement dome die oxygen. liquid is
Characteristic From equation
Velocity, 1-32a: c* = [(y,
c* (ft/sec)
impingement designs, tions so as planes uniplanar). The 2014-T6 the the face. liquid
propellants. or orifice two as
different their
for the
propellants, opposed to
R, (Tc)ns)
(4-1)
and be mixture expected a known depends this ratio that
to effect (multiplanar
in different Assuming selection has From the band. as and on the gas that been there the propellant it can fall made, on,
oxygen
a single-piece, It provides serves interdome
properties temperature has propellant
(y, R) will of the a theoretical combination.
into entirely
aluminum-alloy
forging. It also attachment oxygen
c* almost gases.
inlet for the liquid thrust-chamber-to-vehicle The flanges
Obviously, maximum How for a close
temperature selected
of the
84
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
to this maximum the pends on influences in chapter illustrate bustion mum. ties, further mum ess II. this. Other which Figures It is
chamber discussed 4-3, seen
will operate for mixture 4-4, 4-5, lower such as and than bulk may
deratio 4-6 at commaxidensicause
well
as
from
the
chosen
design
configurations. methods have
Typical
performance
calculation
that
c* peaks
*-
temperatures
somewhat
g =g
_m a:_J _m
_o
25
considerations, affect vehicle of the quality
tank mixture
sizes, ratio
g_d 5
zo
adjustments overall vehicle the chamber depends
for optithese procof _ _ 6ooo

-u 2 z _ _ _o=E 5o00
performance. of the on the design
Within combustion efficiency
boundaries, greatly a thrust injector.
assembly,
in particular
the
3000
/
Thrust From Coefficient, equation CI (dimensionless) 1-33a:
1 25 o i30
I _oo 5
..
\ ,
(4-2)
K-120
,.o-, I -4-' ",o

I 15 MIXTURE 2: R&TIO, Z.5 r w WIp/ Wf 3 35
C(= Let generation effects has been us assume through of which determined. (y), the those on the the pressure that the were
f(),, the just Then,
e, Pa) performance summarized with
of energy the gas Figure 4-3.-Theoretical composition), 02/RP-1 (Pc)ns for c*,
combustion
process, a given
property thrust depend determines ambient essentially
performance functions of the
of the of the
remaining chamber, will _ which and the nozzle,
combustion = I000 psia.
data
generating
thrust
ffrozen
divergent ratio
nozzle pressure (Pa).
geometry
(mainly (Pe/(Pc)ns)
Performance In actual the thrust
Calculation design chamber practice, performance combustion correction theoretical from the and heat the the is data factors calculation based of on theo._ _w _w -_ _ _
retical cation tion rations propellant
propellant of certain I. are which The data
and the applias explained combuscompuof the
in chapter
propellant thermochemical of reaction rise
derived equate
combination
in enthalpy
of the combustion combustion data sented propellant stagnation combustion weight _, in figures
gases. at frozen 4-3 through
Typical propellant composition are pre4-6. the (Tc)ns, ratio For values given for the and chamber-nozzle molecular ), are plotted
MXTOR Rn7,O, r w wo/ wf
combinations pressures gas and temperature specific
(Pc)ns,
heat
against the O/F mixture ratio rw. Performance correction factors are determined by the theoretical assumptions and from earlier test data, as
Figure
4-4.-Theoretical (Irozen composition),
02/H
2 combustion psia.
data
(Pc )ns = 800
85
83O0
been (1-3). trate
demonstrated The the following more
earlier sample specific
by
sample calculations
calculation illus-
approaches. (4-1)
_:li
8100
Sample
Calculation the
Determine /
I
design thrust
values
of c*,
Ct, of the
and
_ _,
moo
7eoo
(ls)_c stages the (a)
for the of the 750K O/F psia; following
engine assumed A-1 Stage
chambers Alpha
"too
7-too
hypothetical
vehicle,
with
design Engine:
parameters:
_z
Propellants, mixture
LOa/I{P-1; ratio, 2.35;
thrust (Pc)us,
chamber 1000 figure _= 14. data, ratio,
propellant nozzle A-2 Stage
combustion area thrust 5.22; combustion area Engine:
8 2ooo
o I 3S
/ ": (b)
4-3; 150K
expansion LO_/LHa; ratio, expansion
Propellants, O/F psia; 4-4; mixture
chamber 800 figure (--40.
(Pc)us, data, ratio,
propellant nozzle
]
25 35 45 _5 65 75 r w Wo/ S5 Wf MIXTUR Ir RATIO,
I t
95 _05 1_5
s
data
Solutions (a) A-1 Stage 4.3 Engine: for LOJRP-1 ratio of 2.35, chamber for the at (Pc)us the following product gases: = 1000
Figure
4-5.-Theoretical (frozen composition),
F_/H (Pc)as
2 combustion : 1 O0 psia.
From psia values and
figure are
a mixture derived
(Tc)ns
: 6000 F or 6460
R, lb,/tool, y: 1.222
_ :22.5
<m .
Substitute
into
equation
(1-32a):
Theoretical
c* - _r32'2
x 1.222
X 6460 0.7215
x 1544/22.5
: 5810
ft/sec
,
8
o_ "_
.:
This value ure 4-3. For
for c* can combustion
also
be derived chamber factor and
from
fig-
a good the
injector
_,oo
/-'Y \ t25 w// Fd _ 8Q
design, and
c* correction composition
for LO_/RP-1 0.975.
frozen
will
be about
Design
c* = 5810
x 0.975
= 5660
ft/sec
For value
---.. 05 06 07 09 MIXTUR| 09 kO RATIO, _l t2 Wf k3 _4 L5 ,u_
y= 1.222, of 1.768 can
e= 14,
a theoretical from
vacuum figure 1-11: ePa
CI
be derived
t w W4/
Theoretical
Ct at sea
level:
(C/)vac
(Pc)as
Figure data
4-6.-Theoretical (frozen composition),
N_O_/NaH (Pc)us
_ combustion = 1 O0 psia.
= 1.768
14 x 14.7 1000
- 1.562
86
Sea level Ct can tion (1-33a), with With effective all Cf correction frozen composition Design
also be calculated using equathe aid of equation (1-20). nozzle contour design, an overfactor of 0.98 for LO2/RP-1 can be used. Cf= 1.562 0.98= 1.531
4.3
THRUST LAYOUT
CHAMBER
CONFIGURATION
sea level
From equation
(1-31c): 5660x 1.531 = 270 sec 82.2
After major thrust chamber operating parameters such as type of propellants, thrust level, chamber pressure, C f, c*, and Is have been established from engine system requirements and performance calculations, one of the fundamental dimensions of the thrust chamber, the throat area At, can be readily derived (eq. (1-33)). The throat area At or throat diameter D t usually is the starting point of a thrust chamber configuration layout. The combustion chamber and nozzle section are commonly designed as an integral thrust chamber body. For light weight and ease of manufacture, thrust chambers will have the general shape of a pressure vessel with wall surfaces of rotation and smooth contours.
Design
sealevel
(Is)tc-
(b) A-2 Stage Engine: From figure 4-4 for LO2/LH: at (Pc)ns = 800 psia and a O/F mixture ratio of 5.22, the following values are derived for the chamber product gases: (Tc)ns = 5580 F or 6040 R, = 12 lb/mole, into equation (1-32a):
y= 1.213
Combustion
Chamber
Volume chamber serves as an enve-
The combustion Substitute
Theoretical
c* =
X/32.2 x 1.213 6040 x 1544/12 0.717 = 7670 ft/sec
lope to retain the propellants for a sufficient period (stay time) to assure complete mixing and combustion before entering the nozzle. The volume of the combustion chamber thus has a definite effect on combustion efficiency. The theoretical required chamber volume is a function of the mass flow rate of the propellants and their average density, and of the stay time needed for efficient combustion. The relationship can be expressed by the following equation: Vc = WtcVts where: Vc /tc V ts =chamber volume, ft 3 = propellant mass flow rate, lb/sec =average specific volume, fta/lb =propellant stay time, sec (4-3)
Based on experimental data, a c* correction factor can be assumed for the LO:/LH2 frozencomposition data of about 0.975. Design c* = 7670 x 0.975 = 7480 ft/sec
For ),= 1.213, _=40, a theoretical vacuum Cf value of 1.876 can be derived from figure 1-11. Cf can also be calculated using equations (1-33a) and (1-20). With effective nozzle contour design, an overall Cf correction factor value of 1.01 can be used for LO2/LH2 frozen-composition data: Design vacuum Cf= 1.876 x 1.01 = 1.895
From equation
(1-31c): 7480 1.895 - 440 sec 32.2
Design
vacuum
(ls)tc
A useful parameter, the characteristic length L* (commonly pronounced "L-star"), can be used to specify the propellant stay time in the combustion chamber. L* is defined as the ratio of chamber volume to nozzle throat area, and can be expressed by the following Vc At equation: VitcVts At
The reader should perform his own calculations for the A-3 and the A-4 engines, with the aid of tables 3-4 and 3-5, and figures 4-5 and 4-6.
L* _
(4-4)
DESIGN OF THRUST CHAMBERSAND OTHER COMBUSTIONDEVICES
87
Since the value of At is in nearly direct proportion to the product of ')/tc and V, L* is essentially a function of is. The effect of L* on c* in an experimental combustion chamber is shown in figure 4-7. The c* value increases with L* to an asymptotic maximum. Increasing L* beyond a certain point tends to decrease overall engine system performance because of the following: (1) Larger L* results in higher thrust chamber volume and weight. (2) Larger L* creates more surface area in need of cooling. (3) Larger L* increases friction losses at the chamber walls. In actual design practice, optimization analyses will determine the minimum possible combustion chamber L* consistent with efficient combustion. Under a given set of operating conditions, such as type of propellants, mixture ratio, chamber pressure, injector design, and chamber geometry, the value of the minimum required L* can only be evaluated by actual firings of experimental thrust chambers. L* values of 15 to 120 inches values for corresponding propellant stay-time of 0.002-0.040 second have been used in
TABLE
4-1.-Recommended
Combustion (L*) for Various
Chamber Propel-
Characteristic Length lant Combinations
Propellant combination
Combustion chamber characteristic length (L*), m. 30-35 24-28 22-26 25-30 60-70 30-35 30-35 30-40 22-28 30-40 4@50
Chlorine trifluoride/hydrazine-base fuel.. Liquid fluorine/hydrazine ............. Liquid fluorine/liquid hydrogen (GH_ injection) .......................... Liquid fluorine/liquid hydrogen (LH 2 injection_ .......................... Hydrogen peroxide/RP-I (including catalyst bed) ....................... Nitric acid/hydrazine-base fuel ........ Nitrogen tetroxide/hydrazine-hase fuel.. Liquid oxygen/ammonia ............... Liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen (GH2 injection) .......................... Liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen (LH 2 injection) .......................... Liquid oxygen/RP-1 ..................
Combustion
Chamber Shape
various thrust chamber designs. Typical L* values for different propellants are given in table 4-1. With At and minimum required L* established, the required combustion chamber volume Vc can be calculated by equation (4-4).
1
NZ041 50-50 O/F MIXTURE {Pc]n== 275 NzH4-UDMH RATIO 190 I::'SIA. EC=2.O0 |
.) to
5800
_ rr
u.
5600
/
_5._oo
>
uJ 5200
I0 20 30 40 50
CHAMBER CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH( Le) IN. Figure 4-7.-Effect 6[ L* on c* value mental thrust chamber. of experi-
As can be seen from equation (4-3), the stay time ts is independent c; the combustion chamber geometry. Theoretic:ally, for a given required volume, the chamber can be of any shape. In actual design, however, the choice of the combustion chamber configuration is limited. In a long chamber with a small cross section, higher nonisentropic gas flow pressure losses will result as explained in chapter I. This approach also dictates a longer thrust chamber space envelope and imposes certain space limitation on the injector design to accommodate the necessary number of injector holes. With a short chamber of large cross section, the propellant atomization or vaporization zone occupies a relatively large portion of the chamber volume, while the mixing and combustion zone becomes too short for efficient combustion. Other factors, such as heat transfer, combustion stability, weight, and ease of manufacturing, are to be considered in determining the final combustion chamber configuration. Three geometrical shapes which have been used m combustion chamber design are shown in figure 4-8. While the spherical and the nearspherical chambers were used in earlier European
__
--
88
designs, the cylindrical chamber has been used most frequently in the United States. The spherical or nearly-spherical chamber, as compared to the cylindrical one of the same volume, offers the advantage of less cooling surface and weight. A sphere has the smallest surfaceto-volume ratio. For equal strength of material and chamber pressure, the structural walls of the spherical chamber are about half the thickness of the walls of a cylindrical chamber. However, the spherical chamber is more difficult to manufacture and has poorer performance under most circumstances. For these practical reasons, the design details of the cylindrical combustion chamber will be treated in this book. Several
THROAT
/NOZZLE
novel thrust chamber designs will also be discussed. In the design layout of the cylindrical combustion chamber of a given At and L*, the value of the contraction area ratio, (ec =(Ac/At)) can be optimized through careful studies of the following factors: (1) Combustion performance in conjunction with the injector design (2) Chamber gas flow pressure drop (3) Chamber wall cooling requirements (4) Combustion stability (5) Weight (6) Space envelope (7) Ease of manufacturing For pressurized-gas propellant feed, lowthrust en_ne systems contraction area ratio values of 2 to 5 have been used. For most turbo-
IN_
pump propellant feed, high thrust and high chamengine systems lower ratio values THRUST--CHAMBER ber pressure of 1.3 to 2.5 are employed. The reader is also referred to section 1.2 chapter I, "The Gas-flow Processes in the Combustion Chamber and the AXIS Nozzle." COMBUSTION CHAMBER The basic elements of a cylindrical combustion chamber are identified in figure 4-9. In design practice, it has been arbitrarily defined that the combustion chamber volume includes the space between injector face I-I and the nozzle throat plane II-II. The approximate value of the combustion chamber volume can be expressed by the following equation
IN_
NOZZLE
Vc = A_ [Lcec + _-A-_Cot _-NEAR SPHERICAL COMBUSTION CHAMBER T_T INJECTOR NOZZLE
O(ec_/3 -1)]
(4-5)
INJECTOR FACE I [-CHAMBER [ I DIA " Dc Ac
THROAT n" I , / ,--NOZZLE
AREA
?
CYLINDRICAL COMBUSTION CHAMBER Figure
HRUSTC.___.HHAMBER AXIS
[ CHAMBE:" CYLINDRICAL SECTION _LENGTH z CHAMBER AREA Lc _ [ [ OIA AREA Dt A t
CONTRACTION RATIO (
Ac = A'-'_T
4-8.-Frequently used geometrical [or combustion chambers.
shapes
Figure
4-9.-Elements of basic cylindrical bustion chamber.
com-
DESIGNOF THRUST CHAMBERSAND OTHER COMBUSTION DEVICES
89
The total
surface
area of the combustion
chamber walls excluding injector face can be approximated by the following expression:
Total
area =2Lc_cAt
+ csc 9(ec - 1)At (4-6)
Nozzle
Expansion
Area Ratio earlier that with all other
The selection of an optimum nozzle shape for a given expansion area ratio is generally influenced by the following design considerations and goals: (1) Uniform parallel axial gas flow at the nozzle exit for maximum momentum vector (2) Minimum separation and turbulence losses within the nozzle (3) Shortest possible nozzle length for minimum space envelope, weight, wall friction losses, and cooling requirements (4) Ease of manufacturing In actual design practice, any abrupt change or discontinuity in the nozzle wall contour should be avoided to eliminate the possibility of shock waves or turbulence losses. Theoretically, the nozzle throat is simply the unique plane of minimum cross-section area. In practice, a wellrounded throat section is employed. Only at the nozzle exit plane is a sharp edge used because a rounded one would permit overexpansion and flow separation. 1. Conical Nozzle
It was learned
parameters fixed, in particular chamber pressure, there is only one optimum nozzle expansion area ratio for a given altitude or, more specifically, ambient pressure. Except for those systems which start in vacuum, ambient pressure will have to be considered. This is especially true for boosters which start at or near sea-level conditions. It is the ultimate purpose of a rocket engine to lift vehicles to altitudes. Inherently, then, ambient pressure will not be a constant (except for high-altitude starts, as mentioned). It is, therefore, extremely important for the designer to know the trajectory of the vehicle to be propelled or, more specifically, its altitude-versus-time characteristics. With this information, the designer is in a position to make a first, optimizing selection of a nozzle expansion area ratio, for best results throughout the entire trajectory. As shown earlier, area ratio will be truly optimum for only one specific altitude. The optimization for ambient pressure then is essentially an averaging process. Other considerations usually cause the designer to deviate from the "paper optimum" for the nozzle expansion area ratio. Some of the most common are: weight, size, ease of manufacturing, handling, and cooling (heat transfer) considerations.
In early rocket engine applications, the conical nozzle, which had proved satisfactory in most respects, was used almost exclusively. The advantages of a conical nozzle are ease of manufacturing and flexibility of converting an existing design to higher or lower expansion area ratios without major redesign of the nozzle contour. The configuration of a typical conical nozzle is shown in figure 4-10. The nozzle throat section has the contour of a circular arc with a radius R ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 times the throat radius Rt. The half angle of the nozzle convergent cone section can range from 20 to 45 . The
Nozzle
Shape
Most rocket nozzles are of the convergingdiverging De Laval type. Since the flow velocity of the gases in the converging section of rocket nozzle is relatively low, any smooth and wellrounded convergent nozzle section will have very low energy losses. By contrast, the contour of the diverging nozzle section is very important to performance, because of the very high flow velocities involved.
RI
,.
Figure
:4-I O.-Conical nozzle
y-os
contour.
9O
divergent cone half angle a varies from approximately 12 to 18 . The length of the conical nozzle section can be expressed by the equation
EXIT [ [: L_ . E. PLANE L_E
Rt(_e - 1) + R(sec Ln= tan a
a - 1) (4-7)
/ / /
_-c:,,-_,.
-,---__
_,
/ _/
C_CrERIS_r ic
.....,
The conical nozzle with a 15 divergent half angle has become almost a standard, as it is a good compromise on the basis of weight, length, and performance. Since in a conical nozzle certain performance losses occur as a result of the nonaxial component of the exhaust gas velocity, a correction factor h is applied for the calculation of the exit gas momentum. This factor or thrust efficiency is the ratio between the exit gas momentum of the conical nozzle and that of an ideal nozzle with uniformly parallel axial gas flow. The value of h can be expressed by the following equation: ;_= _ (1 + cos a) (4-8)
1
Figure 4-11.-Bell
._
nozzle contour.
chosen for the nozzle contour MT upstream of the throat. Contour TNE is the diverging portion of the nozzle. The initial expansion occurs along contour TN; contour NE turns the flow over to a direction nearer to axial. For design convenience, the contour TN is also a circular arc, with a smaller radius R2. For those familiar with compressible flow theories, it is noted that, using transonic flow analyses, a constant-Mach-number line TO can be defined at the throat. Given the flow condition along TO and the solid boundary TN, a kernel flow field TNKO can be generated by the method of characteristics developed in gas dynamics. The kernel of the rocket nozzle contour is defined as that portion of the supersonic flow field determined entirely by throat conditions. The last right characteristic line NK of kernel TNKO, and thus the location of the point N along contour TN, is to be determined by specific design criteria. The location of the end point E along contour NE is defined by the given nozzle expansion area ratio and nozzle length (distance between throat and exit plane). Then the right characteristic line NK can be determined by satisfying the following conditions concurrently: (1) A control surface PE can be generated between the point E and a selected point P along the line NK (2) Mass flow across PE equals the mass flow across NP (3) Maximum thrust by the nozzle is attained. By selecting points P', P", etc., along line NK, a series of control surfaces P'E', P"E", etc., can be generated to define points E I, E", etc., along the contour NE. Calculations for the nozzle contour can be effectively performed by a computer.
where a = half angle of the conical nozzle. For an ideal nozzle, A would be unity. For a conical nozzle with a = 15 and h =0.983, the exit gas momentum or the exit velocity will be 98.3 percent of the ideal nozzle exit velocity calculated by equation (1-18). The value of the vacuum thrust coefficient of a nozzle is in direct proportion to the thrust generated by the nozzle, or to the nozzle exit gas velocity. Therefore, the theoretical vacuum thrust coefficient (neglecting friction and other flow losses) of a conical nozzle with 15 half angle will be 98.3 percent of the ideal nozzle thrust coefficient calculated by equation (1-33a). 2. Bell Nozzle For increased performance and shorter length, bell-shaped nozzles have been developed. This nozzle design employs a fast expansion or radial flow section in the initial divergent region, which then leads over to a uniform, axially directed flow at the nozzle exit. The wall contour is changed gradually shocks will not form. zle. enough so that oblique
Figure 4-11 shows the contour of a bell nozA circular arc of selected radius R, is
91
I
IO0
8,\
99
.J
! j /
,jo POINT i I, THaT 97 Ln
!
i NOZZLE AX*S
-_ 98
pZ _J {J nr bJ O.
////
Figure
4-13.-Parabolic nozzle
approximation contour.
of
bell
96
9_
,,,o/ / / /
60 70 80 90 I_ Lf %
section T to the exit lowing (1) E. For
with point the data Throat Axial exit
a radius N and
of 0.382 a parabola
Rt from from nozzle,
the there the
throat to the fol-
design are
of a specific required:
FRACTIONAL
NOZZLE CONICAL
LENGTH NOZZLE WITH
(Lf)
BASED ANY
ON AREA
A 15 = HALF RATIO
ANGLE
diameter, length plane,
Dr, inches nozzle Lf based ratio e parabola, 0e, degrees in figure ratio E. On, from (or the on throat desired a 15 to
Figure length. ening
4-12.-Thrust (Shown conical for
efficiency comparison:
versus effect
bell
nozzle of shortangle.)
(2)
of the Ln, length
inches
nozzle,
increasing
half
fractional conical (3) (4) (5) The 4-14 Expansion Initial degrees Nozzle angles, a function wall exit
nozzle) area angle wall On and of the of the angle, Oe are
Commonly, cal nozzle is For bell is nozzles. percent exit area, ratio. Figure 4-12 versus fractional and bell As nozzles.
an equivalent used as instance, nozzle the (distance
15 half-angle to specify of an 80length
conibell
a standard
between or 0.8 having and of that the area
throat
and
plane) radius
80 percent, nozzle the below
of a 15 throat expansion
wall as
shown area
half-angle
conical
same
expansion
throat,
shows the thrust nozzle length
efficiency h LI for conical
40
L/= toO% Lf= 70% Lf = 80% L_= 90% Lp 100%
may be
seen,
bell
nozzle do not
lengths
beyond when con-
_5o
approximately contribute sidering
80 percent to performance,
significantly
especially
weight
penalties.
3.
Parabolic One
Approximation way
of Bell Nozzles to design a near-optimumthe use of as sug__
convenient
Lf"
60=/= 70%
thrust bell nozzle contour the parabolic approximation
is through procedures
_ _'5.,c z E _ "_
0 _0 20 EXPANSION AREA
LI"
gested by G.VR. Rao. The of a parabolic approximation shown diately with nozzle in figure upstream a radius contour 4-13. of the of 1.5 Rt. is made The throat The
design configuration bell nozzle is nozzle contour immearc section entrance T is a circular divergent
i
30 RATIO
t
40
Lf = 80% .f, 90/ Lf, 100%
5O
Figure
4-14.-0n
and area
Oe as ratio
function _.
of expansion
up of a circular
92
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Optimum nozzle contours can be approximated quite accurately by selecting the proper inputs. Although no allowance is made for different propellant combinations, experience has shown that the effect of specific heat ratio y upon the contour is small. A computer program can be readily set up to perform the calculation. 4. Annular Based Nozzles on the momentum theorem, for ideal ex-
zles. For comparison of the effect of nozzle type on size, all nozzles shown are scaled to the same thrust level, nozzle expansion area ratio, and theoretical nozzle efficiency. These nozzles show potential of adapting their geometry to space vehicle application, because shortened nozzles reduce interstage structure weight and will permit an increase in payload through increased performance for a given length. The nozzle expansion area ratio ( for an annular nozzle is defined by equation (4-9):
pansion the thrust generated by a thrust chamber depends only upon the mass flow conditions (velocity and direction) at the nozzle exit. In some nozzle designs, such as annular nozzles, the gas flow at the throat is not necessarily parallel to the axis, but the exit flow is similar to that of a conical or bell nozzle and thus produces the same thrust results. There are two basic types of annular nozzles: the radial in-flow type (spike nozzle) and the radial out-flow type (expansion-deflection or E-D; reverse-flow or R-F; and horizontal-flow or H-F nozzles). They are shown in figure 4o15, together with conventional conical and bell nozAREA
JECTOR OMBUSTION HAMBER HROAT I_ INJECTOR COMBUSTION
Projected area of the contoured nozzle wall Ae-Ap e: Throat area At
(4-9)
where the projected area of the contoured nozzle wall equals nozzle exit plane area Ae, less the centerbody projected area Ap. Another convelent design parameter for annular nozzles is the annular diameter ratio, Dp/Dt, where Dt is the throat diameter of an equivalent circular throat, and Dp the centerbody diameter. Dp/Dt is an index of the annular The parameter nozzle design
OF EFFICIENCY
RATIO = 36:1 = 9B.3%
(ALT}
INJECTOR : [_ _ 'tl X / i "'THROAT / rl ..--"- COMBUSTION JJ'CHAMBER
/ i;;rl_ _../-_l.J Z" j/"-/pD'_ j.._D,I._, _
INJECTOR cOM BUSTION CHAMBER TH R OAT
:i' CONE w.,, '

NOZZLE OVERALL OVERALL LENGTH LENGTH DIAMETER = 100% = I00% = 100%
, T
T,'
i':44--.. "i
sPIKE
LENGTH LENGTH DIAMETER Dp/D I = 1.3 = 41.4% = 51% = 105"/. NOZZLE OVERALL OVERALL OVERALL
5f 'i,!
E-D ' "
T = 1.3 = 41.4% = 519=, = 102.5 % LENGTH LENGTH DIAMETER Dp/D NOZZLE OVERALL
' BELL
LENGTH LENGTH DIAMETER
,
= 74.2% = 70% = tO0%
NOZZLE OVERALL OVERALL
THROAT COMBUSTION CHAMBER {NJECTOR
INJECTOR-,, X_ /
/-
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Ii- I
p---Dp"---'4
;_
R-F
Dp/D NOZZLE OVERALL OVERALL T = ,5 = 24,9 = 21% = 150 % LENGTH LENGTH DIAMETER
Y
NOZZLE OVERALL OVERALL
H-F
Dp/D t = t0 = 14.5 = 12 % = 194 % % LENGTH LENGTH DIAMETER
i1_
Figure
4-I 5.-Comparison
of nozzle
shapes.
93
geometry The nozzles
as are
compared similar
to a conventional methods to those nozzle, below wall the the occurs. large for bell
nozzle. CONSTANT_ MACHLINE_ exTHROAT----x \ _NOZZLE __/I _,,/f_-_'_ /_I_ __! FREESTREAMSURFACE WALL nozzles.
contour-calculating In a conical or bell well nozzle
for annular gases ambient flow As area losses may (seasepaexplained ratios, at of their to these noznozof a is
pand level ration
to pressures or low-altitude from the
operation)
before
"--_B-_]_
_--SNOCK
.OZZkE
in chapter this low altitudes.
I, for nozzles results Annular
with nozzles, are
overexpansion
in thrust
....
'------CENTERODY B WALL
because subject
special losses. zle zles), the lating function lower (and
characteristics, As shown equally back nozzle of the than ambient. applicable pressure plays flow. ambient
not 4-16
in figure
for an E-D annular back role and face
to other Pb The at the value
the the
, Essu,
Figure 4-17.-E-D nozzle operation. pressive also turning at the spike nozzle wall, which is at high altitude
centerbody
an important pressure Downstream
in regugenerally throat,
of Pb is of the
the expansion of the gases around shoulder C will continue unaffected base the by pressure downstream the (i) following The the (2) The the nozzle gases base free is reached. the flow two of the boundary contour After gases
the centerbody until this the is initial line controlled gas CD,
typical
for the nozzle there wall, as
nozzle,
is responsible at low altitude. inner from of the
for improved Because the nozzle jet boundary, tional nozzle.
performance is no is the flow case
expansion
through
constant-Mach
of the
self-adjusting
nature separation
conditions: DE flow. influences inner jet which turns
for a conven-
wall
to near-axial pressure stream surface
At high-altitude Pb 4-17. becomes behind Since flow gases the so low the flow verges be axial, the the
operation that the centerbody, at the may However, wave
the nozzle as closure occur
base flow shown
pressure conin figure must on of end
Pb which
of the
boundary. Because are and local of the curved-wall which leads in wall contour, to some pressure. the gases deflected, compression A typical
point depending
a shock conditions.
the
expansion up to the distriin
increases pressure shown
may continue The this condition
unaffected wall is also
nozzle operation
wall is
distribution in figure 4-16.
for low-altitude This corn-
of the bution figure
nozzle. under 4-17.
nozzle
pressure shown
An improved NOZZLE WALL _ E '"_""_'"_ aerodynamic is a truncated flow ondary type), flow CONSTANTI_ACH ---k
spike spike annular
nozzle spike
concept This nozzle a small
is (radial
the concept inof sec-
nozzle.' utilizes into
nozzle amount
L.NE \ TN"OAT ,NJECTO,

WALL PRESSURE_
F,,EE " SURFACE NOZZLE

AXIS BODY
which
introduced of the of various amount
the
nozzle
base nozzle parammanner and and field secand nozzle,
region. Performance is a function eters, the
aerodynamic nozzle
spike geometric flow, the
of secondary flow describe is the
in which I. the relative
this streams.
secondary energy To effect
introduced, primary flow the spike
between of truncating
ondary interrelated
the
Figure
4-16.-E-D
nozzle
at low altitude
operation.
_Source: AIAA Paper No. 66-828, "Liquid Rocket Engines: Their Status and Their Future" By S. F. Iacobellis.
94
base achieved
the
pressure through
and the base the secondary
pressure increase flow addition

IDEAL NOZZLE (NO LOSSE!
requires a lengthy, detailed discussion; only the basic operation can be presented here. The primary flow (high-pressure gases) which produces the major portion of the engine thrust is exhausted from an annular-type combustion chamber and expands against the metal surface of the center tru-_ated-spike nozzle (fig. 4-18). The characteriF of the primary flow field upstream of the basv, shown as region 1 in figure 4-18, are determined by the annular throat geometry, the nozzle wall contour, and the ambient pressure. The annular primary flow continues to expand beyond the nozzle surface and encloses a subsonic, recirculating flow field in the base region (region 2). The pressure acting on the nozzle base contributes additional thrust to the nozzle. When a small amount of secondary flow is introduced into the base (added to the recirculating flow), the base pressure is increased further. As the secondary flow is increased, the overall nozzle efficiency (considering the additional flow) increases because of this increase in base pressure. There is a limit to this gain in efficiency, and an optimum secondary flow exists for each configuration. The outer surface of the annular primary flow is a free-jet boundary, which is influenced by ambient pressure. This ambient pressure influence on the primary nozzle flow endows this type of nozzle with altitude compensation. In operation at high-pressure ratios (i.e., altitude conditions), the outer free-jet boundary of the primary flow expands outward, governed by the Prandtl-Meyer turning angle at the throat. At low-pressure ratios (i.e., sea level operation), the relatively higher ambient pressure cornTOR_DJU._Ew
HIGH-AREA-RATIO AEROSPIK E NOZZLE i, LL
L)
/ i / f I LU
/" /
/ /_ /_ I HICa-I-AR BELL EA-RATIO NOZZLE
//SEA'LEVEL
,'
_
/
/ OPERATING RANI
(VACUUM)
/
SEA _,t_-LEVEL OPERATING RANGE IVACUUMI
IJ
50
iI
100
I
200
] K JlJli{
300 500 1000 2000 4000
PRESSURE RATIO (pc,/pa) Figure 4-19.-Nozzle perlormance comparison.
presses the flow field. pressure on the negative sure on the
outer free-jet boundary of the primary This compression increases the static the nozzle wall and partially offsets effect of the higher ambient presback side of the nozzle. The base
Figure
4-18.-Aerodynamic spike flow [ield i11usSrated under altitude conditions.
pressure also is increased with the higher ambient, because the compressed primary flow field, which influences the base pressure, has higher static pressures. This combination of flow field effects provides the altitude compensation inherent to the aerodynamic spike nozzle. Figure 4-19 presents the performance comparison of various nozzle designs. The nozzle thrust coefficient Cf for an ideal nozzle (i.e., a variable-area-ratio nozzle having the optimum expansion for each chamber pressure to ambient pressure ratio, pc/Pa) is shown together with those of the high-area-ratio aerodynamic spike and bell nozzle. As is evident, the CI curve of the aerodynamic spike follows the ideal nozzle performance (altitude-compensation), rather than dropping off rapidly like the bell design at low pc/Pa (i.e., sea level) operating points. M1 nozzles have a higher CI at a high Pc/Pa (i.e., vacuum). The development of the annular-nozzle concept may influence the design of rocket vehicles,
DESIGN OF THRUST CHAMBERSAND OTHER COMBUSTION DEVICES
95
especially in the areas of boattail structure and mission staging optimization. The advantages and disadvantages of annular nozzles are summarized as follows: Advantages (1) Shortened nozzle length for the same performance, or increased performance (higher expansion area ratios) for a given length. (2) Improved performance at sea level or low altitudes. (Annular nozzles with high expansion area ratios can be used for a single-stage sea level to vacuum vehicle mission.) (3) The relatively stagnant region in the center of the nozzle can possibly be used for installation of gas generators, turbopumps, tanks, auxiliary equipment, and turbine gas discharges. (4) A segmented combustion chamber design approach can be used, easing development effort (individual segments can be built and tested during the early phases) and improving combustion stability. Disadvantages (1) Relatively because surface
4-23. The reader is urged to conduct his own calculations using the first stage as a guide, and to compare his results with those shown.
Solution A-1 Stage Engine: From sample calculation Design sea level
(4-1):
C/= 1.531; (Pc)as (1-33):
= 1000 psia;
e= 14
Substitute
into equation
Throat
area:
747 000 At - 1.531 x 1000 = 487 in:
Throat
diameter:
Dt = _=
24.9 in
Rt=_= Exit diameter: 24.9 =93.4 R in
12.45
in
De
--'-_V/_ -x
high cooling requirements, of higher heat fluxes and greater areas to be cooled. in some
93.4 e =---_- = 46.7 in
Use a combustion LO2/RP-1 (4-4): Chamber application.
chamber
L* of 45 in for into equation
(2) Heavier structural construction applications. (3) Manufacturing difficulties.
Substitute
volume:
Vc=487x45=21915cuin
Sample
Calculation
(4-2)
Lay out the thrust chamber internal configuration (cylindrical combustion chamber with bell nozzle) for the engines on the Alpha vehicle with the data derived from sample calculation (4-1) and the following required chamber thrusts Ftc: (a) A-1 stage (b) A-2 stage (c) A-3 stage (d) A-4 stage The detailed engine: engine: engine: engine: calculations Ftc =747000 lb at sea level lb at altitude Ib at altitude
Use a nozzle convergent half angle of 20 , a contraction area ratio ec = 1.6, and a circular arc of radius R= 1.5Rt, or 18.68 in, for nozzle contour upstream of the throat. Chamber diameter: Dc = _'.'.6x 24.9 =31.5 R
C
in in
31,5 =_----=--= 15.75
Ft%= 149500 Ftc3= Ftc4= 16000
Use equation (4-7) to calculate convergent cone length Convergent cone length
the chamber
7500 lb at altitude and their results
_ 12.45 (x/1.6 - 1) + 18.68 (sec tan 20
20 - 1)
are presented in the following for the first-stage engine only. For the other stages, the calculation results are summarized in figures 4-21 to
4.515 = 0.---3"64 12.4 in =
96
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
INJECTOR FACE
THRUST CHAMBER AXrS
L n = 102.4"
-"-
Figure
4-20.-A-I
stage engine thrust (--14, 80% bell,
chamber L*=45",
internal (o=1.6.
configuration
layout:
INJECTOR THROAT FACE ,d
EXIT =9.25
b
I
8n=33 THRUST CHAMBER AXIS N

__
J
_L_
14"R
N0=5.94.
I De=71"
L
Ln =83.6"
thrust chamber, L*=26", internal _c=1.6. configuration layout: 75% hell,
17.3" - ! _
Figure 4-21.-A-2 stage engine _=40,
k.,
4mmmal
OF THRUST CHAMBERS AND OTHER COMBUSTION DEVICES
DESIGN
97
INJECTOR FACE
THRUST CHAMBER AXIS
Figure
4-22.-A-3
stage
engine _=35,
thrust 70% bell,
chamber, L*=28",
internal _c=2.
configuration
layout:
INdECTOR FACE
THROAT
EXIT
I
V Et:46.1, `
_1
THROAT CHAMBER AXIS
Figure
4-23.-A-4
stage
engine _=35, 70%
thrust bell,
chamber, L*=32",
internal ec=2.
configuration
layout:
98
Using the frustrum cone volume equation and neglecting the slight rounding of the throat, the approximate convergent cone volume is obtained:
Since
the calculations
for the thrust
chamber
Volume =3 x12.4 [(15.75)2 + (12.45)2 +15.7512.45
configuration are based on the calculated design C[ value which has to be verified by later actual testing, a slight change of chamber pressure is usually allowed to compensate for C! deviations in order to meet the required thrust value.
= 7760 cu in 4.4 Required volume for cylindrical =21 915chamber section 7760:14 155 cu in THRUST CHAMBER and Their COOLING
Techniques
Selection
Required
length
for cylindrical chamber section = 14 155/1.6At= 18.17 inches
Distance
from injector face to throat = 18.17+ 12.40= 30.57, say 31 inches
Design an "80-percent bell" nozzle configuration using the parabolic approximation procedure. The nozzle contour downstream of the throat will be a circular arc of radius 0.382 Rt, or 4.75 inches. By definition, the nozzle length Ln will be 80 percent of the length for an equivalent 15 half-angle conical nozzle. Substitute into equation (4-7)
Because of the high combustion temperatures (4000 to 6000 F) and the high heat transfer rates from the hot gases to the chamber wall (0.5 to 50 Btu/in2-sec), thrust chamber cooling becomes a major design consideration. For shortduration operation (up to a few seconds), uncooled chamber walls can be used. In this case, the heat can be absorbed by the sufficiently heavy chamber wall material which acts as a heat sink, before the wall temperature rises to the failure level. For most longer durationapplications, a steady-state chamber cooling system has to be employed. One or a combination of the following chamber cooling techniques is often used: 1. Regenerative coollng.-Regenerative cooling is the most widely applied method and utilizes one or possibly both of the propellants, fed througt_ passages in the thrust chamber wall for cooling, before they are injected into the combustion chamber. (See par. 4.1 and fig. 4-1.) 2. Dump cooJing.-With this principle, a small percentage of the propellant, such as the hydrogen in a LO2/LH2 engine, is fed through passages in the thrust chamber wall for cooling and subsequently dumped overboard through openings at the rear end of the nozzle skirt. Because of inherent problems, this method has only limited application. 3. Film cooling.-Here, exposed chamber wall surfaces are protected from excessive heat with a thin film of coolant or propellant which is introduced through manifolded orifices in the chamber wall near the injector, and usually in several more planes toward the throat. The method has been widely used, particularly for high heat fluxes, either alone or in combination with regenerative cooling. 4. Transpiration cooling.-Transpiration cooling is accomplished by introducing a coolant
Ln=0.8
[12.45
(VIT-1)+4.75 15 (sec tan
15 - 1!] inches
= 0.8 x 128 = 102.4
The parabolic contour wall angles 0, and 0e can be derived from figure 4-14, for e= 14 and L/=0.8; On = 27.4 and 0e = 9.8 . The location of N and E along the nozzle contour, with respect to throat and nozzle axis, can be calculated Nt =0.382 R: sin On = 2.19 inches
Na = Rt + 0.382 Rt(1 - cos 0n) : 12.99 inches Et : Ln = 102.4 Ea= Re=46.7 inches inches
With the aid of the established coordinates for points N and E, and the angles 0_ and 0e, a parabola can be fitted to complete the contour. The general layout of the A-1 stage engine thrust chamber is shown in figure 4-20. With the aid of a computer program, more accurate calculations of the divergent nozzle contour can be made by the method of characteristics.
99
(either gaseous or liquid propellants) through porous chamber walls at a rate sufficient to maintain the desired combustion gas side chamber wall temperature. This method is essentially a special type of film cooling and has been widely used. 5. Ablative cooling.-In this process a sacrifice of combustion-chamber gas-side wall material is made by melting and subsequently vaporizing it to dissipate heat. As a result, relatively cool gases flow over the wail surface, thus creating a cooler boundary layer, assisting the cooling process. Ablative cooling has been used in numerous designs, initially mainly for solid propellant systems, but later equally successfully for low Pc, pressure-fed liquid systems. 6. Radiation cooling.-_tith this method, beat is radiated away from the surface of the outer thrust chamber wall. It has been successfully applied to low heat flux regions, such as nozzle extensions. The selection of the best cooling method for a given thrust chamber depends on many design considerations. There are no simple-and-fast rules. However, the following are the main factors which influence the selected design approaches: 1. Propellants.-The properties of the combustion products, such as temperature, specific heat, specific weight, viscosity, etc., have a direct bearing on the heat transfer rate and in turn affect the chamber cooling requirements and methods. The cooling properties of the propellants and their relative flow rate decide whether they are suitable or sufficient for regenerative or film cooling. Therefore, in evaluating a chamber cooling system, the propellants involved will be one of the primary design considerations. 2. Chamber pressure.-High chamber pressure is linked with higher combustion gas mass flow rates per unit area of chamber cross section and thus raises the heat transfer rate. Combined regenerative and film-cooling methods are usually employed for the stringent requirement of higher chamber pressure applications. 3. Propellant feed system.-The type of propellant feed used in an engine system determines the pressure budget for the system. In a turbopump-fed engine system, more pressure drop is usually available for chamber cooling. The
availability of this pressure drop permits the use of regenerative cooling which requires propellant pressure sufficient to force the coolant through the cooling passage before entering the injector. A pressurized-gas-fed engine system usually has more stringent pressure limitations and operates on relatively low chamber pressures. This suggests the application of film, ablative, or radiation cooling. 4. Thrust chamber configuration.-The geometric shape of the chamber affects local combustion gas mass flow rates and wall surface areas to be cooled. This influences the choice of cooling method. It can also arrangements for regeneratively wall thrust chambers. 5. Thrust chamber limit the design cooled tubular
construction
material.-The
properties of the thrust chamber materials will affect the cooling system design profoundly. Strength at elevated temperature, combined with heat conductivity properties of a metal, will Jetermine suitability for regenerative cooling systems. For film-cooled chambers higher allowable material working temperatures are desired to reduce heat transfer rates and thus film coolant flow rates. The application of radiationcooling to a chamber depends largely on the availability of high temperature (3000 F and up) refractory alloys. The success of ablative cooling depends entirely on the availability of suitable composite plastic materials. In practice, the design of thrust chamber cooling systems is a major link in the complete engine system design. It cannot be treated independently, without due consideration of other engine system aspects. For instance, optimization of the chamber pressure value for a highperformance engine system is largely limited by the capacity and efficiency of the chamber cooling system. In turn, chamber pressure will affect other design parameters such as nozzle expansion area ratio, propellant feed pressure, and weight. Because of the complex interrelation between these factors, the complete analysis of chamber cooling systems is a specialized field and requires thorough knowledge of heat transfer, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and thermal stresses. The engine system designer, therefore, will enlist the services of heat transfer specialists.
100
Gas-Side Heat Transfer
One of the primary steps in the design of a thrust chamber cooling system is the analysisof the heat transferfrom the combustion gases to the chamber walls (gas-sideheat transfer). Because of the very high surface velocityof the gases along the chamber walls, the heat transfer occurs mainly through forcedconvection; i.e., throughthe transfer heat energy resulting of from the relative motion of different arts of a fluid. p Before the gases can transfer heat to the wall, the heat energy must pass througha layer of stagnantgas along the wall, calledthe boundary layer. The basic correlation forthiscomplicated convective heat transfer can be expressed by the followingequation: q : hg (Taw - Twg) where q = Heat flux or heat transferred across stagnant gas film per unit surface per unit time, Btu/in2-sec hg =Gas-side heat transfer in2-sec-deg F coefficient, (4-10)
dominantly influenced by the mass wlocity or the mass flow rate per unit area of the gas, subject to the exponent 0.8. In comparison, all other factors are relatively minor. A rough approximation of hg can thus be expressed by the following equation: hg=(p'V) where p' = Free stream value of local gas density, lb/cu in = Free stream value of local gas velocity, in/set Thus, under normal circumstances, the heattransfer coefficient varies with the chamber pressure to the 0.8 power and throughout a given chamber inversely with the local chamber diameter to an exponent of 1.8. Based on experience with turbulent boundary layers, some relatively simple correlations for the calculation of the gas-side heat-transfer coefficient have been developed. A much-used form is that credited to Colburn Nu = C Re 8 Pr _ where Nu = Nusselt number = hg D/k C =Dimensionless constant Re = Reynolds number = p'VD/_ = Free stream velocity, in/set Pr = Prandtlnumber = _Cp/k D =Hydraulic diameter,in k =Gas thermalconductivity, Btu/sec-in 2deg F/in _t =Viscosity, Ib/in sec Cp=Specific heat at constantpressure,Btu/Ibdeg F or as Bartz has shown (4-12) 8 (4-11)
the area Btu/
Taw = Adiabatic wall temperature of the gas, deg R= (Tc)ns x turbulent boundary layer recovery factor (ranging from 0.90 to o.9s) Twg = Hot-gas-sidelocal chamber-wall temperature,deg R The determination of the gas-side heat transfer coefficient hg is a rather complex problem. The convection phenomenon as it occurs in rocket thrust chambers eludes complete understanding. Attempts to compare analytical results with experimental heat-transfer data obtained on rocket thrust chambers have often shown disagreement. The differences are largely attributed to the initial assumptions for analytical calculations. For example, there is good evidence that oxidizing and reducing atmospheres covering a wide range of temperature exist locally in the combustion product gases within the thrust chamber, because of the imperfect mixing of the propellants at the injector face. This results in deviations from calculations based on the assumption of homogeneous product gases. However, it has been established by experiment _hat the beat-transfer coefficien_ is pre-
'++L+.,.'+c+++" + It+i+)o. ]
(-+)'o +,++
where R = l_dius of curvature throat, in of nozzle contour variations at o = Correction factor for property across the boundary layer
101
A = Area under consideration along chamber axis The value of a can be evaluated in terms of nozzle stagnation temperature, local gas-side chamber wall temperature, and local Mach number. 1
(1) A substantial fraction of the combustion gases are strong radiators. (2) There is substantial dissociation, with subsequent recombination near the wall. (3) There are strong high-frequency flow instabilities. The calculated values may be higher than the actual ones, because of the following: (1) The combustion reactions may not be completed in the chamber. (2) The combustion gases may deposit solids on the chamber walls, which act as insulators. In certain propellant combinations, the combustion products contain small amounts of solid particles. These solids tend to deposit on the chamber wails, and form a rather effective insulating layer. A quantitative evaluation of _he insulation effectiveness of this layer, necessary for correct heat transfer calculations, has been accomplished only experimentally. In the case of the LO2/RP-1 combination, carbon solids are deposited on the chamber walls. After a firing, the carbon gives the interior of the thrust chamber the appearance of being freshly painted black. The outer surface of the carbon appears sooty and can easily be removed by light rubbing. Underneath the exterior soot layer is a harder, graphitelike layer which can also be removed, but is more tenacious. This carbon deposit significantly increases the gas-side thermal resistance. The temperature of the carbon deposit at the hot gas-side interface approaches the gas temperature as the carbon thickness increases. The values of the thermal resistance of the carbon deposit based on actual experimental testing results of a thrust chamber burning LO2/RP-1 are shown in figure 4-25. For the heat transfer calculation of the gasside heat transfer with solid deposit on chamber walls, the following equations can be used q = hgc (Taw - Twg) (4-17) conductance,
values of a for various Twg/(Tc)n s and y, as computed by Bartz, are shown in figure 4-24. If Pr and # data are not available for particular combustion gas mixtures, the following equations can be used for approximate results:
Pr=9__5 /_=(46.6 where T= temperature Equations (4-13), 10-_) _ ST '6
(4-15) (4-16)
of gas mixture, R (4-14), (4-15), and (4-16) approximate hg valwalls. However, expected to be the following con-
can be used to calculate the ues along the thrust chamber the calculated values can be lower than the actual ones if ditions exist:
0.6
"'l
O -I'z J
I
I I
TI/
I
I
JI
o.6[ 1
4 3
I
2
I
Z
I
3
_1
4 5 6 78510 20 30 I[XP&NSION
I
40
where hgc = overall gas-side Btu/in2-sec-deg F 1 hgci hg +
thermal
CONTRACTION
Figure 4-24.-Values property variation
of correction factor a for across boundary layer.
(4-18) Rd
102
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
2400
!,!
,;
= 6460 (0.975) 2 : 6140 R (See eq. 1-32a and 1-41). From sample calculation
(4-1):
22(311 _
Design I_ ? ,8o0 u
i
c* = 5660 ft/sec (4-2): in contour 18.68+4.75 2
From sample
calculation Dc=24.9
Mean radius
fzoo I
of the throat
2 CONTRI.CllON _ _
I AREA
2 RATIO
4 t _
6 8 EXPANSION
I ,
_
12
_4
- 11.71 in
Figure 4-25.-Thermal resistance el carbon deposit on chamber walls LO2/RP-1, mixture ratio = 2.35, (Pc)n s = 1000 psia. where Rd thermal resistance caused by the solid deposit, in2-sec-deg F/Btu When there is no solid deposit, Rd =0 and hgc = hg, and equation (4-10) is used for heat transfer calculations.
yR 1.222 x Cp - (),_ I),I - (i. 222 - I) 778 = 0.485 Btu/lb-deg
e 44)
From equation
(4-15):
4 1.222 Pr : (9 1.222) - 5 =0.816
From equation
(4-16):
Sample
Calculation
(4-3)
: (46.6 10 -1) (22.5) 05 x (6140) 0.6 = 46.6 10-1 4.76 188 - 4.18 x 10 -6 lb/in-sec From equation (4-13):
Determine the approximate design gas-side overall thermal conductance hgc in the combustion chamber, at the throat, and at the exit nozzle point of e=5, for the regeneratively cooled thrust chambers on the A-1 and A-2 stage engines.
h -V0"026
g-L
x((4"1810-_)2x0'485) 0.8160.6
0.9
Solution (_.) A-I Stage Engine First, let us consider equation (4-13). The combustion reactions are assumed to be homogeneous and complete. From figure 4-3 the following values are derived for the chamber product gases, for LO2/RP-1 mixture ratio of 2.35: (Tc)ns at (Pc)ns = 1000 psia and a
\-g-6-65
: 0.01366
(7
At\ 0.9 0.046 4.02 1.078 k-_} o
"At_O.9
= 0.0027 x ("_')
= 6000 F or 6460 R, =22.5 (Tc)ns (Tz)ns
lb/mol,
y= 1.222
Since the carbon deposit temperature approaches the gas temperature, a (Twg/(Tc)ns) value of 0.8 is used to determine the a values from figure 4-24 (),_1.2). At the combustion chamber:
The design
=Theoretical
(c* correction
factor) 2
DESIGN OF THRUST CHAMBERS AND OTHER
COMBUSTION DEVICES
103
b(b_) -2 A (__) 9:(1_16) 1" 0.9 :0,655, " a=l,05 Again, 4-4, Btu/in2-sec-deg F the
Stage the
Engine reactions complete. are derived for LO;/LH2 ratio R, =12 lb/mol, y= 1.213 of 5.22: are From for assumed figure the and values gases, a mixture
combustion
to be homegeneous hg : 0.0027 x 0.655 1.05 = 0.00185 following product and chamber = 800 At the throat: (Tc)ns -_)'9=l,a= 1 The hg = 0.0027 At the exit x 1 x 1 : 0.0027 nozzle point Btu/in of From e=5,(_-)'9=(1)9:O.235, a=0.8 Design hg = 0.0027 0.235 0.8 : 0.000507 From figure 4-21: sample 2-sec-deg F Theoretical (Tc)ns design (Tc)ns psia
at (Pc)as
= 5580 F or 6040
= correction = 6040 factor) 2
x (c*
(0.975)
2 = 5740 R
calculation c* = 74S0
(4-1): ft/sec
Btu/in2-sec-deg
The experimental used to determine ance Rd, for the are
data of figure 4-25 the values of thermal carbon deposit. The
can be resistthermal Mean
Dt = 11.2 in radius of the throat contour = 8.4+2.14 - 5.27 in
resistances
in2-sec-deg 1670 Btu
F , 1125
in:-sec-deg Btu
F ' in2-sec-deg F yR Cp = (y_ 1.213
1544 i----_ 0.943 Btu/lb-deg F
and
1645
Btu
1)g = (1.213
- 1) 778-
for points and the Substitute combustion
at the exit into
combustion area the ratio equation
chamber, of e = 5. (4-18);
the
throat,
From
equation
(4-15): 4x 1.21a - 5 = 0.820
nozzle chamber
at the
Pr = (9 x 1.213)
1 hgc 1 --+ 0.00185 at the throat 1670
From = 0.00045 Btu/in2-sec-deg F
equation
(4-16):
= (46.6 = 46.6 =2.92x
x 10-lo)
(12) o.s (5740)o6 x 180
x 10- ,o 3.47 10 -6 lb/in-sec
hg c -
1 --+ 0.0027 exit
= 0.00067 1125
Btu/in2-sec-deg
F From equation (4-13):
At the
nozzle
of e= 5.
hg=L0.026 [
hg c1 -0.000507 = 0.000276 e1645 Btu/in2-sec-deg F
x ((2.92x,
_ 10-6)20.943)
x\
7480
x\5--._
j\-_--]
104
ROCKET ENGINES
(A_
09
t.,4_CHAMBER GAS SIDE BOUNDARY I INNER WALL ['_qI.--COOLANT SIDE BOUNDARY LAYER
:0.01605 0.08282.69 1.078 \--X-J

LAYER I A_ x9 _At = 0.00385 x _---_-) a
Z
deposit wall on the temperature the chamber of valueof a
Since wails,
there
is
no solid gas-side and 4-24. is used
an average or 0.26 figure
To. COM__
1500 R is assumed, (1500/5740) values from
a (Twg/(Tc)ns) to determine
At the
combustion
chamber:
1 It
Tw_
RADIAL CENTER DISTANCE OF Figure F 4-26.-Heat trans[er erative
COOLANT
--Twc
Tco
(__)
0.9
--
G.__16
0.9
= 0.655,
a= 1.38
FROM
CHAMBER schematic for regen-
hgc = hg : 0.00385
x 0.655 x 1.38 = 0.00348 Btu/in2-sec-deg
cooling.
At the
throat: =hc(Twc-Teo) -Tco) (4-20)
_)9
= 1, o=1.35
= H (Taw 1 1 t
(4-21)
fig c :hg=0.00385
1 x 1.35 = 0.00520
HBtu/in2-sec-deg F where
(4-22)
At the
exit
nozzle
point
of e = 5:
q hgc
= Heat = Overall
flux,
Btu/in2-sec thermal F (see hg c = hg) heat-transfer F of chamber F/in thickness, temperature in of the gas, wall, conductance, eq. 4-18; with-
gas-side
(-_)9=(1)9=0.235,
a=1.16 hc
Btu/in2-sec-deg out deposits, =Coolant side Btu/in2-sec-deg F k t = Thermal = Chamber conductivity wall wall R Btu/in2-sec-deg
coefficient,
hgc = hg = 0.00385
0.235 1.16 =0.00105 Btu/in2-sec-deg
Regenerative The chamber tween partition. matically. of heat through chamber by the the heat can two
Cooling transfer in a regeneratively as the heat cooled flow be-
Taw =Adiabatic deg Twg= Gas-side Two = Coolant Teo H = Coolant = Overall sec-deg The creases cooling absorbed, balance chamber bulk from and of these walls the be described fluids, 4-26 general from the which
moving Figure The
through shows this steady-state combustion include can
a multilayer process gases the metal schecorrelation
wall temperature, deg R side wall temperature, deg bulk temperature, deg heat-transfer coefficient, F Too of entry a function coolant flow of the until coolant it leaves heat R
Btu/in:-
transfer layers,
temperature point as of the
inthe
walls, following
to the
coolant
be expressed
equations:
passages,
of the rate. to maintain below
Proper the at
parameters, at temperatures
those
DESIGN
OF THRUST
CHAMBERS
AND
OTHER
COMBUSTION
DEVICES
105
which failure might occur because of melting or stress, is one of the major criteria for the design of regeneratively cooled thrust chambers. For metals commonly used in thrust-chamber walls, such as stainless steel, nickel, and Inconel, the limiting hot-gas-side wall temperature is around 1500-1800 F. The resultant differences between combustion gas temperature and wall temperature range from 2500 to 6000 F. Assume a station in the thrust chamber with gas temperature Taw and coolant bulk temperature Tco. Referring to equation 4-21, it is seen that the heat flux q, which must be the same through all layers, is a function of the temperatures, and of overall heat transfer coefficient H. The value of H is composed of the individual coefficients for the boundary layers and the chamber metal wall (eq. 4-22). The smaller H, the smaller is q. However, it is one of the major design goals heat transfer to keep coefficient hgc low, but coefficient hc and conductivity t/k
The characteristics
of coolant
side
heat
high, in relation to hgc. Since the temperature differentials are inversely proportional to the heat-transfer coefficients of the heat flow paths, the temperature drop will then be steepest between hot gas and inner chamber wall. The effect is analogous to voltage drops along resistors in electrical circuits. It is noted that the heat absorbed by the propellant used for regenerative cooling raises temperature of the propellant, and thus the energy level before it is injected into the combustion chamber. However, this effect on overall engine performance is slight, the gain usually being less than 1 percent. On the other hand, regenerative cooling with attendant pressure losses requiring additional turbopump power or higher gas pressurization levels imposes a performance penalty.
transfer depend largely on the coolant pressure and coolant side wall temperature. In figure 4-27, the heat flux is plotted versus wall temperature for a constant coolant pressure, bulk temperature, and flow velocity. Curve A indicates the behavior of heat transfer at coolant presst, res below critical. Line segment At-A2 represents the heat transfer without boiling when the wall temperature is below the saturation temperature of the coolant corresponding to the fluid pressure. As the wall temperature at A: exceeds the saturation temperature by a certain margin (50 to 100 F), bubbles will form within the coolant layer close to the wall. The bubbles grow continuously out into the colder liquid stream until condensation at the vapor to liquid surface begins to exceed the rate of vaporization at the base of the vapor bubble, whereupon the bubbles start to collapse. This process, which occurs at high frequencies, is described as "nucleate boiling." It substantially increases the heat-transfer coefficient, resulting in little increase in wall temperature for a wide range of heat fluxes. The heat transfer with nucleate boiling is represented by line A2-A 3. At A 3, further increase in the heat flux abruptly leads to such'a dense bubble population that the bubbles combine into a vapor film with an attendant large decrease in heat-transfer coefficient. The region of heat transfer with film boiling is represented by line A3-A 4. The resulting increase in
_6
o x N
.A 3
-w,.
....
.........
P"_
C U RVE
(Pco =I/2
Pc_,r,cAO
z4
Coolant Side Heat Transfer The coolant side heat-transfer coefficient hc is influenced by many factors. At the high heat fluxes and temperatures encountered in thrust chamber operation, the propellants used for cooling may become corrosive, may decompose or deposit impurities upon the heated surface, thereby reducing cooling effectiveness. It is impossible to calculate the hc values under these conditions without experimental data. Mr
At _ _"
I I
6
,"--CURVE
( P"OI > I PCmTICALI I)
O B_2
I0
12
14
16
is
20
COOLANT SIDE WALL TEMP. TWC (F) X I0 -z Figure 4-27.-Heat flux versus coolant side wall temperature of typical propellant in various heat trans/er regions.
106
wall temperature is so high that failure of the wall material often occurs. The heat flux at A_ is defined as the upper limit of nucleate boiling of the coolant qul, which therefore should be used as the design limit for a regenerative cooling system. Curve B indicates the heat transfer behavior of a coolant above critical pressure. Since no boiling can occur, the wall temperature continually increases with increasing heat flux. Line B1-B2 represents the heat-transfer region, when the wall temperature is below the coolant critical temperature. The heat-transfer coefficient remains essentially constant. As the wall temperature reaches the critical temperature B2 and higher, a gradual transition to a stable supercritical vapor-film boundary layer begins, which results in somewhat lower heat-transfer coefficients. Line B2-B 3 represents the heat transfer in this region. Wall failure temperatures are usually reached at lower temperatures when the coolant is above the critical presstire than when it is below it. Where possible, a coolant operating pressure between 0.3 to 0.7 of critical pressure should be used to take advantage of the high heat-transfer coefficients available with nucleate boiling. However, in most systems, particularly those which are fed from a turbopump, the cooling jacket pressure, which is equal to or larger than the sum of chamber pressure and injection pressure, is supercritical. For the nonboiling subcritical temperature regions of both, subcritical and supercritical coolant pressures (AI-A2 and B_-B 2 in fig. 4-27), the relationship between wall temperature and heat flux, which depends on the heat transfer coefficient hc, can be predicted with sufficient accuracy for design purposes with the help of the Sieder-Tate equation (eq. 4-23) for turbulent heat transfer to liquids flowing in channels:
014
gw =coolant viscosity at coolant sidewall temperature d = coolant passage hydraulic diameter, in k = coolant thermal conductivity, Btu/sec-in deg F/in p =coolant density, ib/in 3 Vco = coolant velocity, in/sec Cp = coolant specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/ib-deg F The heat flux at the upper limit of nucleate boiling qul can be estimated from qul qnonboiling where C2
qnonboiling
2-
C 2 x 10* PcoG (4-24)
= constant, coolant
-- heat
its value used
depending nucleate
on
flux without Btu/in2-sec
boiling,
Pco G
= coolant pressure, psia = coolant maximum flow rate unit area, lb/in2-sec
per
When the heat is transferred through a vaporfilm boundary layer (coolant at supercritical pressure and temperature, region B2-B 3 in fig. 4-27), the coolant-side heat-transfer coefficient hc can be estimated from
hc: 0.029 Cpp 2 (.GO*,_.2._, _ oss pr2/3 \--d'_] \Twc! where Cp
(4-25)
Pr G
d
= coolant specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/Ib-deg F coolant viscosity, Ib/in-sec = Prandtl number = coolant weight flow rate per unit area, Ib/in2-sec
z
Nu=C 1 Re SPr4 where
(ju+)
(4-23)
C I =a constant (different values coolants) Nu =Nusselt number= hcd/k
for various
coolant passage hydraulic diameter, in = coolant bulk temperature, deg R Twc--coolant side wall temperature, deg R The bulk temperature of most coolants should be kept below the critical temperature, since the vapor-film heat-transfer coefficient would be too Tco low to cool the wall effectively. The cooling capacity of the liquid-state regenerative coolant system can be estimated by Qc
= #cCp
Re = Reynolds number = pVcod/_ Pr = Prandtl number = i_Cp/k /_ =coolant viscosity at bulk temperature
(Tcc - Tci)
(4-26)
107
k._.._,
_f.._
transfer calculation. There are several basic design approaches for regenerative-cooled thrust chambers. Axial-flow cooling jackets, made up of tubes, are used in the design of large thrust chambers (3000 pounds of thrust and up); coaxial shells separated by helical ribs or wires are typical of the smaller thrust chamber designs. Figure 4-1 shows a large regenerative cooled tubular wall thrust chamber. Figure 4-28 represents a typical coaxial shell design for a smaller thrust chamber. In this design, the coolant passage is defined as the rectangular area between inner and outer shell and two adjacent ribs, which are wrapped helically around the inner shell or liner.
/
Figure 4-28.-Coaxial shell thrust and chamber cutaspot way. Note overheated on chamber wall. where Qc =coolant We = coolant Cp capacity, Btu/sec mass flow rate, lb/sec burnt-through
Tubular
Wall Thrust
Chamber
Design
=coolant specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/lb-deg F Tcc =coolant critical temperature, deg R Tci = coolant inlet temperature, deg R The allowed value of the total chamber wall gas heat-transfer rate Q should be kept below Qc by a safe margin (Q<Qc). However, there is no such limitation for hydrogen when used as a coolant. Hydrogen has excellent heat-transfer characteristics with a reasonably high heat-transfer coefficient even in the supercritical pressure and temperature region. Usually liquid hydrogen enters the chamber coolant passage under supercritical pressure and reaches supercritical temperature a short distance from the inlet. The coolant passage areas at various points along the chamber walls are designed to maintain the proper coolant velocity dictated by the heattransfer coefficients determined by the heat-
In the design of tubular wall thrust chambers, the number of coolant tubes required is a function of the chamber geometry, the coolant weight flow rate per unit tube area, the maximum allowable tube wall stress, and fabrication considerations. The critical cooling region is near the throat where the heat flux is highest. It is this region, then, which determines the number of tubes required for a given coolant flow rate. For easier fabrication and lower stress, tube cross sections of circular shape are preferred. However, other shapes are often used to meet certain flow-area requirements. The stress analysis of the tubes is based upon three primary considerations: the hoop stress caused by coolant pressure, the thermal stress caused by temperature gradient across the tube section and the wall, and the bending stress caused by distortion induced by the pressure differential between adjacent tubes (if any) or by other effects such as discontinuities. The tube design stress is based on the combined stress from the above three considerations. It has been found that the maximum combined stress will occur at the throat region. As shown in figure 4-29, the maximum combined tangential stresses of the circular-tube will be at section A-A and can be expressed by (Pco - Pg) r Eaqt 6 MA t + 2 (1 - v) k + t---7--
Stwhere St
(4-27)
=combined
tangential
tensile
stress,
lb/in-'
108
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
q r t
=heat = tube =tube
flux, radius, wall
Btu/inLsec in thickness, in lb/in pressure, 2 lb/in2 wall matewall of tube coefficient F of tube F/in of tube caused adjacent wall material wall material,
and
(4-29)
can
be also
applied
to calculate
the
stresses for this design. Here again the maximum combined stress is at section A. The bending moment at section the adjacent tubes. A, M:4, should differential take into
Pco = coolant pg E a =combustion =modulus rial, =thermal material, k v =thermal = Poisson's
pressure, gas 2 of elasticity lb/in expansion in/in-deg conductivity ratio moment between design)
consideration between
pressure
(if any)
of tube
F-CHAMBER
JACKET
.__
ZONEII
Btu/in2-sec-deg
MA =bending in-lb/in tial tube Since (zone that outer zone the the
by discontinuity, differenfor circular of the tube than tubes portion
(no effect
of pressure
combustion-gas-side a much back (zone side II), higher tube the mean
I) has of the shell I will
temperature and II. chamber
portion thermal by zone mass under
expansion Because of zone
of of conEQUIV. CHAMBER INTERNAL RAD.
be restrained greater is buckling
considerably
II, thermal
inelastic ditions, The by
induced stress
certain
in zone
I, in the thermal
longitudinal can
direction. be estimated THRUST Figure 4-29.-Circular cooled CHAMBER tube wall thrust
longitudinal
of regeneratively
81 = Ea AT where S_ =longitudinal thermal stress, difference deg F not higher lb/in 2
(4-28)
chamber.
CHAMBER zone JACKET / ZONE II
h T: mean I and S 1 should The critical on
temperature zone kept below. II,
between
/
than inelastic by
be
at a level
0.9 Sc,
stress zone
for longitudinal I can be estimated
buckling
4 ErEct
)r
inelastic 2
(4-29)
Z_P=
Pco1 . pco2
/ EQUIVALENT CHAMBER INTERNAL RADIUS
where Sc = critical buckling Et = tangential temperature, Ec = tangential pression temperature, An elongated shown in figure cross 4-30. stress for longitudinal I, lb/in of elasticity 2 of elasticity curve, 2 tube design is (4-28), Figure 4-30,-Elongated lively cooled from at wall comTHRUST CHAMBER
in zone modulus lb/in modulus stress-strain lb/in
at wall
section Equations
tube thrust
wall chamber.
of
regenera-
(4-27),
,4
109
lap
M'A MA+ KA-_:

where M_ = combined in-lb/in bending moment at section
(4-30)
v A,
=thermal conductivity of inner shell material, Btu/in2-sec-deg F/in =Poisson's ratio of inner shell material
Pressure
Drop in Cooling
Passages passage change of or contracThe inner
MA = bending moment due KA = dimensionless design test results (range 1 =length of flat portion Ap = pressure differential tubes, lb/in 2
to discontinuity constant based on 0.3-0.5) on tube wall, in between adjacent
It is desirable to design a cooling with minimum pressure drop. Abrupt flow direction and sudden expansion tion of flow areas should be avoided.
Substituting equation (4-30) into equation (4-27), the maximum stress of the elongated tube can be calculated. The working loads induced in a regenerative tubular wall chamber by the chamber pressure are designed to be absorbed by a chamber jacket or tension bands wrapped around the tube bundle.
surface of cooling passages should be smooth and clean. The pressure drop in a cooling passage can be treated as that in a hydraulic conduit and be calculated accordingly. L pVco2 _ 2g
Ap:[ where Ap
(4-32)
Coaxial
Shell Thrust
Chamber Design L d
:coolant pressure drop through the portion of cooling passage under consideration, lb/in 2 =length of that portion, in = equivalent average diameter tion, in of that por-
In a coaxial-shell-type thrust chamber as shown in figure 4-28, the outer shell is subjected only to the hoop stress induced by the coolant pressure The inner shell, however, is subjected to the combination of compressive stress caused by the pressure differential between the coolant and combustion gases, and of the thermal stress caused by the temperature gradient across the wall. The maximum stress occurs at the inner-wall surface of the inner shell and can be calculated equation. from the following
9 = average density of the coolant, lb/in3 Vco = average coolant flow velocity, in/sec g =mass conversion factor, equal to gravitational constant, 32.2 12 in/sec 2 I = friction loss coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds number, and of cooling passage conditions such as surface smoothness, geometric shape, etc. This can be determined only experimentally (also see fig. 7-20 and table 7-3)
Sc _ (Pco-Pg) t where Sc
R _
Eaqt 2(1 -v)k
(4-31) Sample Calculation (4-4) and the tube chambers of
=combined maximum compressive stress, lb/in 2 q =heat flux, Btu/inLsec R =radius of the inner shell, in t =thickness of the inner shell, in Pco =coolant pressure, lb/in 2 pg =combustion gas pressure, lb/in 2 E =modulus of elasticity of inner shell material, lb/in 2 a =thermal expansion coefficient shell material, in/in-cleg F of inner
Determine the cooling passage design at the throat for the thrust the A-1 and A-2 stage engines.
Solution (a_) A-1 Stage Engine The fuel, RP-1, is used as the coolant. Since the cooling requirement is most stringent at the throat, the tube design for this station will serve as the starting point for the entire chamber. For high strength, Inconel X is chosen as the tube
110
material. Based on experimental test results which showed good solid carbon deposits, design values not exceeding 1000 F or 1460 R may be permitted for gas-side tube-wall temperature. Specifically for the throat region, a Twg value of 1188 R is taken. Using the results of sample calculation 4-3, the value for the adiabatic wall temperature Taw can be calculated by multiplying (Tc)ns by the estimated stagnation recovery factor of 0.923, r- Taw -- 6140 x 0.923= 5667 R. From the same caiculation, the overall gas-side thermal conductance at the throat region is hgc =0.00067 Btu/in2-sec-deg F. Substitute into equation (4-10), to obtain the heat flux at the throat: q = (5667 - 1188) x 0.00067 =3.00 Btu/in2-sec
h c
Twc - Tco
3.00 1000 - 600 = 0.0075 Btu/in2-sec-deg F
The relationship between required hc and correct tube diameter is established by equation (4-23), and experimental data for RP-1 (C 1 =0.0214):
Nu = 0.0214 Re SPr4 (#)0.,4 or, substituting corresponding terms:
----_ = 0.0214
(#/14
(a)
The following From supplier's specifications, the following average data are obtained for Inconel X at 1000 1200 R: Coefficient for thermal expansion, a = S x 10 -6 in/in-deg F; modulus of elasticity, E = 28 x 106 psi; thermal conductivity, k = 3.19 10 -4 Btu/in2-deg F/in; Poisson's ratio, v=0.35. A circular tube configuration with an internal diameter d and a wall thickness t of 0.020 inch is used. The assumption for thickness is to be verified by heat transfer and stress calculations. From equation (4-19), the coolant side wall temperature then is: qt Twc=Twg--_=l188 3.00 x 002 -'rl000o 3.19 x 10-4 R
additional
relationships
exist:
Number of tubes
N = rr[Dt + 0.8 (d + 0.04)] (d+ 0.04) _ (0.8 d + 24.93) (d+ 0.04)
(b)
From sample calculation (4-2), Dr= 24.9 inches. The factor 0.8 considers the fact that the tube centers are located on a circle, rather than a straight line. For our double-pass design, the coolant velocity then is wf P 8278 4 2106
A double pass design is used; i.e., the coolant passes down through alternating tubes and up through adjacent tubes. For an "up" tube, assume a coolant bulk temperature Tco = 600 R at the throat (the more severe case, since the coolant has passed the throat region before, on the way down). This temperature is well below the critical one and can be expected to remain so for the remainder of the passage. Total temperature increase for a typical thrust chamber design is of the order of 100 P between cooling jacket inlet and outlet. The heat-transfer coefficient required to permit the calculated heat flux for the temperature differential assumed can now be calculated from equation (4-20):
V o:N 5d 5=
2
(c)
From table3-2: w/= 8271b/sec; value of fluid density. RP-1 at 600R has the following # k =4.16 =1.78 10 -s lb/in-sec
10 -6
p=local properties:
Btu/in2-sec-deg F
F/in
Cp = 0.5 Btu/lb-deg
For RP-1 at 1000 R, #w = 0.416 10 -s lb/in-sec. Now substitute known values and equation (c) into equation (a)
111
., 2106 \0.8
0.0075 d _ 0.0_.14 |_.___ n_.___._ s] 1.78 10 -6 \4.16 I0-_/
as an interpolation between fuel pump outlet pressure and injector manifold pressure. Combustion gas pressure at the throat
/0
\-
\0.416i0-V
o.4
Pg= pt=(Pc)ns(._?_y)y--, =.-L \y_ll
..L.Y 10000.562=562 psia
11 \o.s 4220 d = 115 000 | ..'-F--. ] \_al N : 62.4d-22s Substitute equation (d) into equation (b) (d)
(y= 1.222 from sample calculation table 1-2). Thus maximum tensile stress wall face can be determined (4-27): (1500 - 562) 0.427 0. 020 + 281068x using
(4-2);
use
at the inner tube equation
62.4 d -22s - n(0.8 d + 24.93) (d + 0.04) d= 0.85 Substitute in (b)
St-:
10-63.00.02
2 x (1- 0.35) 3.19 10-4 = 20 000 + 32 500 + 15 000 MA = 52 500 + 15 000 MA
+6 MA t2
(d) into equation N= 94.5
Since for two-pass design a whole, even tube number is needed, the design value of N = 94 is used. Substituting this into equation (b) d = 0.855 in
Based on suppliers' recommendation, Fry :82000 was used for Inconel X at 1000 R. 82 000- 53 700 15 000 = 1.88 in-lb/in From experience it can be assumed that the bending moment due to discontinuity in this case will be less than 1.88 in/lb/in. Thus the assumption of 0.020 in thickness for the tube wall is sufficient. Summarizing the tube configuration at the throat: d=0.855 in, t=0.020 in, N=94
Maximum allowable
M,4 =
For the determination of a new tube design, repeated calculations, with varied assumptions, will be required. An experienced designer will require fewer approaches, particularly if test results of prior, comparable designs are available. However, even for complicated conditions, great amounts of data can be generated in a relatively short time if an electronic computer is available. From table 3-2: 50.45 p=_ = 0.0292 Substitute into equation 2106
Vc 0 -
lb/in 3
(c)
A-2 Stage Engine The fuel, hydrogen, is used as the coolant. Again, Inconel X is chosen as the tube material. To avoid the "hot shortness" or low-ductility properties of Inconel X in the range 1200 1400 F, the mean temperature of the tube wall must be kept under 1000 F (or 1460 R). The value for adiabatic wall temperature Taw of the gas can be calculated using an assumed stagnation recovery factor of 0.92.
94 (0.855) 2 0.0292 = 1051 in/sec At the throat Pco = 1500 psia or 87.6 ft/sec
is established,
112
Taw = (Tc)ns
x 0.92 = 5740 x 0.92 = 5270 R
Number of tubes N =
[Dr + 0.8 (d 0.016)] (d+0.016) _ _r(0.S d+ 11.213) (d + 0.016) (b)
From sample calculation (4-3) the overall gas-side conductance at the throat region hgc = 0.00520 Btu/in2-sec-deg F. Substitute into equation (4-19), to obtain the heat flux at the throat: q = (5270-1600) x 0.00520 = 3670 x 0.00520 = 19.10 Btu/in2-sec
A l_A-pass design is used (i.e., the coolant enters the fuel manifold at the e = 8 nozzle plane, flows to e = 30 and back, then passes through the throat and combustion chamber zone before it enters the injector). From table 3-3:
A value
of 1600 R will be used for the gas_/[= 54.5 lb/sec Coolant weight flow rate per unit area
side wall temperature Twg at the throat region. From supplier's specifications the following data is obtained for tnconel X at 1600 R or 1140 F: a=8.2x10 -6 in/in-deg F; E=24x106 psi; k=3.86 x 10 -4 Btu/in:-sec-deg
F/in
G-
_'[ N (--_-)
_54.54_69.3 _Nd2 Nd2
(c)
v=0.35. For hydrogen Use a circular tube configuration with an internal diameter d and a wall thickness t of 0.008 inch. From equation temperature (4-19) the coolant side wall Substitute these equation (a): values and equation (e) into Pr:0.82; Cp=3.5 at 135 l_: Btu/lb-deg F; : 0.367 x 10-6 lb/in-sec
Twc : 1600
19.I0 x 0.008 : 1600 - 396 : 1204 R 3.86 x 10-4 will be used for the wall tem0.01790.029 x 3.5 x (0.367 x 10-6) _ (0.82) z_3
A mean value perature
Twc-
1600 + 1204 2 - 1402 R < 1460 R or N:3.91d Substitute Btu/in:-sec-deg F 3.91 d -:as equation
r(0 . o.1
-2-25 (b)
L do.
/ (-135.V 55
Assume a coolant bulk temperature, Tco = 135 R at the throat; then, from equation (4-20),
19.10 hc : 1204- 135- 0.0179
(d) into equation - 7r(0.8 d+ 11.213) (d+0.016)
Substitute
into equation
(4-25),
0.029 Cp# a (GO.S) [, '_Tc o ss 0.0179pr2/a (d'2) _wJ
d =0.185
in (b) 178
(a)
Substitute into equation
From figure 4-21, Dr= 11.2 in. The following relationships exist:
N- 7r(0.8 0.17 + 11.213)_ (0.17 + 0.016)
DESIGN OF THRUST CHAMBERS AHD OTHER COMBUSTION DEVICES
113
Maximum inner wall
tensile surface throat,
stress using estimated
is
now checked (4-27): = 1200 psia;
at the than : 443 inch tube
From bending 0.131 tube
experience, moment in-lb/in. thickness due
it can Thus is valid. at the
be assumed will the selection Summarizing
that
the
equation Pro
to discontinuity
be less of 0.008the
At the psia (=
Pg = Pt = (Pc)n s (2/(y 1.213 from
+ 1))Y / (Y- 1) = 800 x 0.554 sample calculation (4-1))
configuration
throat:
St = (1200-
443) x 0.0925 0.008 + 24 x 106 x 8.2 x 10 -6 x 19.10 2 (1 - 035) x 3.86 10 -4 +6 MA (0"008)2 recommendations, x 0.008
d=0.185
inch,
t=0.008
inch,
N= 178.
As present atively shown figures how
a general construction cooled is very 4-1 and
design
aid, detail chamber. to the Figure
figures
4-31
and4-32 regener-
for a typical The one 4-31 along
thrust similar 4-2. shape
chamber in clearly longitudiprocess, area latter by internal are contour. filled are
presented shows the
: 68 750 + 93 900 MA Based on suppliers'
the
tube
changes
nal axis. In a typical manufacturing tubes of uniform circular cross-section Fry = 81000 psi for Inconel X at 1200 R first cut to length, can and best are pressure fixture, then be then swaged. accomplished The bent (preshaped), The tubes
Maximum
allowable
MA-
81 000- 68 750 93 900 =0.131 in-lb/in
operation hydraulic with special wax,
in a die. to the
in a
thrust-chamber
_KnoN_
Figure
4-31.-Typical
regeneratively
cooled
tube
wall
thrust
chamber.
....
Figure 4-32.-Detail of injector manifolding wall and thrust return manifold of typical chamber.
......
regeneratively cooled tube
114
The tube is then placed in a die of varying cross-sectional area. Hydraulic pressure applied to the inside of the tube forces it to aline with the die and to assume final shape. In preparation for assembly, a trimming process usually follows. In preparation for assembly into a chamber, the tubes are arranged on a brazing fixture (core). For proper brazing great care is required to assure even distribution of the gaps between tubes. Earlier chamber models were then hand brazed, a process requiring many weeks and considerable skill. More recently, furnace brazing has been successfully applied, drastically cutting chamberassembly time.
A. LONGITUDINAL DOUBLE-WALL i
PASSAGE CHAMBER B. SPIRAL PASSAGE DOUBLE-WALLCHAMBER
Dump Cooling The dump cooling technique may be particularly effective for applications in hydrogenfueled, low-pressure systems (Pc < 100 psia), or for nozzle extensions of high-pressure hydrogen systems. A small amount of the total hydrogen flow is diverted from the main fuel feed line, fed through cooling passages and ejected. The heat transfer mechanism is similar to that of regenerative cooling. The coolant, however, becomes superheated as it flows toward the nozzle exit, where it is expanded overboard at reasonably high temperatures and velocities, thus contributing some thrust. Application of dump cooling is often limited, however, by various technical difficulties, such as discharge nozzle design at low coolant flow rates. The type of coolant path for a dump-cooled thrust chamber is selected to assure maximum overall engine system performance. Two possible paths are shown in figure 4-33: (1) Axial flow: a one-pass longitudinal passage, using double-wall (fig. 4-33A) or tube-wall designs (fig. 4-33C). Both are open ended, with provision for expansion of the dumped superheated hydrogen gas at the nozzle exit. (2) Circumferential flow: a double-wall design having a spiral flow path for the coolant and provision for expansion of the dumped superheated hydrogen gas in the axial direction (fig. 4-33B). A spiral-wound tube design may also prove advantageous (fig. 4-33D).
C.
LONGITUDINAL CHAMBER
TUBEWALL
D.
SPIRAL
TUBEWALL
CHAMBER
Figure
4-33.-Typical dump-cooled rication methods.
chamber iab-
The various constructions differ considerably in complexity and fabrication cost. Selection will depend on an optimum tradeoff between reliability, performance, cost, and weight. The longitudinal passage designs are often employed for larger coolant flow rates, as related to the physical size of the thrust chamber. The spiral passage designs are used for smaller coolant flow rates to alleviate the difficulties in maintaining proper flow velocities and dimensional clearances in the coolant passage. Because the hydrogen coolant gas can be discharged at relatively high temperatures (1000 c R and up), overall engine system performance will not be affected appreciably by the dump-coolant flow.
115
Film Cooling Porous vided troduce to as tween result thickness direction additional more shows coolant fluid wall row "C," each cover wall materials, chamber or slots walls, can and serve holes profact
An important that it reduces wall. less tion, a Consequently, critical. as thermal limits
advantage heat thermal is
of film transfer
cooling through
is the
the
in thrust a coolant, film
to inreferred beas in the
stresses
become considerathe
a process Because and mass coolant In most must chamber of the
commonly of interaction gases, the
This
an important may
cooling. film and
stresses
establish
coolant of heat
combustion transfer, film cases, stations.
feasibility cooling.
of conventional
regenerative
effective
of the of flow. coolant a model
decreases
therefore, at one Figure process. or 4-34 The The the from "B" rate and from to
Liquid
Film
Cooling appear, and has been would as film an as and this process verified the heat be more a liquid isothermal into the results gas core. which experitranseffecrather it heat free
be injected
downstream
It would mentally, fer tive than should sink, stream. phase coolant effect the as to the with a gas. behave
film-cooling through row "A" surface design and rows "A" "B."
that wall, the
for simply film coolant When the
reducing
is introduced introduced surface through between cover the
of holes. will cover Fluid
cooling injected coolant
is liquid,
"B" etc. row the
will
between a flow
essentially
In an optimum is provided area
it evaporates However, consisting and
diffuses
which
is just
sufficient
in twoliquidThis reduce
to be cooled. heat protection been applied rocket supplemented instances, created circle wall. exclusively in the past engines, it is cooling form gas of fuel orifices, by film for the signifiis of film
flow, film
of an annular losses potential. waves film
a combustion coolant cooling
Although cooling major cant nearly cooling. boundary has
introduces theoretical form
not
operational that in practice In most layer is always
Disturbances appear on the comcoolant
regenerative
in the surface bustion loss. The Sellers
of capillary liquid and cause
by some a fuel-rich by the
of the gases
adjacent accelerated
to the
injection
from the outermost toward the chamber
of injector
theoretical can be used
equation for design thrust
by
Zucrow calculations
and of
liquid-film-cooled
chambers.
h| k| HEAT TRANSFER I wg --
ITaw Taw _-_" OMBUSTIOH CHAMBER
Gc
_o
1 tic a(l
H (4-33) +bCpvc/Cpg)
Gg where
_'FUEL Tc,o
CHAaRER
WALL
Gc
: film area lb/in
coolant _-sec
weight
flow
rate wall
per
unit
of cooled
chamber
surface,
Gg
= combustion unit area perpendicular
gas weight of chamber to flow, efficiency enthalpy
flow cross
rate per section
lh/in_-sec
_c H
_000 00_ 00_
:-film = film =
cooling coolant
Cplc Cplc
Cpvc (Taw - Twg) (TwgTco)+AHvc
Btu/lb ' presphase,
=average specific heat at constant sure of the coolant in the liquid Btu/lb-deg F
I Figure 4-34..Film-cooling model.
Cpvc
= average specific heat at constant sure of the coolant in the vapor Btu/lb-deg F
presphase,
]16
Cpg
Taw Twg Tco
--average specific heat at constant pressure of the combustion gases, Btu/lbdeg F --adiabatic wall temperature of the gas, deg R =gas-side wall temperature and coolant film temperature, deg R
Taw-Twg "Taw- Tco where Taw Twg Too e hg Gc = adiabatic deg R wall
hg e-(GcCpvcrlc)
(4-34)
temperature
of the gas,
= coolant bulk temperature at manifold, deg R AHvc = heat of vaporization of coolant, Btu/lb a = 2 Vd/Vm f b =(Vg/Va) - 1 I =applicable friction coefficient for the two-phase flow between combustion gases and liquid film coolant Vd --axial stream velocity of combustion gases at edge of boundary layer, ft/sec Vm Vg =average axial stream velocity bustion gases, ft/sec = axial stream velocity gases at the center chamber, ft/sec of com-
= maximum allowable gas side wall temperature, deg R = initial film-coolant temperature, deg R =base of natural logarithms, 2.718 = gas-side heat-transfer Btu/in2-sec-deg F coefficient,
= film-coolant weight flow rate per unit area of cooled chamber wall surface, lb/inLsec
Cpvc =average specific heat at constant pressure of the gaseous film coolant, Btu/lb-deg F ?c = film-cooling efficiency The film-cooling efficiency r/c corrects for the amount of gaseous-film coolant lost into the combustion gas stream without producing the desired cooling effect. Values range from about 25 to 65 percent, depending upon coolant injection geometry and on flow conditions. The above equation assumes that a balance exists between heat input and coolant temperature rise. The heat input is based upon the gasside heat-transfer coefficient hg and the difference between the adiabatic gas temperature at the wall and the coolant film temperature. The heat absorbed is proportional to the heat capacity of the coolant film from initial to final temperature values. Once equilibrium is reached, no heat is transferred to the wall (adiabatic condition) and the chamber wall surface will have achieved the film-coolant temperature corresponding to the various axial locations. Accordingly, the wall-surface temperature will range axially from the value of initial coolant temperature to a maximum allowable design wall temperature, at which point the next film-coolant injection station must be provided. It is the specific aim of film-cooled thrust chamber design to accomplish cooling with an optimum number of coolant injection stations. Figure 4-35 shows an experimental hydrogen film-cooled thrust chamber. Cooling is provided by four film-coolant injecting one downstream of the throat. injection, in the direction rings upstream, Axial coolant gas and
of combustion line of the thrust
In practice the theoretically determined film coolant flow would be inadequate because of losses. Therefore, the film-cooling efficiency _?c is introduced to correct for this. Liquid-filmcooling efficiency values range from about 30 to 70 percent. They are determined experimentally in actual hot firings of a specific design or test model. Hydrocarbon fuels have been found to be very effective liquid film coolants. Their effectiveness is attributed to their action as both film and deposition cooling agents. As was mentioned earlier, these fuels deposit carbon on the wall, which serves as an effective heat insulator.
Gaseous
Film Cooling
With the increasing use of hydrogen, gaseousfilm cooling has become important. Even if hydrogen were injected as a liquid for film-cooling purposes, the film between the combustion gases and the chamber wall would be heated within a very short distance to temperatures critical, after which the film would gas. For thrust Hatch can be design calculation of gaseous-film-cooled chambers, the theoretical equation of and Papell can be used. This equation written as follows: above the behave as a
of combustion
117
Figure
4-35.-Experimental
hydrogenoxygen,
film-cooled
thrust
chamber.
flow, whereas without coolant typical mately
greatly normal any into case,
improves injection
film-cooling results
efficiency, in the escape, Gc=_-
0.00061
0.00061= 0.439
0.001392
lb/in:-sec
benefit, the the
of large
portions gas stream. was
of the In a approxiTo cooling rected (4-10) calculate system, value or (4-17). can specific the the with This thrust heat flux for a regenerative film cooling, adiabatic experimentally operation gas-side that there and heatis film to the found and a corwall
combustion film of the coolant
flow
3 percent
propellant.
added must
(Taw)
be used
in equation
corrected chamber As it was
Sample For system engine, section:
Calculation the design
(4-5) of the hydrogen film-cooling A-3 stage throat
temperature under film-cooling transfer practically cooling.
be determined
for the the
thrust
chamber data are
of the given
conditions. coefficient,
following
at the
no difference Thus, the normal
with
without
gas-side
heat-transfer (4-10). as the must
hg Taw Twg Tco Cpvc Assuming efficiency,
=0.0011 = 5240 R
Btu/in2-sec-deg
coefficient Note that film coolant, be taken
hg can be used if a hydrocarbon the effect into account (eq.
in equation fuel is used 4-17).
= 1900 R max =50 R =3.6 a value determine Btu/lb-deg of 0.5 the F average for film-cooling weight surface
of carbon
deposition
Transpiration Figure 4-36
Cooling shows the principle of transpira-
film-coolant
flow rate per unit area in the throat section. Solution Substitute the given
of cooled
chamber
tion cooling. The coolant is introduced through numerous drilled holes in the inner chamber wall. In other data into equation (4-34): material. inner [ o.oou _ to fig. coolant coolant rate
0,00061
designs, In both is 4-28),
the enclosed
wall
may the
be made shell which
of porous chamber (similar the the total flow
cases,
permeable from
liner
by an outer a jacket adequate and and
forming For
52401900 524050
e-_Oca6as)
emerges. flow unit must area
design, coolant wall
requirement of cooled
weight
per
chamber then
(lb/in:-
sec) /
be determined method.
implemented
1.554=e\
Oc
by a practical
118
an efficiency factor used for calculations.
of approximately
0.85 is
The porous material used for the transpirationcooled chamber walls must be selected and dimensioned for correct hydraulic resistance to render the required coolant flow rate per unit surface area. It must also be able to withstand the stresses caused by the pressure differential between coolant and combustion gases, and thermal stresses. These requirements impose certain limitations on the selection of materials and on construction methods. The mechanical design of the coolant distribution system, therefore, is an important factor for successful application of transpiration cooling.
Figure
4-36.-Transpiration
cooling
model.
Transpiration coolant flow requirements determined from theoretical equations turn out to be significantly lower than those for film cooling. This is due to the more efficient coolant distribution. The Rannie equation for transpiration cooling can be used to calculate the theoretical coolant flow requirements:
Ablative
Cooling
Twg_Tc
o-
+ 1.18(Reb)l-1
\Og/ (Reb)"Prm 1
(4-35)
where Taw = adiabatic wall temperature of the gas, deg R Twg = gas-side wall temperature, deg R Tco : coolant bulk temperature, deg R (entering) Gc =transpiration coolant weight flow rate per unit area of cooled chamber wall surface, lb/in2-sec Gg :combustion gas weight flow rate per unit area of chamber cross section perpendicular to flow, lb/in2-sec
Prm = mean film Prandtl number e =base of natural logarithms, 2.718 Reb = bulk combustion-gas Reynolds number Test data from various transpiration-cooling experiments have been in good agreement with the Rannie equation. However, the equation predicts coolant flows slightly lower than those required in experiments. It is recommended that
Ablatively cooled thrust chambers have many advantages for upper-stage applications. They are designed to meet accumulated duration requirements varying from a few seconds to many minutes. Most designs are limited to lower chamber pressure applications, 300 psia or less. When assisted by film cooling, or by throat inserts made from refractory materials, successful firings have been made up to a chamber pressure level of 1000 psia. In general, ablative chamber construction is rugged, exterior wall temperatures are held to a minimum and the cost is low. Ablative cooling is accomplished by the pyrolysis of resins contained in the chamber wall material. The thrust chamber construction will vary with mission requirements. As shown in figure 4-37, chamber and nozzle are composed of an ablative liner, a thifi layer of insulation, and a high-strength outer shell. The ablative liner is fabricated from a phenolic-resin-impregnated high-silica fabric which is wrapped in tape form on a mandrel at optimum orientation. The thickness is programed as a function of chamber station to provide adequate strength, char thickness, and minimum weight for a particular mission. A wrap of oriented phenolic-impregnated asbestos is placed on the outer (far) surface of the ablative liner as an insulator. The high-strength outer shell is composed of layers of unidirectional glass cloth for longitudinal stren_h, and of circumferential-wound glass filaments for hoop strength. The glass wrap is bonded with epoxy resin. Aluminum alloy and
119
P'_ANGI_ C_LED
FOR RAO_ATIC_ -MOZZLE EXI"E_$10N
,,Lgr_ _"_
....
Figure stainless outer the
4-37.-Ablatively steel shell. The liner outer also are
cooled sometimes thermal
thrust used
chamber. for the of
Figure with
4-38.-Ablatively throat insert for
cooled high
thrust chamber
chamber pressure
applications.
combined and shell of the and
resistance layer
ablative the
insulation keeps
protects temperatures. Figure chamber cent ployed Although density substantial fracture installation stalled
it at moderate
a = c F2ktL [RrRvCpp
In
(1 RrRvCp(Taw-Td)-)ISLP s] 4 (4-36)
4-38 fitted
shows with
an
ablative-cooled insert. Both alloy tungstenbest
thrust 98 perand emresults. lower has and Rv a to Rr where a c -- char data throat nation depth, in factor based = correction
a throat
tungsten/2-percent graphite as insert alloy pyrolytic than from tungsten weight thermal critical. with heavy have materials. has
molybdenum been given The the has and
pyrolytic molybdenum
successfully
on experimental design op at the stagin the
for the section,
specific and of
graphite alloy, advantage, shock, The graphite
a much therefore
a nozzle content
pressure
100 psia
it is vulnerable making throat design insert is infor better
= weight fraction of resin ablative material =weight versus fraction total
of pyrolyzed resin content
resin Rr of 3 2-
backups
structural results. Insert and backups are bonded to the thrust chamber main ablative liner with epoxy formed ceramic have space The a given dicting the lation thrust ing. ablative process throat), lyzed the adhesives. satisfactorily materials, been used These such successfully applications. of an ablative on thrust the chamber for and on insuadhesives as silicon as have Certain carbide, throat inserts also in per-
Cp p k
= heat capacity at constant pressure pyrolysis gases, Btu/lb-deg F =density :heat deg of ablative conductivity F/in chamber heat firing duration, Btu/lb of the sec material, of char, lb/in Btu/sec-in
up to 500 F.
t Lp Taw
=thrust :latent :adiabatic deg
engine design mission the
of pyrolysis, wall temperature
gas,
depends of char temperature the wall from during hot
accuracy exposure, in the the
of preT d (Pc)as firResults been from pyroby They
F temperature chamber of resin, pressure, have F stagnation
depth
during
= decomposition deg = nozzle psia predicted with
soak-back surrounding chamber Test data thrust in the that and is, heat
variation charred and indicate chamber between can firings portion after with that
of the hot various the charring (including mass
by equation char depth very
(4-36) data
chambers combustion the relation absorbed, equation:
compared firings were found
obtained chambers. with downfound to the
of Refrasil-filled to agree data. throat, However, char
phenolic closely for areas were
be expressed
experimental stream of the
following
depths
120
be somewhat greater than predicted, and when using the equilibrium gas temperature. Temperature recovery in the boundary layer may be one cause for the discrepancy. A modified equation is used, therefore, to predict char depths in the nozzle areas: a =bt_e -247_ where b = a constant depending upon the nature of the ablative shield (to be determined experimentally) e = nozzle expansion area ratio at the investigated section e =base of natural logarithms, 2.718 The char-rate analysis is characterized by physical dimensions and the formation of a char layer that progresses from the heated surface toward the supporting wall. During the pyrolysis of the resin, the formation of a hard carbonaceous surface of increasing thickness is vital because it resists thermal and mechanical ablation and chemical attack. At the charring interface, which slowly travels away from the hot chamber gases, a large amount of heat energy is absorbed by pyrolysis; i.e., melting and vaporization of the bonding material. As gaseous pyrolysis products flow through and out of this char layer, they control the heat flux to the walls by their own endothermic decompositions, and by migrationinto the boundary layer. No gross dimensional change occurs due to energy considerationsthroughoutmost of the thrustchamber; however, mechanical erosionis evidenced in some designs in the throat region, due to the high prevailing shear stresses. At chamber pressures below 150 psia, throat erosion is generally reduced. Throat erosion rates vary from 0.0005 to 0.00005 in/see The adaptation of ablative thrust chamber technology to the special field of space engines has been significantly advanced during recent years. Approaches typical for this type of engine will be discussed in chapter XI. (4-37)
C=1.05; Rr=0.3; Rv=0.41; Cp=0.38Btu/lbdeg F; p=0.061 lb/in3; k=9.8x10 -6 Btu/ in2-sec-deg F/in; Lp=686 Btu/lh; Taw =5060R; Td=1460R; b=0.0335 Determine the char thickness at the throat and combustion chamber section, and in the nozzle at station e = 5, after firing for the design duration of 410 seconds.
Solution From table 3-5: (Pc)ns = 100 psia Substitute this and given data into equation (4-36). The char thickness at the throat and combustion section results as:
a=l.05 xln
IO .:x xO.41xO.38xO.061 9.8x I0-6 x 410 (14 0'3 x 0"41x 0"38 (5060-1460))l_ 686 in e = 5, using
(1)"4
= 1.05 x [2.82 xln 1.245] s =0.828 Char thickness equation (4-37): at nozzle station
a = bt_e - o._47e = 0.0335
x (410) -s x (2.718) -.247xs

l
= 00335 = 0.599 in
x 20.248 x (2.7182) 8"1
Radiation
Cooling
Cooling by radiatiofi heat transfer practical is only forthrustchamber nozzle extensions,where pressure stressesare lowest. High metal-wall temperatures are required to attain the heat fluxes needed. Assuming negligible temperature drop through the metal and coatings, if any, the steady-state heat transfer for a radiation-cooled nozzle, as shown schematically in figure 4-39, can be expressed by the following correlation:
Sample Calculation(4-6) The followingdesign data are given forthe ablatively cooled thrustchamber of the A-4 stage engine: where hgc
hgc (Taw - Twg) = eaTwg 4
(4-38)
= overall gas-side Btu/in2-sec-deg
thermal R
conductance,
121
Twg hgc =7.1 COMBUSTION GASES 10 -s Btu/in2-sec-deg R; Taw=4900R
Tow
Assuming wall surface, heat-radiated
a total determine flux.
emissivity the bulk
of 0.95
of outer and
temperature
q = hgc(Taw.Twg )
RADIATION q = E'O Tw4
Solution Substitute data into equation (4-37):
Figure
4-39.-Schematic wall
of radiation temperature
cooling. gas,
7.1 x 10 -s (4900-
Twg ) : 0.95 0.3337 Twg) x 10 -14 x (Twg) 4
Taw = adiabatic deg R
of the
(Twg) temTwg Heat
4 = 22.4 = 2660 R flux=7.1
109 (4900-
Twg =gas-side perature, a
wall temperature deg R
= bulk
wall
10 -s (4900-2660) =0.159 Btu/in2-sec
= total emissivity =Stefan-Boltzmann constant, (deg The design R) 4 approach
of outer wall surface radiation heat transfer 10 -'4 Btu/in2-sec 4.5 to radiation cooling is both of INJECTOR The DESIGN
0.3337
function of an injector, which
is located
to determine a Twg equation (4-38) and the wall tions. Only in the have ing. material alloys temperature been
value which the structural under possess applied alloy
will satisfy capability
in general, at the forward end of the combustion chamber as shown in figures 4-1 and 4-2, is simThe injector introduces and ilar to that of the carburetor of an internal combustion engine.
used which
operational short-time to radiation 0.5
condistrength coolpercent
meters the propellant flow to the combustion chamber, and atomizes and mixes for satisfactory combustion. the propellants
range
of 2600 R to 3500 R
successfully
A molybdenum and alloy appear for use
containing tantalum-10 sufficient
titanium, tungsten time low
a 90 percent
percent shortof the for reof MoSi 2 is Titanium such as at than the
Design
Objectives number many are now of injectors available. rules most data. obtained, amounts toward have However, to assure injectors approach, While good it was of time the been there develstill
to have
strength emissivity against on and 25,
at 3500 R. and
Because also
A great oped designs are no and
of molybdenum oxidation, sides been of the operated metals commercial
details
of successful
injector a successful were with dethe at of are and inof and unof an results usually and design and that money.
sistance required alloys Haynes 2600 R. the
a coating metal. alloys,
both other have range coatings
hard-and-fast In the past, test been of large
design. signed help have the
successfully higher is required, materials on
by a trial-and-error of previous eventually
If a temperature of bare
capability
working
insulating gas-side of their expansion enced coatings
of ceramic
expense rational chemical this the
wall surface may be needed. Because brittleness and coefficient of thermal relative is to that advised of the before alloys, using experithese
A more injectors of the using jector tion, stream
approach and within
is through
understanding physical the as a given reactions combustion a basis and
prediction
processes
judgment
encountered
chamber, for initial the kinetics
for a specific
application.
information For chemical
design. breakup, transfer
propellant
combina-
Sample The A-4 area stage
Calculation following chamber = 8:
(4-7) design nozzle data are given for the of
mixing, should be
droplet studied
formation, and to the clearly design
heat
extension
at station
derstood, injector
before
the
approach
ratio
is established.
17)
There are numerous requirements to qualify a given injector for operational use. The following are the most important objectives for injector design: 1. Combustion stability.-In combination with a given combustion-chamber configuration and for a given propellant combination, an injector should give smooth combustion, during engine start and stop transients as well as during steady-state operation. Depending upon the propellants and their ignition characteristics, the arrival sequence of oxidizer and fuel streams during start is of great importance. Any accumulation of unburned propellants in the combustion chamber prior to ignition must be prevented to avoid destructive chamber-pressure surges. Similarly, during engine shutoff, chamber overheating and burnout may be prevented by maintaining a fuel-rich mixture. Arrival sequences are best controlled by propellant valve timing. Furthermore, minimum feed-line and injector-manifold volumes between propellant valves and injector face will materially improve propellant sequencing during start and stop.
To prevent chamber-pressure fluctuations from affecting the propellant flows and thus from inducing combustion instability, sufficient pressure drop through injector orifices must be maintained. Effective and even mixing of the propellants will be achieved through the choice of a suitable injector impingement pattern. This will help to minimize accumulation within the combustion chamber of unburned propellants which could cause local detonations and thus trigger combustion instability. Under certain conditions, combustion instabilities of the tangential oscillation mode can be prevented by isolating local detonations by partitioning the injector face into several compartments, as shown in figure 4-40. 2. Performance.-Combustion performance of an injector is influenced by: propellant mass distribution; local mixture ratios; degree of mixing of injected propellants, in either the liquid or the gaseous phase, or both; droplet atomization and vaporization; rate of heat input; and chemical reaction rates. These are predominantly a function of suitable manifolding and proper selection of injector-hole patterns. The more
J "!iii',ll_{Ik={l!iI_ijll [iiJlJ
Figure
4-40.-Baffled
injector.
DESIGN
OF
THRUST
CHAMBERS
AND
OTHER
COMBUSTION
DEVICES
123
thorough the mixing and uniform the distribution of the oxidizer relative to the fuel, produced by the injector, the more rapidly will the combustion products reach the equilibrium composition necessary for optimum performance. Although turbulence induced by the combustion probably contributes a major portion of the energy required for gas-phase mixing, thorough premixing ot the liquid propellants must be accomplished by the injector if maximum performance is to be achieved. Furthermore, reaction between certain specific propellant combinations pellants cannot reliably tained without it, since such as hypergolic probe initiated and mainthe energy released by
streaks of high mixture ratio (O/F) from occasionally reaching the chamber wall. To offset this, a special set of fuel holes is often provided at the periphery of the injector, close to the chamber wall. Excess fuel along the chamber wall is thus provided which tends to lower the O/F mixture ratio of any errant streak. It also assists in cooling the chamber wall. 6. Special requirements.-Certain engine systems are required to operate at off-nominal conditions, such as at lower thrust levels during throttling, or other than nominal mixture ratios as a result of propellant-utilization control. In these cases, injectors must be capable of operating reliably under modified as well as rated conditions.
liquid-phase reactions supplements the kinetic energy available for the process of atomization through combustion-gas evolution. In addition, the heat release from liquid-phase reaction accelerates the process of vaporization. Experience has shown that for a given injection velocity, propellant-droplet size is reduced with decreasing injector-orifice size. Smaller droplet size, in turn, results in a higher overall vaporization rate, as a function of increased total droplet surface area. This is true whether the heat of vaporization is supplied internally via liquid phase reaction or externally by heat transfer from the hot gaseous combustion products. Consequently, injector designs with the largest practical number of injection elements can be expected to be the most efficient ones in a given combustion chamber volume. 3. Structural integrity.-An injector should be able to withstand the maximum loads incurred during all phases of engine operation. Sufficient cooling must be provided to prevent the injector face or any other portion from overheating. 4. Hydraulic qualities.-The holes or orifices of the injector must be designed to effect predetermined pressure drops at specific flow rates, and to atomize the propellants properly. A low injector pressure drop is desirable from the standpoint of overall engine-system performance. However, minimum pressure drop is determined from combustion-stability considerations. 5. Combustion chamber heat protection.-An injector should be designed to avoid formation of hot spots or streaks on the combustion chamber wall. Complete mixing of the propellants wilt prevent oxidizer-rich peak temperature zones from forming, although this may not prevent
Injector
Configurations
A typical injector design construction and propellant-distribution method is illustrated in figure 4-2. Different distribution methods are shown in figures 4-41 and 4-42. The injector in figure 4-42 uses an integral faceplate. This plate is secured to the main injector body by brazing it at the periphery and at posts which are an integral part of the main body. A fuel compartment is located immediately behind the faceplate, and fed from an inlet passage. The oxidizer compartment is separated from the fuel by a partition. The fuel is injected through orifices drilled in the faceplate, while the oxidizer is injected through orifices drilled in the posts. The injector construction for a typical liquidbipropollant gas generator is illustrated in figure 4-43. The copper injector body is secured to the stainless-steel outer shell by brazing. The oxidizer inlet forms an integral part of the injector body. Fuel is supplied through a manifold in the outer shell. In this injector, 2 fuel streams impinge on each oxidizer stream, producing a total of 44 impingement points. A variety of injector patterns have been designed to satisfy the needs of various propellant combinations. In most cases, for good mixing the injected streams are made to impinge at a predetermined point. The impingement point should be as close to the injector face as heattransfer conditions permit. The arrangement in which all impinging points are the same distance from the injector face is called uniplanar
124
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
=_
o_
t. '-o
|._.
I
=i
_f! :i
251 ._
ii
DESIGN
OF
THRUST
CHAMBERS
AND
OTHER
COMBUSTION
DEVICES
125
GIMBAL BEARING - MOUNTING SURFACE
ploys nonimpinging oxidizer and fuel streams which emerge normal to the injector face. It relies entirely on combustion chamber turbulence for mixing. While being the simplest to fabricate, the showerhead injector exhibits poor performance in most applications, with the exception of certain cryogenic propellant combinations. 2. Doublet (fig. 4-44b).-In this design, oxidizer and fuel jets are made to impinge in pairs. Thus good liquid-phase mixing and atomization is obtained. One of the disadvantages of this doublet arrangement is that even if the injector holes have been accurately drilled, the resultant angle of momentum vector, or beta angle, /_,will vary with mixture ratio, particularly if a large impinging angle is used. This variation can adversely affect combustion performance and chamber-wall heat transfer. The doublet design POSTS is frequently oxygen. used in systems using liquid
0-
INTEGRAL
_i _T_ SECTION A-A_ ' m
FACE PLATE _-- FUEL INLET PASSAGE OXIDIZER INLET lace plate injector.
3. Triplet (fig. 4-44c).-Two streams of one propellant impinging symmetrically on one stream of the other propellant will eliminate the change of vector angle fl, as a result of mixture-ratio variations. This arrangement also provides intimate mixing. Application and propellant combination will determine whether two oxidizer jets will impinge on one fuel jet, or vice versa. Injectors using this triplet pattern have given high combustion performance. These injectors have been widely used for various propellant combinations. 4. Quintuplet (fig. 4-44d).-Four streams of one propellant impinging on one stream of the other propellant in a symmetrical quintuplet pattern provide excellent mixing and performance. This design has been applied for various propellant combinations. 5. Self-impinging (fig. 4-45a).-This pattern, also known as a like-on-like impingement, generally employs self-impinging pairs of fuel and oxidizer. Mixing is accomplished in the combustion chamber by volatilization of the propellants and by turbulence. This design usually provides good inherent combustion stability, at a moderate performance level. Applications have been successful for both cryogenic and storable hypergolic propellant combinations. A modification of this design provides for secondary impingement of the two propellants following self-impingement.
Figure
4-42.-Integral
impingement. If two or more different impingingpoint distances are used (fig. 4-44), the arrangement is called biplanar or multiplanar impingement. Numerous tests have been conducted to determine impingement-angle and distance effects. Large included angles will enhance stability, but can result in some of the propellants splashing back on the injector face, which can cause burnouts. Close spacing of the impinging holes in a pair has similar advantages and disadvantages, as has increased spacing between pairs. The satisfactory design, value for the included angle is usually found to be between 20 and 45 . The injector face can be further protected against overheating by circulating the propellants on the back side of the faceplate or by introducing film coolant (propellant) on the surface. Some of the impingement patterns used are described below: 1. Showerhead (fig. 4-44a).-This pattern era-
1_
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
127
7.
FU(L FUEL _ANIFaI.D ." ILrrA A_,_e.. (
Ring eject slots
slot the are
(fig.
4-45c).-The pairs as that
ring-slot of annular conical fuel and manner slots
injec-
tor
employs
concentric
which The sheets
propellants
sheets. oxidizer as in
so arranged much in the
OX_Z[R U,UlIFO_.0
impinge
same
_/ P F pNJI_CTO_
_cz
the
doublet-type 8. Splash
injector. plates for good (fig. in the The liquid have 4-45d).-This mixing state. deflected be kept do which liquid are will injector while For by cool not the this propellant
is designed
_ClE O_ IJ(C_R_Ac_[JI _ NEAO
p {al _OWER
propellants purpose, the splash by the ignite
are injected plates.
still
{hi OOU_UET
propellants plates
C-
FUEL M,I.mFOLD
impinging until they
propellants left 4-46 Fuel the and before jet The end. plate.
_L_L i
9.
Premix.-Figure injector. into the intimately chamber at the of the mass flow time radially are
shows
a typical oxidizer chamber, entering introduced length with critical, are the tanand relation as is inwhere
premix-type
OXOZ_ 0 F! I
2:2
I_I_FOI.I:I INJI[CT _
"--
jected they
premixing
mixed chamber premixing
combustion gentially diameter to the the impinging patterns. ments and 10.
by a gas
chamber is
of propellants of the vehicle propellants. injector.-Certain missions, and
(el
TRIPLET
reaction
Throttleable for space
requiresuch engine 4-47a variable as orbit
Figure
4-44.-Injector
corrections,
= O_ltlt u#*lrO_.o
rendezvous soft throttlable landings, control. injector of thrust This the drops
docking
maneuvers, systems shows injectionmeans injector levels. causes to a gas of a
lunar
demand Figure with
capable
N
_., ,O*T'"_'"_
_J,J Ira.==
typical slot
areas.
is a very propellant at various
effective flows engine and
controlling pressure
thrust approach
N
o --injI PUlL tb) O0 - AXUU,
The design
addition
of moving injection
parts, Another
however, is the 4-47b.
complications. as shown into
throttlable method," is introduced fold
system in figure the injector levels. mixture
"aeration _ An inert manivariation effective over level The used to throtmethod gas a
propellant Through ratio, be the varied thrust
OX_Z_
for reduced propellant/gas of the range
thrust propellants
ii,l._C,r I/.OT
live
of the density wide without can has

O_FCI
can any
to achieve
desired
affecting the
combustion by the the range of 100 same propellant tanks. to 1.
stability. source This
be supplied increased up
pressurize
m_cro_ _L_L
of rocket-engine
tling Design For
to a ratio Calculations
(1RI_
SLOT
(d)
$P{.ASH
F_.ATI[
Figure 6. ploys lants,
4-45.-Injector (fig.
impinging
patterns. injector two empropel-
the such
design as
of injectors, pressure December
various drop, 1962,
parameimpingement pp. 36-37.
Coaxial two
4-45b).-This tubes for the coaxially.
ters,
injector magazine,
concentric are
which
injected
_Astron_utics
128
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
and
resultant
vector loads, can
angle
relationship, with
and reason-
Injection The
Pressure injection as
Drop pressure drop APi (lb/in _) can
structural able
be calculated
accuracy. Velocity propellant V (in/sec) relation: (oxidizer can or fuel) injection from the
be calculated
Injection The velocity basic
-XPi='_g where g is the gravitational
:2-_p constant, in/sec2;
(4-40)
be calculated
Cd is a dimensionless V= _---Ap where sec; in2; g, is the propellant calculated propellant weight injector density, flow orifice lb/in rate, (4-39) jet contraction) orifice can The lb/ to 0.92 periment with high given
-oFUEL INJECTING RIFICE _OXIDIZER _NJECTING ", ORIFICE
discharge which
(velocity
and
coefficient of this flow
is a function ranges from orifices bore give a For of dispresfor 0.5
of injector and
configuration. coefficient tests). be determined entrance discharge and accurately Injector smooth coefficient. a higher a lower varies from stagnation Streams thrust vector as the chamber beta axis of angle, of a pair value injection value by ex-
value (water
A is the
area, z.
and p is the
well-rounded values injection coefficient drop. of the The pressure of the
velocity, gives drop
charge sure cent injector
rule-of-thumb
design
15 to 20 perpressure.
GAS _ANIFOLD _
i_
chamber-nozzle Angle of Impinging the momentum is defined
N o t_
[} [ _ "
;"')';RE_'_'_,._
%._'%J i " x l_J , -
,i..-,
._.
nc
co,,8os_',o,,
" --
Resultant The and the impinging
G,sJE'r
TANGENTIAL ORIFICE -
...--l,_f'Z_, ( - /-'-;;,:;:"
angle resultant
between
L,,__F FUEL ItANIFOLD OXIDIZER IAANIFOLD
streams
_. By definition when the vector toward the chamber wall, the beta type injector. tive, and when the vector is directed
is directed angle is positoward the
Figure
4-46.-Prernixing
////
F
I
F THRUST VARIABLEINJECTING OXIDIZER AREA ___ ANNULARSLOT FUEL VALVE THROTTLE__ ] CHAMBER
0 /
"_
0XIDIZER MANIFOLD ._ _ CHAMBER - THRUST
0 /_,,._-INJECTOR FACE
THROTTLE/ VALVE OXIDIZER/_'-__'='7_)_ INERT GAS CONTROL VALVES
MOVABLE / PINTLE RING-"
[ / b"
L/
FUEL /_ANIFOLD
ANNULARSLOT
(A) VARIABLE AREA INJECTOR Figure 4-47.-Throttleable
(B) AERATION THROTTLEABLE INJECTINGSYSTEM injecting methods.
129
central
axis
of the thrust
chamber,
the beta angle Rmby
is negative. With a hypergolic-type propellant combination, a positive beta angle (2 to 5 ) tends to increase the combustion performance
(YoVo _vtV t
(4-42)
causing recirculation and better mixing of the liquid propellants along the chamber wall. However, in a cryogenic propellant combination, where gaseous mixing is predominant, the combustion performance will not be noticeably affected by the beta angle. A negative beta angle should be used in this case to avoid the possibility of hot streaks on the chamber wall caused by excessive heat transfer. The beta angle may be readily calculated, from the principle of conservation of momentum:
where ti, o and wt are weight flow rates, and Vo and V! are injection velocities for oxidizer and fuel. The injection momentum ratio is a useful injector design parameter for the prediction of combustion stability and performance of certain propellant combinations. In the design of oxygenhydrogen injectors, the value of the momentum ratio varies from 1.5 _o 3.5 for liquid hydrogen injection, and from 0.5 to 0.9 for gaseous hydrogen injection. Structural Loads The main loads to be considered in the structuraldesign of injectors resultfrom propellant pressures behind the injectorface, and in the manifolds. During steady-state main-stage operation,the pressureload on the injector face is equal to the injectorpressuredrop: Pt = APi (4-42) is
wzVt sin a, -w_V2 sin a2 tan fl=Ce_V I cos at +_i'2V2 cos a2
(4-41)
For the impinging streams shown in figure 4-48, al and a_ are the respective angles between the thrust chamber axis and the streams; 1 and _i'2 are the weight flow rates; V 2 are the injection velocities. Injection Momentum Ratio The injection momentum by the expression and V_ and
The pressure load in the injector manifolds equal to the sum of the injector-end chamber pressure and the injector pressure drop: Pra = (Pc)i + APi
ratio
can be defined (4-44)
-/I
THRUST
CH
wl,v /
where P! is the pressure load on the injector face, Pm is the pressure load in the manifold; APi is the injector pressure drop; and (Pc)i is the injector-end chamber pressure. During start transients, however, maximum pressure loads on the injector may be substantially higher than during steady state. When the propellant valves are opened rapidly, propellants rushing into the empty injector passages can cause severe hydraulic ram. This pressure load can be estimated empirically as Pi =Pm = 4 Pp where Pp is the propellant valve opening. Sample Calculation (4-8) pressure (4-45) at time of
,_
"--T--
POINT
/ //dHA;ABEk
W2,V2
Figure
WALL
4-48.-Resultant ang]e streams. of impinging
Using data given in tables 3-2 and 3-3, determine the injector orifice sizes, injection velocities and momentum ratios for the A-1 and A-2 engines.
130
Solution (a) A-1 Engine Thrust chamber propellant flow rates are 1941 lb/sec (oxidizer) and 827 lb/sec (fuel); propellant densities are 71.38 lb/ft 3 (oxidizer) and 50.45 lb/ft 3 (fuel); injector pressure drops are 200 psi for both propellants. Based on component test results an injector orifice discharge coefficient Cd of 0.75 is used for both sides. Substituting it into equation (4-40), and converting feet to inches: For the oxidizer side:
In neer, data, using
support of the injector development engiwho may wish to compare with earlier test the injection momentum ratio is determined, equation (4-42): 1211941 144 x 827
Rm-
- 1.97
2o0=
2x32.2x12x71
( 1941 h
38 --_1 _'0"75A] " 1728
Total
oxidizer
injector
orifice
area:
Ao = 32.4 in 2
For the fuel side: 200 =
(b.._)A-2 Engine From table 3-3, the propel]ant flow rates for the thrust chamber are 285.2 lb/sec (oxidizer) and 54.5 lb/sec (fuel); the propellant densities are 71.38 lb/ft 3 (oxidizer) and 0.72 lb/ft 3 (fuel; gaseous hydrogen at 180 R); the injector pressure drops are 160 psi (oxidizer) and 60 psi (fuel). With the coaxial injecting pattern (fig. 4-45b), experimental tests give a value of 0.62 for the oxidizer-side discharge coefficient and a value of 0.9 for the fuel side. Substitute these into equation (4-40). For the oxidizer side: 160= 1
4
( 2 , 27
2 32.2 12 50.45 1-_28 \0''5 At) orifice area: At= 16.4 in 2 Total
2 x 32.2 x 12 71.38x.
lr[_5
1^^
( 285.2 ,_2 A oJ \0.62

X
Total
fuel injector
injector
oxidizer
orifice
area:
A o =6.43 in 2
An injector pattern of 700 pairs of selfimpinging streams is used for both oxidizer and fuel. The following orifice areas and diameters result: 32.4 ao = 1-i-_-_= 0.0232 16 4 a[ =_=0.0117 in 2 do= 0.172 in
For the fuel side: 60: 2_32.2_ 1 ( 54.5 V 12o.72----- 1 ko-Y_AJ 1728 area: At= 13.79 in:
Total in2 d[ =0.122 in
injector
fuel orifice
From equation (4-39), and using orifice areas obtained above for available 5P and Cd, mean injection velocities are determined: For the oxidizer: Wo V = AP = 1452 in/sec 32.4 x 71.3_.___8 1728 1941 or 121 ft/sec
Use a total of 300 coaxial elements injector. The individual orifice areas eters will be 6.43 ao = 3--_-= 0.0214 13.79 at =--= 300 Use a tube The diameters
for the and diam-
in:
do =0.165
0.0459
in 2
inner wall thickness of 0.025inch. for the annular fuel orifice will be +2 0.025=0.215 in
For the fuel: dr=do wt Vt=-Atpt 827 16.4-- 50.45 1728 1728 in/secor 144 ft/sec dt2=V(4at+dt12)=0.323 in
131
From equation are For the oxidizer: wo Vo = A-_p -
(4-39),
the injecting
velocities
It is often beneficial if during the hot-firing tests of a given injector configuration, certain operational parameters such as injector pressure drops, thrust chamber shape, and L* can be changed to determine the effects on performance and stability. In such an experimental evaluation program injector, orifice hole patterns can be redrilled or holes plugged, until an optimual configuration is obtained. Heat-transfer characteristics are an important factor when evaluating an injector design. Temperature-measuring instruments embedded in chamber walls and injector face are required to measure heat-transfer rates and to detect local hot spots. Instrumentation for measuring propellant flows, chamber pressure, and combustion vibration characteristics are similarly important for determining the true levels of injector performance and stability.
285.2 71.38-1076 6.41
in/sec
or 89.6 ft/sec
For the fuel: flit 54.5 or 790 ft/sec
Vt=_'r=.r. 1:3 79 0.72 =9500 in/sec 1728
From equation ratio
(4-42),
the injection
momentum
Rm
285'2 x 89"6 = 0.593 - 54.5 790
Experimental
Evaluation
of Injector
Designs
4.6
GAS-GENERATING
DEVICES
The design of an injector can be improved through experimental testing. Three types of tests are usually employed: hydrostatic pressure, water flow, and hot firing. The hydrostatic pressure tests are used to determine whether the injector structure will withstand the required pressure loads. The water flow tests are used to evaluate the following design characteristics: 1. Effective injector pressure drop.-The data from the water-flow tests can be used to determine the orifice-discharge coefficient and to predict the injector pressure drop for the design propellant, with corrections for density and viscosity. 2. Injection pattern.-Injection pattern and impingement can be observed, and faulty operation can be detected and corrected. 3. Atomization.-Water-flow tests at velocities corresponding to those employed in actual service indicate the quality of atomization to be expected with the actual propellants. The true injector operational characteristics, such as performance, combustion stability, and heat-transfer characteristics for main-stage conditions, as well as start-and-stop transients, can only be fully evaluated by hot firing tests, in a thrust chamber of representative design or a "workhorse" equivalent.
In liquid propellant rocket engine systems, gases are required to power the propellant feed systems and other subsystems. Bottled compressed gases such as helium can be employed for these purposes; however, the use of higher temperature gases generated by suitable devices gives much higher overall system performance. Gases at temperatures ranging from 400 to 1000 F have been generated for pressurizing propellant tanks. Gases in the range from 1200 to 1700 F are used to drive gas turbines for pump-fed systems. Where ever possible, the engine system primary propellants are used for gas-generating purposes in the interests of overall system simplicity. However, for certain applications, such as for a pressurized gas-fed system or for starting a turbopump-fed system, high-pressure propellants other than those tapped off the primary system are required to supply the gas-generating systems. Most operational engine systems use special devices for gas generation. However, tapping hot gases from the main chamber has shown promise for certain applications. The following is a list of design objectives for operational gas generators: (1) Ability to produce gases safely, with required properties (temperature, pressure,
132
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
nonexplosive) in a compact unit, at the required flow rate (2) Ability to start and stop smoothly, without abrupt temperature surges, pressure oscillations, or overflow of unburned propellants. (3) Ability to operate over a wide range of propellant flow rates and (in the case of bipropellants) mixture ratios, and to respond closely to the control system. (4) Ability to maintain safe shutdown without complicated purging and draining systems. (5) Ability to restart safely (restartable engine systems only) Additional design requirements depend on the particular engine system involved. Gas generators can be classified according to the propellants employed: (1) Solid propellant systems (2) Liquid monopropellant systems (3) Liquid bipropellant systems.
Solid Propellant
Gas Generators
Solid propellant gas generators are applied to liquid propellant engine systems for limitedduration applications only, such as for turbine spinners for engine start, or as pressurants for
short-duration pressure-fed systems. The temperature of the gases generated by solid propellants is generally in excess of 2000 F and is not suitable for uncooled components over extended durations Diluents can be used with a loss of basic simplicity. Figure 4-49 shows the typical design of an operational solid-propellant gas generator used to supply power to the turbine for engine start. It is built in the form of a cartridge that bolts to a flange at the liquid bipropellant gas generator (shown in fig. 4-51) The particular cartridge shown is a disposable type that cannot be reloaded and reused. Upon an engine start signal, two initiators or igniters set off solid propellant combustion. Twenty milliseconds after start, the solid grain produces a gas-flow rate of approximately 4.68 pounds per second. It will maintain this flow rate for approximately 1.0 second. This gas generator operates at 2500 F and at a chamber pressure of 1000 psia. The product gas renders an approximate characteristic velocity of 4000 ft/sec. A burst diaphragm located just upstream of the gas generator orifice is used to seal the unit during storage. It is ruptured by the increased gas pressure at start. Body and end cap are made of 4130 steel.
|GNrrER pELLTS 35 GRAMS
MI L-T$ PLACES ON
6841 TABS
Figure
4-49.-Disposable
solid
propellant
gas generator
(SPGG).
133
Solid posed function the given
propellants surfaces of the
burn
uniformly which and The is the
at the primarily pressure
exa of
these control dictable
systems and that
is
that the
they gases
are are
relatively generated unless as the one
easy at prethe of the
to
at a rate temperature gases. can
temperatures. is main also system requiring shows gas
However, employed introduces special schematic using catalytic layers brass plates end
surrounding propellant
correlation as
for a
monopropellant engine lant gas propellant system often 4-50 generator
be expressed
propellants,
monopropela third and
handling
n:
k 1 _1---_0]
(4-46)
tankage. Figure the The silver-plated of a typical 90 screen of stainlesswire or grids, crosscatalytic The bed allowflow screens which 800percent pack or monopropellant generator
where R :propellant linear burning the and rate, linear in/sec burning pres-
hydrogen bed steel secured are 1000 consists mesh
peroxide. and
k_ =constant rate initial sure Pc =chamber n :constant propellant pressure, The generator weight can
representing of a given temperature of 1000 psia psia
of alternate
propellant,
at a given a chamber
by perforated with per area. ranges pounds square The from
applied
a preload length that
of approximately inch of bed of the is, area The bed can
pressure, allowing burning
for the rate
sensitivity to changes propellant
of the in gas
sectional generally able rate bed, design per
2 to 3 inches.
at a given flow rate be calculated
temperature. by
throughput, cross-sectional 0.4
propellant of catalytic propellant be approxi-
of a solid
unit drop
is about
lb/in2-sec. the
pressure wg: where wg = weight lb/sec Ab :burning pp It can ator design The ator = propellant be seen of constant which correlation orifice area flow area, that flow assures between can be rate in 2 lb/in 2 gas genergrain area. gas generGb Pc a propellant burning Ab, and as a solid requires constant Pc, expressed propellant through gas generator, where APb AbRpp (4-47) mated by
across
C1Gb APb :
Pc 0.9
19s + C2t (4-49)
density,
=pressure bed, psi : throughput, = gas end
drop
through
the
catalytic
lb/in2-sec chamber catalytic running for a given pressure bed, time, bed psia sec expericonfiguration. at the
generator of the
= accumulated C,, C2 :design mentally (4-48)
constants
determined
Pc = k2 _--_o] where Ao:gas generator orifice area, in 2 propeb
k 2 : constant lant
characteristic at a given
for a given
temperature.
Liquid
Monopropellant such
Gas as
Generators hydrogen have and peroxide been do not used as
Monopropellants (H202) gas and hydrazine
(N2H4) system
generants
in many generator adjustments.
applications. The
They advantage
perrequire of
mit a simple mixture-ratio
134
Sample
Calculation
(4-9)
A hydrogen peroxide monopropellant gas generator attached directly to the inlet flange of a turbine has the following design data: Turbine inlet pressure, 340 psia; total turbine nozzle throat area, 0.776 in 2. Assume a c* value of 3080 ft/sec for 90 percent H202 and catalytic bed design constants C1 =7.2 104 and C 2 =0.021 psi/sec. Determine the gas generator propellant flow rate wg, catalytic bed area, and pressure drop after 480 seconds of accumulated running time.
dizer rich, depending on the propellant combination. Oxidizer-rich gases tend to accelerate erosion of structural members, while fuel-rich gases continue to burn with ambient air after discharge, requiring special measures to prevent damage. Figure 4-51 and table 4-2 describe a typical liquid bipropellant gas generator system. It is designed to produce hot gases using primary engine propellants (LO2/gP-1) for driving the turbine of a pump-fed system. The control system consists of two normally closed, linked poppet valves that control the flow of propellants to the gas generator injector. The valve assembly includes an oxidizer strainer, oxidizer poppet, fuel poppet, timing orifice, actuating piston, and valve main body. The valve assembly is actuated by gas pressure which forces the piston on the fuel side down to open the fuel poppet. A yoke integral with the piston actuates the oxidizer poppet. The valve design, through a combination of manifold volumes and LOX poppet adjustment, effects a slight oxidizer lead to prevent detonations, and a fuel-rich cutoff to eliminate the possibility of turbine burning. The propellants flow through the poppets to the injector and into the gas generator combustor, are mixed, and burn within the inner chamber and combustor body. Ignition of the propellants is accomplished by two pyrotechnic igniters. A gas duct with two flanges opposite to each other is located at the end of the combustor body. These flanges connect with the solid propellant gas generator turbine spinner and the turbine inlet. The basic design parameters for bipropellant gas generators are similar to those for thrust chambers. The total throat area of the turbine nozzles may be considered to be the equivalent throat area of the gas generator combustion chamber. In calculating combustion chamber characteristic length L*, the volume between injector and turbine nozzle throats is used, with a correction factor allowing for the specific design configuration. Because of temperature limitations of the turbine construction materials, gas generators are rarely operated at gas temperatures higher than 1S00 F. In most designs no cooling is provided for the combustion-chamber wall and other surfaces exposed to the hot gases.
Solution Gas generator pressure = turbine inlet pressure =340 psia. Equivalent gas generator throat area = total turbine nozzle throat area = 0.776 in 2. Substitute into equation 3080= (1-32):
340 x 0.776 32.2 #g
Propellant Use a design
flow rate value
wg : 2.76 lb/sec bed throughput,
for catalytic
Gb, of 0.4 lb/inLsec 2.76 bed area =-_-.-.-ff 6.9 = data into equation 7.2x Bed pressure drop APb-
Catalytic Substitute
in 2 (4-49):
given
104 (0.4) 19s (340) 0.9 +0.021x480
:63.5+
10=73.5
psi
Liquid
Bipropellant
Gas Generators
This gas-generating system is used more widely in liquid rocket engine systems than any other, since it makes use of the primary rocket engine propellants. Bipropellant gas generators react in the same manner as the main thrust chamber, except that the oxidizer-fuel-mixture ratio will be adjusted to yield the desired gas temperatures and chemical properties. The gases generated may be either fuel rich or oxi-
.4
DESIGN
OF
THRUST
CHAMBERS
AND
OTHER
COMBUSTION
DEVICES
135
PORT
PORT
IGNITER
(2)
TURBINE
COMB
UFIt'OR
Figure
4-51.-Liquid
bipropellant
gas generator.
The maximum available energy per gas generator propellants is obtained products of combustion are expanded ically through a supersonic nozzle to
pound of when the isentropambient
pressure. This quantity of energy is termed the available energy content AHt, and is expressed by the correlations in equations (6-16), (6-17), and (6-18).
136
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
TABLE Typical System,
4-2.--Operating Liquid as Shown
Characteristics Bipropellant in Fig. 4-51 Liquid RP-1 Gas
o[ a Generator
OXIDIZER F'U P_ _
Oxidizer .............................. Fuel .................................. Total propellant flow rate ............... O/F mixture ratio ...................... Oxidizer flow rate ...................... Fuel flow rate ......................... GG chamber pressure (injector end) ....... GG chamber temperature ................. Oxidizer-side pressure drop of line, valve, and in]eetor .......................... Oxidizer side pressure drop across orifice. GG oxidizer supply line takeoff pressure (total at main oxidizer pump discharge) .. Fuel side pressure drop of line, valve, and injector ......................... Fuel side pressure drop across orifice .... GG fuel supply line takeoff pressure (total at main fuel pump discharge ............ Thrust With are bled to the ing utes bility nique appears engines Chamber these from turbine, This Gas systems, the main where Tapoff Systems
oxygen
TURBINE __
i i
i I
_ $
T_RUST
17.34 lb/see 0.342 4.42 lb/sec 12.92 lb/see 612.1 psia 1200: F 114 psi 121 psi 846 psia 216 psi 80 psi 907 psi
EX.,us'r ---._ ___---DUCT

i /-
'-,-._,_
;
_OT C, S A r_c'r \
t \ /
/
Figure 4-52.-Schematic gas tapoH diagram system.
\,
o[ thrust chamber
same turbine pressure
primary must lower sort
propellants. be designed than a tapoff the
However, to operate thrust engine system device, gas chamber
a tapoff at an inlet pressure. will such regulating hydrogen tapoff throttled require as gas
Furthermore, some spinner.
of simple With the
starting aid
of a hot been
combustion thrust they are chamber used eliminates system system.
product and as the the and and its The
gases ducted workneed reliatech-
valve engine
placed systems ratios
at the have
turbine
inlet,
successfully
to thrust
of 10:1
or better.
fluid.
arrangement gas generator to the of the engine
for a separate significantly potential has been
contrib4.7 IGNITION The DEVICES
simplicity
initiationof the release of the chemical
successfully
developed Division promising Figure system.
by North and energy stored in liquid rocket propellants is accomplished by a number of methods from which the engine designer will select the most suitable for a particular system: for hydrogen 4-52 shows
American
Aviation's
R, ocketdyne
to be particularly requiring throttling. of a tapoff gas with
a schematic
In a separate produced purposes liquid bulk drive bine chamber of the fluid, and only, supply would
generator the hot of the benefit gases
system,
gases
are high the
(I) Igniters (2) Hypergolic ignition have been in use for Note but for (3) Catalysts All of these methods both thrust chambers
"tailormade" pressures.
for turbine-power of relatively system, main turbine of the been tursucthe of the as In a tapoff
extremely not in view
and gas generators.
be suitable
that in liquid propellant rocketry, gas generators have been used not only for turbine power propellant-tank pressurization as well. pends on the chosen of The de-
limitation It has
construction
materials.
cessfully drawing only, the ature and ber and
demonstrated, chamber through less gases proper any
however, from the
that boundary and
by withzones
selection of the preferred ignition method bipropellants or monopropellants the size of the combustion
type of propellants, whether are used, on the heat chambers,
shaping turbine
location temperreliably be thrust gases
bleedports, (usually repeatably and injector have properties
desired than
inlet
1700 F) can for a given The bleed to possess to the
release per unit time required in relation to the amount of propellants entering, and on a number of other considerations which will be discussed. All ignition methods, of bipropellant systems, quirement in common: particularly those for minimum ignition delay.
produced, design. been found
chamthus
withdrawn dynamic a liquid
thermoproducts the
comparable gas
have one overriding re-
bipropellant
generator
utilizing
137
If the ber can The quality are
propellants not promptly
entering ignited, with
the
combustion explosive
chammixtures
difficult. of solid on briefly
It is one propellants
of the that and
inherent they cannot then
shortcomings be switched again. stopped
form
and
detonate of the
damaging ignition adequate method,
results. is dependent the release. heat
for checkout
assurance selection of design,
of faultless and on
on the
ignition
Igniters These heat and are thus defined initiate which derive or from their as the devices reaction which of the sustains from an outside of energy stored Followfurther principal in release main itself.
propellants Igniters source as ing the solid
subsequently power
a limited
amount do not
propellants igniters
within
themselves. participate of the below.
ignition, combustion types
process. are discussed
Some
igniter
Pyrotechnic These somewhat Burning For the end thrust injector are time
Igniters literally is in the use face slow-burning for rocket range they engine of a few can from stick fire crackers,
modified chamber
application. seconds. to For at the 4-2).
be mounted below (fig.
or inserted or plastic
of a wooden
better heat distribution, multiple units firing in different directions, have been used, as a rule radially jector mounted through outward face. from the center across they have the been in-
In other
designs achieving
to pinwheels, rapid rotation.
distribution
Although pyrotechnic igniters should be considered obsolescent adequate their size of their delicate walls. exhibited complete small recesses and cally variety wires integrity 4-54.) heat release for modern impractical.
are
used, they To achieve engines, ejection to the chamber they have
large Also,
becomes inert parts thin-walled
can cause damage tubes of modern conditions, to cause for gas have been plugs. are The initiated there need is checkout of pyrotechnic of which ignition popping.
Under
cryogenic
a tendency duds, igniters chambers
delays, and in figs. are a 4-53
or explosive
Pyrotechnic thrust as triggered of types to the and
generators mounted (See
screw-in-type The igniters squibs, in use. Furthermore, readiness
by electrito connect another of the igniters is inFigure 4-53.-Radially igniter [or center outward ot injector tiring pyrotechnic
pyrotechnic
igniters
convenience.
mounting.
138
Main chamber: centrally mounted unit; propellant weight, 33 gms; 4.5 sec burning time; heat release, 45 Btu/sec; perchlorate-type fuel. Electrically initiated. (Later models of this engine used hypergolic slugs.) Gas generator: Pyrotechnic: propellant weight, 2 gins; 8 sec burning time; heat release, 1.6 Btu/sec; perchlorate-type fuel. Vernier engines Similar to gas (earlier models generator units. only):
It is vital that certain of the specifications fall within a stated band. For instance, it can be specified that in a family of samples no igniter will fire at currents below 1 amp, and that all must fire below 4 amp. The first condition concerns the avoidance of accidental firing due to stray currents introduced by extraneous RF signals or other sources; the latter is simply a reliability requirement. Similarly, minimum and maximum burning times, i.e., tolerances of the nominal times, will be dictated by startsequence conditions. In operational designs, the pyrotechnic igniters frequently do not ignite the main propellants directly, but ignite a pilot flame fed by a small portion of the main fuel. The pilot flame then ignites the main propellants.
Hypergolic
Igniters
Figure
4-54.-Gas
generator igniter [usible link.
with built-in
Assurance of their reliability, therefore, is by statistical and sampling methods. For operational application, additional safety margins are secured by redundancy. However, this tends to increase bulkiness further. Also, pyrotechnic igniters are unsuitable for repeated starts. Engine manufacturers have been procuring pyrotechnic igniters from sources specializing in this field. Typical examples of selected parameters are as follows: For a 150000-pound thrust, LOX/RP-1 engine:
The term "hypergolic" was coined by the German chemist Noeggerath about 1942 and is composed of elements of the Greek words for "high energy liquid." The term now denotes a bipropellant combination which ignites spontaneously when the two components meet. Such a system was used as an ignition source for the earlier German A-4 engine (later called V-2 engine), utilizing hydrazine-hydrate (N2H4- H20) and 80 percent hydrogen peroxide (H202). Thin tubes supported by a wooden stick were inserted into the thrust chamber from below. Upon an "ignition" signal, a ground-mounted supply unit, including remotely operated valves, fed the two components to near the injector elements where they burned with a spontaneously igniting hot flame. This method may also have been used temporarily on other systems. However, its clumsiness, the frequent clogging of feed lines,
130
and the need to eject a considerable amount of inert solid material made it undesirable. Mso, adaptation to repeated starts would be complex and would require vehicle mounting, thus adding inert flight weight.
HypergoUc
Slugs
A more elegant way of using the hypergolic effect for main-propellant ignition is through use of a hypergolic slug. In this design a small amount of fluid is used which is hypergolic with one of the main propellants but not with the other. The fluid is stored in a cylindrical cartridge which has burst diaphragms at either end. The cartridge, in turn, is loaded into a housing which is part of a bypass line paralleling a highpressure main propellant feed line (fig. 4-55). If a fluid is chosen which is hypergolic with the oxidizer but neutral to the fuel, it is installed in the fuel system, and vice versa. The former type is the more common one. Here a fuel bypass line feeds an injection element in the center of the injector, or a set of elements evenly distributed over the injector face. When the pumps start and outlet pressures rise, the oxidizer valve is opened. As pressures rise further, the burst diaphragms in the hypergolic-fluid container rupture and the fluid meets with the oxidizer in the chamber, igniting spontaneously. The fuel following the slug sustains the ignition flame. The main fuel valve is then opened and all parameters reach main-stage level. Since the igniter elements carry fuel fed from the main source following ignition, they continue to participate in the combustion, undistinguished from the remainder of the main injector. (See schematic, fig. 2-13.)
Typical of fluid hypergolic with oxygen is triethyl aluminum. For optimum behavior, i.e., for minimum ignition delays and avoidance of undesirable deposits in fuel and sensing lines, optimum mixtures of the two have been successfully established experimentally. In a typical application, an amount of 6 cubic inches has been found adequate, although 9 cubic inches are actually used for maximum safety margin. By comparison, a 1.5-million-pound thrust engine uses 35 cubic inches. The hypergolic slug method, first explored at the German Peenemtinde installation, is well developed and has found wide application. Limited design and development work has been done more recently toward repeated-start units, using a device resembling an automobile brake master cylinder with its replenishing features. However, the hypergolic slug is truly a single-start device. Because of relative bulkiness, the hypergolic slug is not recommended for small units such as gas generators, where pyrotechnic igniters or spark plugs are preferred. Spark Plugs
Spark plugs and their accessories have been developed to high levels of efficiency and reliability for liquid rocket engine use. They are eminently suitable for repeated starts. For direct ignition, however, they are confined to relatively small combustion devices. (See fig. 4-56.) In a typical 200000-pound thrust engine, the gas-generator spark plugs fire at the rate of 50 sparks per second, releasing approximately 1/10 joule per spark. This corresponds to 5 joules/sec or 0.005 Btu/sec per plug. The efficiency of spark generation from the electrical
Figure
4-55.-Hypergol
slug cartridge
and housing,
Figure 4-56.-Spark igniter assembly. At right, screw-in spark plug; at le[t, cable connector.
140
ROCKET ENGINES
storage device is approximately 20 percent. The overall efficiency of the spark ignition system is approximately 10 percent. Thus, 100 watts of electrical power is required. If a 28-V source is used, the nominal current is 4 amp when two redundant systems are used in parallel. A Typical voltage at the spark plug is 15 000 V.
main stage, which prevents any of the main chamber gases from backing up into the igniter. Approximately one-half percent of the main propellant flow rates has been found adequate for the augmented spark igniters. Special Designs
Augmented
Spark Igniters
The limitation directspark ignition of to small units has led to the design and development of augmented spark igniters(ASI). In this design a spark plug,similarto the above, fires into a small chamber about the size of a gas generator. A small amount of the main propellants is fed intothischamber where they ignite, The hot flame generated in turnignitesthe main propellants, Figure 4-57 shows the principles of an earlier augmented spark igniter design. Permanently located at the injector end of the thrust chamber, this igniter directs its products of combustion across the face of the main injector. It is film cooled by the tangential injection of fuel. The oxidizer is injected through two copper tubes which impinge at the centerline of the igniter, resulting in a hot-core type of combustion, The igniter is made of 4130 steel and has a convergent, throatless nozzle. This results in a wide dispersion angle of gases emanating from the nozzle. The igniter is capable of an unlimited number of starts, since the spark plug is so located that the combustion does not seriously affect its life. The igniter has proven operable over a wide range of mixture-ratio and pressure conditions. It continues to operate throughout
For the engine used in the Saturn S-I booster, gas-generator ignition by the solid-propellant turbine spinner has been successfully developed. The turbine spinner will be discussed in a later chapter.
Hypergolic
Main Propellant
Ignition
FUEL
I_ILET
SPARK
MDNITOR
TERmINALised.
_;P J, RK PLUG
Figure
4-57.-Augmented
spark
igniter.
In preceding paragraphs it was learned that hypergolic fluids are being used as ignition sources for main propellant combinations which by themselves are not hypergolic (i.e,, "anergol" propellants). Hypergolic liquid main propellants have attracted attention since the early days of modern rocketry. Their use permits a substantial simplification of the engine system through elimination of the entireignitionsystem, leaving entry timingthe only functional requirement. This gain however, is not entirely withoutpenalties. The practical hypergolicpropellant combinationshave a somewhat limitedspecificimpulse. Furthermore,some are highlycorrosive and/or pose handlingand storageproblemswhich the engine designerhas to consider. A number of hypergolicmain propellant combinationshave been in successful operational use for many years. During World War II, several guided-missile systems using hypergolic propellants, were under development in Germany. Hydrazinc hydrate (N_H4 H20) and high-percentage hydrogen peroxide were used in certain Messerschmitt rocket fighters and the antiaircraft missile Enzian. Amines and nitric acid were used forthe AA rocketSchmetterling.Optolinesand nitric acid with sulfuric acid additives(approxiinately percentwere applied I0 inthePeenemiinde developments of the antiaircraft rocketWasserfall (17000-pound thrust) and the small 1300-pound Taifun. "Optoline"was a generic term forvarious mixturesof aniline, hydrocarbons,and other substances. In the United States,severalpropulsionsystems utilizing ypergolicpropellants h have been developed.
141
To make available to the high performing but anergol propellant combinations the simplicity of hypergolic behavior, the effectiveness of small amounts of additives ("sweeteners") has been successfully demonstrated.
FUEL PUMP (RP-II
TURBINE
GAS GENERATOR (SOLID CATALYST} GAS GENERATOR VALVE
Catalysts In a general sense, catalysts are not igniters but initiators and sustainers of reactions, which themselves remain unchanged during these reactions. In rocketry, catalysts have been used predominantly to initiate and sustain the composition of monopropellants ("Monergols"), notably that of hydrogen peroxide. Several operational or near-operational systems existed during World War II, such as the earlier Messerschmitt Me-163 which used hydrogen peroxide with potassium permanganate solution as the catalyst. Probably the most widely used application of this principle during that period was for the turbine steam-generating system of the German A-4 (later called V-2) ballistic missile, which employed 80 percent hydrogen peroxide with either potassium permanganate or sodium permanganate as catalysts. Because of the need for relatively elaborate timing, valving, and interlocking devices, the use of liquid catalysts was soon found to be cumbersome and undesirable. Application of solid catalysts, therefore, as they were being used for underwater torpedoes, led to design and development work toward use of these systems for rocket application. They never reached maturity for the German World War II systems, but were perfected after the war by the British and to a limited degree by the United States. The Redstone rocket steam plant, using solid catalysts, has consistently and successfully operated in many flights, among them the first U. S. manned rocket flight by Commander Shepard. Another successful development are the AR airplane superperformance rockets. Analogous to certain British systems', the AR systems decompose hydrogen peroxide fed through a solid catalyst bed consisting of impregnated wire screens. Since the specific impulse of decomposed hydrogen peroxide alone is low (below 200, depending on concentration and design parameters), RP fuel is injected below the decomposition chamber. Because of the sufficiently high temperature of
THRUST CONTROL VALVE
MAIN OXIDIZER VALVE
MAIN FUEL VALVE
FUEL INJECTOR
SCREEN PACK (SOLID CATALYST)
THRUST
CHAMBER
Figure
4-58.-Schematic superperiormance
of
a Rocketdyne rocket engine.
AR-1
the decomposition gases (1400 F), the RP ignites and burns spontaneously with the free oxygen of the decomposed H202. (See fig. 4-58.) In this manner, the solid catalyst indirectly serves as an ignition system. While the specific impulse with RP afterburner is still moderate (approximately 245 seconds for the AR), these systems offer great versatility, storability, and extreme simplicity, including throttling to low levels and restartability. More recently, it has been successfully demonstrated that catalytic operation offers a simple alternative to augmented spark ignition for hydrogen systems. In a process patented for Engelhard Industries, Newark, N. J., a gaseous mixture of oxygen and hydrogen is fed through a catalyst bed of palladium-impregnated alumina (A1203) pellets, by which the mixture is ignited. Installation of this igniter is similar to an augmented spark igniter.
Ignition
Detection familiar with the news stories
The reader
about rocket launchings over the past years is well aware of the consequences of rocket stages failing to ignite: loss of mission. This is
142
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
equally true for liquid- and for solid-propellant systems. With the former, however, an additional hazard exists in case of ignition failure: that of accumulation of explosive propellant mixtures which can be accidentally set off with catastrophic consequences. This consideration has always been a concern with unmanned vehicles, but has become even more important for manned
ones.
problem increased because of the large amount of oxidizer present in full flow ignitions which shrouds the ignition flame. Thus, means had to be found to detect ignition by other means.
Optical
Detection
Recognition of these potential dangers has prompted extensive investigation of means to detect reliably absence or presence of ignition in liquid propellant rocket engines. Only upon an "ignition OK" signal should the engine-start sequence be permitted to proceed. This refers mainly to the thrust chamber. For gas generators, redundancy appears to be adequate protection for most applications. Desirable detection systems must judge ignition both qualitatively (absence or presence) and quantitatively (adequate heat release). Not all methods are equally good in both respects. In some form or another, will have to provide means A survey follows of several operational application. the engine designer for ignition detection. which have found
Ground-mounted optical devices can be moved up close to the chamber exit. A number of types have been investigated, such as simple light or infrared-sensitive cells. They were found, however, to be subject to the limitations mentioned for human observers. It is possible to mount the optical devices into the chamber wall facing toward the inside near the injector face; however, the devices used thus become vehicle mounted and require interfaces to ground-support equipment. Also, "windows" in the chamber wall represent undesirable surface discontinuities. It is unlikely, therefore, that optical devices will find wide application for ignition detection.
Pyrometers Heat-sensitive pyrometers are closely related to the optical devices and subject to the same limitations.
Visual
Detection Fusible Wire Links
For the German A-4 (V-2) and the early U. S. Redstone missiles, visual observation by the test conductor was used. Man in this case was the interlocking device and would initiate the next sequence step only if, in his judgment, ignition was adequate. This simple procedure was satisfactory because these early systems employed a prestage, during which the main propellants were admitted under tank head only. The resulting relatively low flow rates were then increased by starting the turbopump upon a "prestage OK" signal. With the increasing size of modern rocket engines, visual observation became unreliable. The type of installation of these systems in static firing stands and on launch tables made direct observation difficult. Furthermore, improved igniters, developed to keep the ignition flame concentrated where it should be, i.e., at the injector face, resulted in little or no visible fire emerging at the chamber exit. With the disappearance of the prestage step, the visual
For many applications these are simple and reliable devices. A wire is strung across the chamber exit which, when fused by the ignition flame, interrupts a circuit and signals "ignition OK." Through proper selection of wire gage, material and distance from the chamber exit and/or center, some quantitative judgment is obtained. The wire can be ground mounted or chamber mounted. It must be isolated and should have spring loading, like fuses, to assure positive the well-known separation. electric
Wire links have a number of shortcomings. The fused wire ends may touch other metal parts and thus reconnect the circuit before the relay drops out. Suitab)e circuitry and mounting must therefore be applied. If a pyrotechnic igniter is used, the wire can be broken by inert particles, or even by a dud igniter coming out of the chamber, giving an incorrect "ignition OK" signal. This has been overcome by providing redundancy using several wires in parallel, all of which
143
must be broken before the sequence can proceed. In another design the wire has been mounted as a loop placed in a groove on a wooden or plastic stick. It is thus supported against all reasonably expected mechanical damage and adequate insulation is maintained after fusion.
senses pressure buildup in the igniter injection line upon rupture of the hypergolic fluid cartridge burst diaphragms. The switch signal then initiates the next sequential step. A modification of the system substitutes a pressure-actuated valve for the switch with similar effects. This method does not assure, however, that the cartridge is properly filled with the right amount of the correct fluid. Spark igniters use electric devices which ascertain that the plug is sparking based on conductivity effects due to ionization near the electrodes. The methods in the above list, which undoubtedly is not complete, are described as indirect because none of them directly and reliably detects ignition; i.e., the release of adequate heat. This is a drawback and cannot entirely be offset by weighing, certifying, and inspecting.
Pressure-Sensing Because
Devices
of the need to mount the fusible
wires at the exit of the thrust chamber, they are subject to some of the limitations noted for visual and optical methods. It has been attempted, therefore, to sense the pressure rise in the combustion chamber resulting from the burning igniter flame. However, since the pressure rise is small (a few psi at best), reliable discrimination is difficult. Furthermore, the sensing-pressure switches must be able to withstand the much higher pressures during subsequent main stage. Pressure-sensing devices have potential for multistart engines.
4.8
COMBUSTION
INSTABILITY
Resistance
Wires
Another method designed to overcome the shortcomings of fusible wire links is the application of resistance wires. Constructed like a glow plug and connected to a bridge circuit, the resistance wire will signal by a distinctly different resistance in the presence or absence of ignition. The art is to find that spot in the thrust chamber or gas generator which experiences a clear temperature rise as a function of ignition, yet remains cool enough to prevent fusion of the wire. Resistance-wire sensors are ideally suited for repeatable start engines.
Indirect
Methods
In conjunction with hypergolic slug ignition, other approaches to ignition sensing have been developed. In one design an electric contact assures that a cartridge is actually installed. This does not assure, however, that the cartridge is loaded or completely loaded, nor that the downstream lines are not clogged or that the diaphragms will burst. Weighing of the cartridge and purging of all lines must be included in the firing preparation. In another arrangement a pressure switch
"Combustion instability" is defined in terms of amplitude of pressure fluctuations in the combustion chamber. Chamber-pressure fluctuations are always present during normal, stable operation of a rocket engine system. These fluctuations are generally quite random, showing frequency spectra which are essentially continuous in nature, with few, if any, recognizable peaks. However, in case of instability, large concentrations of vibratory energy appear at one or more frequencies in the spectrum. They can easily be recognized against the normal random-noise backgmund. It has been found experimentally that the amplitude of the chamber pressure oscillations which will cause detrimental physical or operational effects varies widely for different thrust chambers and engine systems. Also, in a given chamber or system the effects of various types of instability can be quite different at the same amplitude. Thus itis difficulto assign a quant titative alue to the amplitudeat which the comv bustionchamber should be considered as running unstable. Itis an interesting observation thatthe first large liquid-propellant rocket-propulsion system, the German A-4 (V-2)rocket,never experienced combustion instabilityn over 4000 launchings i and in severaltimes as many static chamber and
144
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
engine firings. The term "combustion inst.ability" was literally unknown. It has been suggested that the Germans may have had instability, but did not know it because of their poor high-speed recorders. To this it can be said that for those instabilities which have caused today's real difficulties, the high-speed recorder chart is merely a postmortem confirmation of the cause of often very costly failures, which did not require any special instrumentation but'were unmistakable even to the untrained visual observer. It is much more likely that there is a relationship between the low performance level of the A-4 or the chamber geometry, or both, and the inherent stability. Experimentally it has been found that as long as the ratio of the peak-to-peak amplitude of pressure oscillation to average chamber pressure is kept below 0.10, there is usually no physical damage to the chamber. However, while a 10percent variation in pressure for any class of instability may not appear to have detrimental physical effects instantly or within a short period, it would be unacceptable for longer range rocket vehicle missions. One practical way to detect combustion instability and to prevent it from causing damage during engine operation is by monitoring the vibratory acceleration of the system. Accelerometers are mounted on the system to monitor in all three coordinates. They are connected to discriminator circuits which are set to specific g-load limits. When these limits are exceeded, a counting instrument begins to record. As soon as an allowable cumulative number of oscillations is exceeded, an engine cutoff signal is automatically triggered to prevent damage.
Lc
LONGITUDINAL
TANGENTIAL
RADIAL
MODE
Ac
MODE
N= 0.59A c dC
M__
L22A c N=- dc
N'E'g c
Figure 4-59.-Three modes o[ instability. Lc = combustion chamber length (injector [ace to throat); dc = combustion chamber d i a m e t e r; N = normal acoustic [requency; Ac = velocity o[ sound in chamber. combined, of both feed system and chamber. This will be further discussed in connection with methods to improve stability. The effects of the oscillations on an engine system are very much dependent on frequency. These effects may range from simple shaking (usuaLly at the lower frequencies), possibly resulting in an eventual mechanical failure after sometimes prolonged exposure, to "acoustic" vibrations (usually at the higher frequencies) capable of destroying the entire system in a few hundred milliseconds. But, how low is "low _ and how high is "high"? As pointed out earlier, the general field of combustion stability is extremely complex and it would be far beyond the scope of this book to attempt to present a generalized theory of the subject. Each system, because of configuration and dimensions, behaves somewhat differently and requires special treatment. The thrust chamber designer must have a basic understanding of the stability problem, and it is felt that this can best be conveyed by describing it in terms of a typical system, for which a substantial amount of experimental data exists. The frequency of the chamber pressure oscillations in a given chamber is determined by the geometry of the system as well as by complex interactions between the fluid flow in the propellant lines, the physical and chemical process
Types
of Instability
For proper remedial action, it will often be important to know whether the observed oscillations are of a longitudinal, radial, or tangential mode, or a combination of these. These three modes and their normal acoustic frequency are indicated in figure 4-59. Furthermore, in certain cases, it will be extremely valuable to know whether the oscillations originated in the thrust chamber, or in the feed system, or whether they originate in an interaction of characteristics, harmless when separate but destructive when
_d
i
DESIGN OF THRUST CHAMBERSAND OTHER COMBUSTIONDEVICES 145
Figure
4-60.-Approximate tics at 150000
vibration characterislb thrust level.
of combustion, and the dynamics of the combustion gases in the chamber. It has been found that each of the frequency components in the instability spectrum of a thrust chamber is predominantly influenced by only one physical process so that it is possible to group the observed instabilities in broad general classes, which are: high frequency or gas dynamics, low frequency or hydrodynamics, and intermediate frequency or combustion dynamics, listed in the order of their relative importance. Figure 4-60 presents vibration amplitudes of various frequencies versus mixture ratio of a typical L02/ RP-1 engine at the 150000-pound thrust level. The graph indicates the large difference in vibration amplitude between a stable and an unstable 7egion.
_ligh-Frequency
Instabilities
High-frequency instabilities at frequencies of approximately 1000 cps and over are sometimes referred to as "damaging acoustic," or "screaming" modes of instability. They are gas-dynamic instabilities which are both sustained and initiated by the combustion process and are believed to be concentrated in the uppermost portion of the combustion chamber where they cause increased heat-transfer rates to the injector sufficient to melt and burn it through within a few hundred milliseconds. They also frequently have serious damaging effects upon other parts of the rocket engine system. High-frequency instabilities are further characterized by instantaneous initiation (a few milliseconds from absence to full amplitude), and by extreme difficulty in
eliminating them once they are initiated. They do not occur at, nor can they be generally damped to, low-amplitude levels. They are either present at high amplitudes or not at all. It is believed that these oscillations are predominantly of the radial and tangential types. In many systems extremely unpredictable high-frequency instability has occurred. It is often, but by no means always, connected with the buildup phase to main stage. Systems which ran stably during numerous successive tests can become unstable without warning or subsequent clear indication of a cause. Figure 4-61 shows the starting of a typical high-frequency instability, indicated by the sudden shift in the accelerometer trace due to high-amplitude chamber pressure oscillations. All types of rocket propulsion systems, including solid systems, have been plagued by high-frequency instability. A considerable amount of research and engineering has been devoted to the explanation and elimination of this phenomenon. Unless a run in which instability is encountered is terminated within fractions of a second, serious damage to the engine hardware almost always occurs. It is assumed that the rapid gas pulsations directly interface with propellant injection, their mixing, and with the combustion process, upsetting the condition in the boundary zones, in particular at the injector face, to such an extent that the heat transfer to the metal parts increases at a high rate. Within seconds, or even fractions thereof, the injector can burn through, permitting propellant mixing behind the injector face. This, in turn, leads to explosions which often completely destroy the system. It has been observed that the degree and speed of damage is somewhat related to the level of energy release occurring in the combustion chamber. This may explain why "bursts of I i HIGH-FREQUENCY
J"-- ,NSTABILITY-T _ I _y, : !I
ENG!N,E,ArCCELEROMETERI, I
)I
Figure 4-61.-High #equency combustion insmbil'ity shown on oscillograph for engine accelerometer.
146
ROCKET ENGINES
instability" frequently stage.
during shutdown cause damage less than they do during buildup and main
tRtSSaRt - --'-" --"
Low-Frequency
Instabilities
This type of instability, at frequencies below approximately 180 cps, is a hydrodynamic oscillation, characterized by a cause-and-effect-type coupling between combustion process and propellant feed system flow processes. The phenomenon is sometimes referred to as "chugging." Its secondary effects can be serious indeed. "Chugging" may trigger destructive high-frequency instability. Also, prolonged chugging can lead to loosening of bolts and other vital connections and to ruptures in general. Low-frequency instability is self-sustaining but may damp out. As a rule, it is predictable from analytical and from test result studies. In figure 4-62 the highspeed-pressure instrumentation measurements indicating chugging clearly show that the oscillations of propellant feed system pressures are at the same frequency as the "rough combustion cutoff accelerometer" reading. Chugging occurs most frequently during buildup and shutdown of an engine system, or when operating at off-rated operating levels, such as at incorrect mixture-ratio values. Likewise, too high, and particularly, too low a thrust level can lead to chugging. This is especially important for systems requiring throttling to a lower-than-rated thrust level during flight. If sustained, chugging will cause measurable performance losses, which are attributable to widely fluctuating mixture ratios. The chugging phenomenon is frequently associated with the quality and promptness of ignition of the entering propellants. This can be described as "flame holding characteristics," "combustion timelags," "flame propagation velocity," or other terms, which ultimately are all traceable to the excessive accumulation of unburned fuel, with subsequent detonation or cyclic higher-than-rated combustion. The resulting excessive chamber-pressure spikes effect a reduction, or even reversal, of the propellant flows. This will cause rapid collapse of the chamber pressure, allowing propellants to rush in again, thus repeating the cycle. It is readily evident that the physical dimensions of the corn-
_o_
P_[ss_[
II_ _'_1"
l_q1_1tl_lllT_l_[IZXl"l_l_11111_111_11'l_ll_11
_tssun[
Figure
4-62.-High-speed of low-frequency
pressure measurements instability.
bustion chamber the magnitude of their ratio to one tem), are critical frequency system
and of the propellant ducts, and the propellant flow rates and another (in a bipropellant systo the phenomenon of lowoscillations.
Intermediate-Frequency
Instabilities
This instability, with frequencies ranging from 200 to 1000 cps, is sometimes referred to as combustion dynamics or "buzzing." It is characterized by a spring-and-mass-type coupling between combustion process and propellant feed system flow processes. It is often present in only a portion of the feed system, or is confined to the combustion chamber, or, in a bipropellant system, to one of the two propellant systems only. It appears to be initiated by the combustion process and to be sustained by acoustic resonance of a critical portion of the system. Some researchers have shown that in a system having a pump, the pump may be the prime source of these oscillations. This type of instability has not appeared to be a problem in the development of large engines. While it can occur occasionally in large engines, it appears to be much more prevalent in smallscale low-thrust systems. Systems oscillations of the buzzing type are undesirable because of their adverse effects on engine reliability and
147
rl
!;I
I:!'p
....... i iI:,
i:,r,'? !!ii,
"q %==
\'\
:!211 "
ii!ii: !
i_
tll I!
"
,\
\,
Ioo
\
e._
\ ............ \, \" \/ .................
Tiiii!
CMA_aR
_ESSU_E
Figure Figure 4-63.-High-speed o[ intermediate pressure lrequency measurements instability.
4-64.-Field region
olstability of a typical
and engine
sale system.
operaling
bility in liquid propellant rocket engine systems performance. When exposed to prolonged buzzfail beseccan be attacked in several ways, including systems design, choice of propellant combination, and operating conditions, and through the use of special control devices. employed. processes cycle inherent fied zation with ity, which spray Field of Stability stabilTwo basic approaches instability are
ing, critical parts of the engine may
cause of material fatigue, and thus cause
ondary major failures. In addition, measurements have shown that a performance (Is) loss of up to
toward eliminating combustion
approximately
7 percent can be incurred, which
The first is to eliminate triggering and/or to the to limit below system. investigations are propellant resistance propellant the physical chemical both model with thrust varied distribution to initiation additives properties kinetics, full-scale chambers, yields the the This driving, approach in which to give different energy per cycle is typiatomiinjector per
is largely attributed to widely fluctuating mixture ratios. Figure 4-63 is the record of high-speed-pressure measurements of a typical test afflicted by buzzing. The oscillation is attenuated in the fuel pump pump outlet pressure, and nonexistent in the inlet pressure. This indicates that the is limited to only a part of the feed
to a value by design and varying
damping
configurations
characteristics of instabilare used
buzzing system.
or in which modify formation,
controlling etc. Experi-
mental studies, with research that injector in terms
engines and have shown stabil-
For a given engine system, combustion ity limits can be defined experimentally of certain operational parameters ber pressure, injection AP,
modification differing
relative from
ity ratings, the tional tional the most The
by a factor least is system devices sufficiently stable
5 to 6 from addithe any use operaby of
such as cham-
stable second
to the approach in the
configuration.
and mixture ratio.
to introduce through so that and
Figure 4-64 presents the stability field for a typical LO2/RP-I, engine system. The 150000-pound nominal thrust stability field, together
damping disturbance, disturbance,
mechanical
or other are
or oscillation
triggered rapidly
with heat transfer limits, can serve as a guide to the design of a safely operating engine system.
damped out. Experience over the past several years has shown that the destructive transverse acoustic tively approach. modes combated of instability through wall gap, the devices, have can use be most of this such been as found effecbaffles to
Design Instability The
Approaches
Toward
Control
of Combustion
second
Mechanical
problem
of controlling
combustion
insta-
or a divergent
148
introduce sufficient damping into the system so that it will recover from an instability triggered by an explosive charge as large as can be used without damaging the thrust chamber in some other manner. This ability of a system to recover from a triggered instability has been designated as "dynamic stability." A prerequisite for any propulsion system to operate reliably is that it should exhibit dynamic stability with respect to all modes of instability. As a minimum requirement it should be "dynamically stable" at least with respect to the destructive transverse (radial and tangential) acoustic modes. The successful application of the above methods has been based primarily on criteria established empirically in research model thrust chambers, together with testing in actual engine systems. However, the understanding of the fundamental physical principles of the damping processes is still limited.
teristics will not trigger the interact._on with the combustion process. 2. Combustion chamber design.-Analytical studies and experimental results have indicated that the geometrical configuration of the combustion chamber will determine the type of frequency of the acoustic modes of instability. Chambers having large length-to-diameter ratios appear to be quite prone to large-ampiitude longitudinal instability. On the other hand, chambers having small length-to-diameter ratios appear to be sensitive to the transverse modes. Also, smalldiameter chambers are much more stable than large-diameter chambers. The requirement is to design a chamber geometry which will have least tendency to trigger instability, in conjunction with other considerations. 3. Injector design.-The injector design appears to be a most critical factor in triggering instability. In turn, it offers great potential for controlling instability-triggering processes through variation of parameters. Of the most common types of injectors, the self-impinging injector (fig. 4-45a) has been chosen by many investigators as the best compromise between performance and stability. There is some indication that longitudinal instability may be enhanced if the propellant travel time from the injector face to the point of impingement is close to the half-period (or an odd multiple of the halfperiod) of the longitudinal mode oscillations. There are strong indications that increasing the injection .AP to too great a value may cause the thrust chamber to operate unstably in the transverse acoustic modes. The effect of injection ,AP on the longitudinal acoustic modes and on hydrodynamic instabilities appears to be just the opposite, with stability improving as AP increases. The propellant distribution across the injector face has a significant relation to triggering transverse modes of instability. 4. Propellant combination and mixture ratio.Control tests with various propellants have shown that there are certain oxidizers or fuels which can be triggered into instability more easily than others, in general or at certain mixture ratio conditions. In LO2/LH2 systems, a lower hydrogen injection temperature tends to trigger instability. 5. Engine system operating characteristics.In some cases, combustion instability can be
Prevention
of Triggering
Processes
The most desirable design method of controlling instability is the prevention of those physical or chemical processes which trigger and/or sustain the resonant modes of the combustion chamber or engine system. While a great number of studies, in which different design parameters were varied systematically, have been made by various investigators, the results have failed to yield truly generalized design criteria. This can be traced to the fact that basic processes which trigger and sustain the various types of instability have not been isolated. Thus, while a parameter which controls one type of instability may have been established on an engineering basis, this same design criterion may be enhancing another type of instability. The following is a general discussion of "the prevention of triggering instability in various component and subsystem designs: 1. Propellant feed system design.-Past experience has indicated that certain combustion instabilities, such as buzzing, are sustained through an interaction between feed system and combustion dynamics. It is believed that hydraulic resonances are a major factor in sustaining this type of instability. The requirement is to design a feed system whose hydraulic charac-
DESIGN
OF THRUST
CHAMBERS
AND
OTHER
COMBUSTION
DEVICES
149
avoided ating ber
by modification characteristics.
of engine-system For period instance, during may have instability, acoustic one The if the engine time
operchamstart to dein turn,
the verse This thrust with
most has
effective been
method modes demonstrated and
of suppressing in both
trans-
acoustic
of combustion
instability. full-scale operating These secured to keep or height of the face. to to the the of the Adequate
pressure This trigger with can the the
buildup
is excessive, velop. can tem ging
"chugging" low-frequency the destructive propellant ports.
chamber various are face means from
small-scale
models,
propellant usually as should burnout. front evaluations design that and shown
combinations. to be provided depth distance the in figure be The of the from 4-40.
modes proPellant
of sys-
baffles injector cooling baffles baffles
designed
instability through pressure
by contaminating other injector
by driving triggering a fast
it back chugchamber
be eliminated buildup.
through
is a function
combustion-flame Experimental
injector be
should development wall
conducted effort. was annular adjacent in cominstaby filling block, shown of the found
Application In further special "dynamic and engine devices results: !. ties Feed of the
of Damping support
Devices for stability, be provided are with for chamber several good
support 3.
the
Chamber of the 4-66,
divergent leaving chamber the propellant improved further with
gap.-It an area as
of design can in the The been
experimentally portion to the figure bustion bilities. this by combustion
blank injection wall, capability from
damping stability" system. which
devices
combustion following applied
have
chamber It was "wall gap" stability" cases. and
to recover
triggered that filler
determined a contoured
system combustion buzzing hydraulic the in the schematic It is
hydraulic and type feed can
capacitor.-Selfsystem in the device Figure capacitor instabilfeed sysat a 4-65 hydraulic with it be eliminated
sustained introducing tem. will given shows capacitor. large and the type small it and increase point the
"dynamic in most is critical, required configuration. 4. pressing has sion tile the its or been is
could The exact the
be drasticallyimproved shape most of the effective contour are design
capacitors
experimental
evaluations
A hydraulic
capacitor effective liquid
is any system.
which
to determine
compressibility
Acoustic resonant liners
chamber and on the
liners.-The nonresonant combination in turbojet the use principle of patches level the 4-67 mode shows area of order
feasibility acoustic chamber engine supwails appli-
of an experimental
of using
an isolation-type and Its zero resistance is
capacitance the system. above
between the through Another which to absorb has the between damping of the use found of
demonstrated In this similar the case to the sound
function
to isolate
cations.
of suppresof acoustic whereby reduce sup3 will the
transmission system is called
of pressure a given and Its absorption
disturbances frequency. capacitor, high resistance is by function system frequencies baffles.-The
to reduce energy amplitude.
in a room,
absorbed Figure The
from combined must
capacitance the system. energy the
a typical
arrangement. pressor openings
oscillatory attenuating system. 2.
of the
be of the
of from
resonant
Combustion-chamber baffles
_/_INJECTOR combustion-chamber has been to be
FACE
:/"
"'
- -'-'_'- --_
"
CO_PAESS_a
GAS
l
Figure type
i.:-:.u-_--_-
---
_--_--.....
:::: :1.
.. _
[ _ NYDRAUL_ SYIT_Jt
_k__CONTOURE
WALL GAP FILLER BLOCK 4-65.-Schematic hydraulic of experimental capacitor. isolation Figure 4-66.-Combustion gap. chamber divergent wall
--
_.._..
150
B_JRST j OtAPHRAGi r EXPLOSIVE
COMTROL e/" VALVE
INJECTOR FACE i, : suPPLY
CHARGE
I_l
DIRECTED PULSE
EXPLOSIVE
(b}
NON
DIRECTED PULSE
Ic)
DIRECTED C_5 FLOW
NOI
EXPLOSIVE
EXPLOSIVE
Figure
4-68.-Combustion chamber methods.
perturbation
Combustion Chamber Disturbances Figure 4-67.-Combustion chamber acoustic liner. The introduction disturbancein the chamof ber proper offersa simplermethod of inducing instability. Transverse acousticmodes have been initiated ost successfullyby the following m methods: 1. Directed explosive pulses.-The directed explosive pulse method of inducing instability, as shown in figure 4-68a, uses a high explosive charge mounted in an external fixture which is attached to the combustion chamber in such a way that the gas pulse resulting from the detonation enters the chamber with any desired orientation. 2. Nondirected explosive pulses.-The simulation of localized random detonations closest which
to 4 percent of the total chamber wall surface area. Furthermore, the suppressor thickness should be maximum in the area of maximum pressure variation; i.e., near the injector face. Rating Stability
It is desireable to establish the combustion stability level of a particular engine system without an excessive number of tests. This can be accomplished by perturbing a normally stable system by suitable means until instability is initiated. The relative stability of various systems is then judged as a function of the magnitude of perturbation needed to reduce the instability. The larger the perturbation, the more stable the system. The perturbation can be introduced in either the propellant feed system or in the combustion chamber. Several effective methods exist for inducing different types of instability. Feed System Perturbations
can occur in a chamber during normal operation due to accumulation of unburned propellants is achieved by the nondirectional explosive pulse method as shown in figure 4-68b. An explosive is placed into a thin-walled Micarta shell which is designed to be mounted at any desired position in the chamber. 3. Directed nonexplosive gas Hows.-In this method, as shown in figure 4-68c, a flow of gas from a regulated high-pressure source is controlled by a fast-acting valve. This valve is placed as near to the chamber as possible. This method additionally permits a better definition of the parameters associated with the disturbance.
Perturbation in the propellant feed system to induce disturbances in the chamber of the lowfrequency hydrodynamic type, can be introduced by(l) Explosive charges in the fuel feed system (2) Single-stroke positive displacement pistons (3) Oscillating pistons
Chapter
Design
Of
Pressurized-Gas
Propellant-Feed
Systems
For the transfer the rocketpropellantsfrom of the tanks to the thrustchamber at the required flow ratesand pressures,a suitablefeed system is required.The selectionof :he feed system will depend on the mission of the vehicle,its size and weight,thrustlevel and duration,space availableforthe propulsionsystem, on reliabilityconsiderations, and on other factors. There is no simple ruleforthe choice between a pressurizedgas feed system (fig. 1-12)or a turbopump feed system (fig. 1-13). The advancement in the state of the art of lightweight pressurized gas feed systems, in conjunction with the availability of high-strength tank construction materials, has enlarged their field of applications to engine thrust levels of approximately 100 000 pounds, and total impulse values of over 5 million pound-seconds. For large vehicle applications, turbopump feed systems are predominant. However, some type of pressurized gas feed system is always required even in a turbopump feed system to supply propellants to the pump at the correct inlet conditions. Classified according to their power sources, four major types of pressurized feed systems can be distinguished: (1) Stored gas systems (2) Propellant evaporation systems (3) Systems evaporating nonpropellants (4) Systems using products of chemical reactions Selection depends largely upon engine system design, type of propellants, mission requirements, and availableexperience. Among the considerationsforselectionof the type of pressurizedgas propellant feed system are(l) Compatibility of pressurant gases with propellants and tank materials, considering chemical interactions,emperature, t solubility, etc. (2) Expected pressurization system reliabilityand complexity,consideringthe state
of the art of systems components used. (3) Molecular weight of the pressurant gases: Lower molecular weight reduces required pressurant weight per unit pressure and per unit tank volume, and thus results in lower vehicle system weight at burnout and thus improved mass ratio. (4) Pressurization system specific weight; i.e., required pressurization system gross weight (including system components and pressurant), per unit of weight of useful pressurant.
5.1 DETERMINATION REQUIREMENTS
OF
PRESSURANT
The physical and chemical processes which take place during the expulsion of a liquidpropellantfrom a tank by a gas or gas mixture are numerous and difficulto analyze. Applicable t experimentaldata fora selected system areoften limited. Thus, the basis for the analyticalapproach is frequently narrow and uncertain. As a result, the initial design calculations the of quantityof pressuringgas requiredmust be considered approximate until verified experimentally. The refinement of the analytical approach to minimize discrepancies between theoretical predictions and actual test results is an art requiring experience and thorough understanding of the physical processes. Basic considerations and necessary procedures for the calculation of pressurant requirements are described below.
Required Engine System Data and Assumptions Before starting calculations pressurant of requirements,the followingsignificant engine oper2tingparameters must be known or assumed: (1) Design operatingtemperaturerange of the propellants and the feed system including pressurant 151
152
(2) Type of propellants, their weights and corresponding volumes at the extremes of the operating temperature range (3) Total tank volumes: Nominal value and tolerances (4) Initial tank ullage volume, percent of total tank volume at the temperature limits. (The term "ullage" denotes that portion of a propellant tank not occupied by the liquid propellants.) (5) Trapped propellant volumes, percent of total propellant load, at engine burnout (6) Operating tank pressure: Nominal value and tolerances (7) Operating Nominal duration of the engine value and variations. systems:
walls in flight may cause heating of the pressurizing gas. It may also heat the propellant and thus increase vaporization effects and raise NPSH requirements in turbopump-fed systems. 3. Vapor condensation.-Certain components of the pressurizing gas, such as water vapor, may condense. Even if the bulk of the gas remains above the dew point for the condensible component, local condensation may occur at the tank walls, or at the propellant surface. 4. Solubility ol the pressurizing gas.-If the pressurizing gas contains components which are soluble in the propellant, diffusion of these components into the propellant can occur. Solubility is generally affected by temperature and pressure conditions. 5. Ullage gas compression.-If, before start, the tank ullage space is filled with low-pressure gas, onset of pressurization will cause adiabatic compression. This can raise the ullage space temperature considerably during the initial few seconds of operation. 6. Chemical reaction.-If any components of the pressurizing gas are chemically reactive with the propellant, the reaction products may become a component of the gas. 7. Pressurizing gas turbulence.-The heat exchange between pressurizing gas and propellant would be extremely large if the gas were permitted to agitate the liquid propellant surface. This effect can be prevented through the use of a diffuser which spreads the gas in a gentle flow toward the top and sides of the tank.
To avoid later marginal conditions, calculations should assume that pressurization must be supplied for maximum systems operating duration even though some missions may require shorter durations. Realistic assumptions for the temperature of tanks and propellants at burnout must be made. If a mission calls for several system restarts and coasting periods, the environmental conditions during the coasting periods must also be given or assumed.
Factors
Influencing
Pressurant
Requirements
Several important factors which will influence considerably the final state of a pressurizing gas or gases, and thus their required quantity, are discussed below. 1. Propellant vaporization.-Propellants evaporate to various degrees from the gas-liquid interface within the tank. The amount depends upon the volatility of the propellant, the temperature of the entering gas, the turbulence of the gas, the sloshing of the liquid, the tank geometry including internal structural members, and the rate of propellant expulsion. To whatever degree vaporization takes place, it lowers the temperature of the gas and adds propellant vapor as a component of the pressurizing gases. Also, as the liquid propellant level recedes, a film of liquid may be left on the tank wall surface, further contributing to propellant evaporation. 2. Tank wall temperature.-If the pressurizing gas is hotter than the tank walls, cooling of the gas and heating of the wall may result. On the other hand, aerodynamic heating of the tank
Design
Calculations
of Pressurant
Requirements
If the system operating duration is relatively short, or if the pressurant temperature is close to or lower than the propellant temperature, heatand mass-transfer effects can be neglected. The required pressurant weight can then be calculated by the perfect gas law: PTVT Wg- RgTg where Wg : required pressurant weight in the tank, lb PT = propellant tank pressure, lb/ft 2 V T = total volume of the empty propellant tank, ft 3 (5-1)
DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED-GAS PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
15,.3
Rg =gas constant of the pressurant, ft-lb/Ibdeg R Tg = mean However, tion and higher the by temperature in cases pressurant the following set of entering where longer temperatures requirement procedure, forth at the can pressurant, systems are best inbe R dura-
The propellant
partial is
volume given by
occupied
by the
vaporized
Vv =
WvZRpTu PT
(5-4)
volved, determined
pressurant
keeping beginning (not total to the by
where Vv:total Z volume propellant, occupied ft _ factor (PT) gaseous of the tank the evaluated and the at the temperature at burnout vapor, ft-lb/ neto by the vaporized
in mind the limitations of section 5.1. Considering requiring ing heat heat coast transfer first periods from from
a single-start and restarts), the the can tank
operation walls, the gas
=compressibility total (Tu) pressure of the
and neglect-
mixture propellant
transferred (5-2).
pressurant be
Rp=gas The glecting
constant lb-deg remaining residual by R
vaporized equation
propellant
approximated
volume
at burnout, can gas be
propellants, pressurant
assumed
Q = HAt (Tu - Te)
(5-2)
be occupied
where Q H -total heat transferred, determined at the R interface the sec gases at burnout, oR values heated to the and equawhere gas. R In order to maintain satisfy (in case of area tank, ft 2 cross-section gas-liquid Btu heat transfer interface, The perfect where Vg = volume ft 3 weight gas law
Vg = VT - Vv
(5-5)
=experimentally coefficient Btu/sec-ft2-deg
of pressurant
gas
at burnout, by the
of pressurant
is calculated
=area
of the
gas-liquid
a cylindrical of the t =operating tank),
iq
P TV g
duration, of the of the are treated assumed between Q, is
gthe the heat balance, the
(5-6)
value
To-temperature Te = temperature Both at the This vaporized tion Tu and interface heat, the Te
propellant, as liquid and to have
constant
for Q should
following
equation:
Q : WgCpg
(Tg-
Tu)
(5-7)
propellant
according
Cpg=specific heat at constant pressure pressurant gas, Btu/lb-deg R equation assumed (5-7) Tu can the thus required fixed value value, equations: of Tg If
of
Q = Wv [Cpl (Tv-
Te)
+ by + Cpv (Tu - Tv)](5-3)
From for the however,
be calculated.
Tg is a predetermined of Wg, as well Wv, and as other
then the
where Wv Cpl hv :total weight of vaporized liquid of the propellant, propellant, propellant, lb
the : specific heat of the Btu/lb-deg R =heat of vaporization Btu/lb of the R R now with be obtained an assumed from value
values
Tu must correlated
satisfy
following
WgCpg(TgTu) = Wv [Cpl (Tv - Te) + hv + Cpv Thus has been far, heat transfer from the
(Tu - Tv)] tank walls
(5-8)
Cpv = specific heat Btu/lb-deg Tv The equations for Tu. =vaporization propellant, value (5-2)
propellant of the
vapor, liquid
neglected. temperature gases, must be transferred taken
However, differential and between into
if there
is a conpresthe the for the at burnout.
temperature
siderable surizing total mission heat
between tank them walls, during
propellant,
of Wv can and (5-3)
consideration propellant
determination
of vaporized
154
Equation
(5-3) can be rewritten
as
Q*-Qw, =Wv[Cpl(Tv-
on experimental data. However, no set of equations can be applied directly. In some cases, the uncertainties in pressurizTv)] (5-9) ing system design can be reduced by providing adjustability of the pressurant temperature at the propellant tank inlet. In this approach, the temperature of the pressurizing gas at system burnout is assumed or targeted from the beginning. Based on this and other given or assumed data, the values of required pressurant quantity and inlet temperature can be calculated by equations (5-1) through (5-11). Certain correction factors such as pressurant solubility, etc., can be applied later. If the required pressurant quantity in experimental engine system evaluation deviates from the calculations, because of temperature discrepancies of the pressurizing gas at system burnout, an adjustment of the pressurant temperature at the propellant tank inlet can often be made to correct for this difference, such as through an adjustment of the pressurant supply from a heat exchanger, or from a gas generator. Because of the narrow safety margins employed in rocket vehicle design, the effect of varied gas temperatures on structural members must be carefully weighed. The following is a sample calculation to demonstrate this design approach:
Te)+hv+Cpv(Tu-
where
Qw, = total heat transferred between tank walls and liquid and gaseous propellant during the mission, Btu. The positive (+) or negative (-) sign indicates whether QwI is contributed by, or lost to, the tank wails.
Furthermore,
equation
(5-7) becomes (5-10)
Q=WgCpg(Tg-Tu)+_Qw2 where
Qw 2 = total heat transferred between pressurizing gases and tank walls during a mission, Btu. Again the positive (+) or negative (-) sign indicates whether heat is contributed
by, or lost to, the tank wails. Combining equations (5-9) and (5-10), the heat balance considering heat transfer from the tank walls can be written as [VC gCpg (TgTu)] +-Qw 2-- Wv [Cpl (Tv - Te) +hv+Cpv(TuTv)]-(+-Qw_) (5-11)
If the vehicle mission includes several powered flight and coasting periods, the calculation of the heat transfer across the gas-liquid interface should take the total mission time into consideration. as Equation (5-2) can be rewritten
Sample
Calculation
5-1
From table 3-5, the following data are obtained for the oxidizer tank of the A-4 stage propulsion system: Oxidizer, N204 Pressurant, gaseous He Tank volume, neglecting the volume of residual propellant, (VT) = 119 ft 3 Average tank cross-section area, (A)=20 ft 2 Tank pressure, (PT)= 165 psia, or 23760 psfa Propellant temperature, (Te) = 520 R Calculate the following: (a) The total pressurant weight (Wg) and required temperature (Tg) at the tank inlet, for a single operation time (t) of 500 seconds, with an experimentally determined heat transfer coefficient (H) at the gas-liquid interface of 0.002 Btu/sec-ftLdeg R. It is assumed the ullage gas temperature Tu at burnout is 700R and that there is no heat transferred at the tank wall surfaces.
Q= HAtm (Tin
- Te)
(5-12)
where tm =total mission time including powered flight and coasting period, sec Tm =mean temperature of the pressurizing gases during the entire mission, R. This is a function of many factors such as length of coasting periods, heat transfer between gases and tank wall, etc. Other effects such as vapor condensation, solubility of the pressurizing gas in the propellant, and chemical reactions of the pressurizing gas with the propellant can be included, based
DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED-GASPROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
155
(b) The required pressurant weight (g/g) and temperature (Tg) at the tank inlet, for a mission consisting of several powered flight and coasting periods, with a total mission duration (tin) of 18000 seconds. The mean temperature of the pressurizing gases during the mission (Tin) is 526 R. The total heat transferred between propellant and tank walls (Qw_) is -2000 Btu. The total heat transferred between pressurizing gas and tank walls (Qw2) is -600 Btu. The temperature (Tu) of the ullage gases at final burnout is 660 R.
Substitute this into equation (5-5), to obtain the volume occupied by pressurant gas Vg=VT-Vv From equation weight results: W = 119-7.13 (5-6), = 111.87 ft 3
the required
pressurant
PTVg
23760
111.87
Solution =9.79 lb (a) From standard propellant references, the Substitute results into equation - Tu) Tu) at tank (5-7), following data are obtained for N204 at a pressure of 165 psia: Vaporization temperature, Tv = 642 R Heat of vaporization, hv= 178 Btu/lb Mean value of specific heat in liquid state, Cpl = 0.42 Btu/lb deg F Mean value of specific heat Cpv=0.18 Btu/lb-deg Compressibility factor, Molecular weight = 92 in vapor state,
Q =9.79 Cpg(Tg 3600=9.79 The required inlet is: pressurant
1.25 (Tg-
temperature
F Z = 0.95
3600 Tg = 9.79 x 1.25
_ 700:
995 R heat trans-
The specific heat of helium, Cpg, is 1.25 Btu/lb-deg F, and its molecular weight is 4. From equation (5-2), total heat transferred the gas-liquid interface: Q = HAt (Tu - Te) = 0.002 x 20 x 500 (700Substitute this into equation
at
(b) From equation (5-12), the total ferred at the gas-liquid interface: Q= gAtm (Tin - Te)
520) = 3600 (5-3):
Btu
=0.002 20 18 000 (526 - 520) =4320 Substitute Btu (5-9):
3600 = Wv [Cpi (Tv - Te) + hv + Cpv (Tu - Tv)] = g/v [0.42 (642 - 520) + 178 + 0.18 (700 - 642)] =WvX239.6 Total weight of vaporized propellant, Wv = 15.11b Substitute into equation (5-4), to obtain the volume occupied by the vaporized propellant: g/vZRpTu PT 1544 15.1 0.95 --9--_TM 700 23 760 =7.13 ft 3
into equation
4320 - 2000 = Wv [0.42 (642 - 520) + 178 + 0.18 (660 - 642)] g/v = 10.0 lb Substitute into equation (5-4):
Vv-
10.0 x 0.95x Vv = 4.45 Substitute ft 3
_1544_ x 660 \921 23 760
into equation
(5-5):
15_
ROCKET ENGINES
Vg= 119 - 4.45= Substitute into equation
114.5 (5-6):
ft 3
23 760 x 110.76 W'= (_) x 660
= 10.65 lb Substitute into equation (5-10): 660) - 600
4320 = 10.65 1.25 (Tg-
4320 + 600 Tg- 10.65 x 1.25 + 660 = 1030 R FF VALVE 5.2 STORED GAS SYSTEMS REGULATOR TO MAIN PROPELLANT TANKS Figure S-t.-Helium pressurization heating. system without
Stored gas pressurization systems are widely used in numerous combinations. The gas is usually stored in a vessel at pressures ranging from 3000 to 5000 psi and supplied to the propellant feed system at a specified pressure level controlled by a regulator. These systems have achieved a high level of reliability. In earlier systems, compressed nitrogen gas was frequently used or even air (German V-2), mainly for logistics and supply reasons. As it became more readily available, helium gas found increased usage because of its substantially lower molecular weight and thus reduced total pressurant weight, and its superiority as an inert agent, with very low boiling point. For hydrogen-fueled engine systems, reliable compressed hydrogen gas systems have been successfully developed. In general, the most important design requirements for a stored gas system are: low molecular weight of the gas, high gas density under storage conditions, minimum residual gas weight, and high allowable stress-to-density ratio of the storage vessel material. Since helium systems are now the most widely used ones, the following discussions will be based on them.
to the main propellant tanks. This has the advantage of great simplicity. However, the weight of the system is relatively high because of the lower temperature and thus lower specific volume of the gas. 2. HeJium system using thrust chamber heat exchangers.-This system, which is used in the design for the A-3 and A-4 stage propulsion systems, consists of a high-pressure helium storage vessel, a start and shutoff valve, manifolded thrust chamber heat exchangers, and a pressure regulator. A typical schematic is shown in figure 5-2. The heat exchangers are part of the thrust chamber divergent nozzle section and absorb heat from the thrust chamber combustion process. From overall performance and weight considerations it is considered preferable to locate the heat exchanger in the high-pressure portion of the system. The volume increase of the gas due to heating reduces the mass required for tank pressurization. However, a considerable quantity of cold, high-density helium still remains in the storage vessel at the end of the system operation. 3. Helium cascade system.-The cascade system shown schematically in figure 5-3 is an
Discussion
of Commonly
Used
Configurations
1. Helium system without heating.-This pressurization system is shown schematically in figure 5-1. It consists of a high-pressure storage vessel, a start and shutoff valve, and a pressure regulator. Regulated helium is ducted directly
SYSTEMS
157
all-helium pressurization system minimize
designed
to
the weight penalty resulting from coolSystem com-
ing of the helium during expansiou.
ponents include helium storage vessels of equal high-pressure level but of different sizes, two of which are divided internally by a flexible diaheat exchangers, a phragm, three thrust chamber
start and shutoff valve, and a pressure regulator. During operation of the system, helium flows from the firstand smallest vessel, through a heat exchanger, _ START AND SHUTOFF VALVE and displaces completely The the helium in the intermediate vessel. helium
in the intermediate vessel in turn flows through
II li
THRUST HEAT
a second The
heat exchanger
and completely
dis-
CHAMBER
places the helium in the last and largest vessel. latter flows through a third heat exchanger At and pressurizes the main propellant tanks.
EXCHANGERS
the end of the operation, only the small storage vessel contains low-temperature, high-density helium, while the two large storage vessels contain relatively warm low-density helium. systems This contrasts with the preceding in which The
REGULATOR
TO MAIN PROPELLANT TANKS Figure 5-2.-Helium thrust chamber pressurization heat system using
orie large storage vessel remains partially filled with low-temperature, high-density helium. disadvantages weight 4. storage ically and Helium in figure storage or other a start helium storage for larger vessels during the tanks, of cascade systems are high complexity. system with heating is inside shown the schemat-
exchangers.
vessel.-This
system
5-4 and consists vessel and This assuring vessel. containing shutoff system to the main relatively
of a high-pressure a heat device valve, provides propellant warm and exmounted a prestanks, residual are higher
(_HELIUM
helium changer internally, _THRUST CHAMBER sure
heat-generating
regulator.
temperature simultaneously gas the in the need
Disadvantages
and more complex the possibility of liquid hydrogen for the gas
high-pressure of control hydrogen can pro-
storage problems For pellant in place above.
and
operation. stored be used
pressurization
of helium
systems
described
Calculations t ..... / /
START AND SHUTOFF
for Stored calculations to the gross net
Gas
Requirements discussed in section quantity tanks. gas on the stored also of
._'
_ REGULATOR
TO MAIN PROPELLANT TANKS
The 5.1 gas apply
design only the
or effective the propellant of the depends
VALVE Figure 5-3.-Helium cascade system.
required
to pressurize weight system
However, required
for a given
158
ROCKET ENGINES
38O 370 360 350 340 330 HEAT EXCHANGER Ap (IOOPSI) 320 VALVE (3. I hl n"I- MIN. HELIUM TANK -T PRESS. 3 70 PSIA LINE Ap --_-__MIN. HEAT EXCH, INLET PRESS. 3 54 PSlA --
E_
REGULATOR
260
TO MAIN PROPELLANT Figure 5-4.-Helium heaters
TANKS system vessel, using
25O (/) W 240 n_ EL 23O 220 210
LINEIP REGULATOR,'%9(75 PSI)
pressurization in storage
system operation, range Based total expressed
design, and within
on the on which the the
expansion environmental system
process must
during
2O0 190 180 170 160 LINE-AP PROPELLANT TANK PRESS. 165 PSIA
temperature function. the be burnout, can
on conditions or gross by stored the
at systems gas following
requirement correlation:
T
PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM
Stored
gas
gross_
Net
system
pressurant
requirement
requirement Residual +various exchangers, these defined additions as the gas lines, in heat etc. is the ratio of (5-13) Figure stage 5-5.-Estimated oxidizer tank pressure pressurization drops for A-4 system.
Residual storage
gas vessel
in
A parameter pressurant gross in the surant stored storage utilized:
to define use gas factor,
sure drops with tion, this
drops. for the thrust A-4 a safety case, when psia. the
Figure stored stage chamber margin mission
5-5 shows helium heating engine
estimated which was tank. provided.
pressure system selected In addiIn
pressurization oxidizer
requirement to the
or initial net weight
gas weight of pres-
vessel
for the
is usually is assumed vessel is provided 5-4, would
to be compressure inside the decays the
Pressurant_ use factor
_ Gross stored gas requirement System pressurant net requirement
(5-14)
pleted to 400 vessel,
the
storage source
If a heating as in a storage pressurization system vessel syspres-
shown gas
in figure within
expansion
The required tem is
lowest
pressure operate by the
level the
process For
of the
be polytropic. the gas storage can be
to safely determined
a system the
without expansion
heating process
inside of the
individual
vessel,
SYSTEMS
159
assumed ferred equation derived the storage
to be isentropic; between (1-13) gas the and
i.e., vessel
no heat walls. correlation gas
is From
trans-
Volume regulator,
of the 0.4 of heat of lines
helium ft 3
lines
downstream
of
following the final
can
be in
Volume Volume Pressurant
exchangers, between regulator, 2 percent and
1.0 storage
ft 3 vessel, heat
to calculate vessel:
temperature
exchangers n-__A T__ Q___) T1 = " (5-15) Assuming calculate (a) storage-vessel the Oxidizer an
negligible expansion process,
reserve, isentropic following: tank volume, calculation tank volume, calculation tank volume, but as process c(_c_), ut b with
pressurant and use (5-1). pressurant and use (5-1). pressurant and use heat without
gross factor,
weight, for case
where T_ =initial T 2 = final Pt =initial P2 =final n =exponent process The treatment tropic For regulator process ature tially further propellant that exchanger exponent and expansion most and that remains comes n is verified analyses an adiabatic lines. the total estimated during analytical For found isenexperimentally. n = 1.67. been process adequate of this tempergas essentank assumed equal to heat and initial no it has flow It is helium helium helium helium temperature temperature pressure pressure in the in the in the in the vessel, vessel, vessel, vessel, expansion psia psia R R
(a) of sample (b_) Oxidizer storage-vessel (b) of sample (C) Oxidizer storage-vessel start (d) expansion vessel. operation Same
gross factor,
weight, for case
for the
polytropic
gross factor
weight, for single
exchangers. a polytropic in the storage
assuming n = 1.2
of helium,
to assume
through Solution The following calculations establish the requirements for the oxidizer tank, which in the A-4 stage has the higher minimum sure requirement. mass and volumes storage pres-
a characteristic
(or "stagnation") Since in the takes place the
constant. to rest
propellant it is is
compression tank outlet tank
following
pressurization, temperature temperature. temperature lower the the upper storage weight limit vessel
To this required pressurant for fuel tank pressurization,
propellant
purges and valve actuations will have to be range is limit specified must rethe tank environmenpresexpansion volnet storage be added. (a_)A net pressurant requirement of 9.79 pounds case is obtained from sample calculation (5-i), of the to be (a). Temperature and pressure of the residare assumed
If an operating for a system, used quired, pressure. pressurant tal surization process to calculate while gas Thus, gas the
temperature
of pressurant determines for a given propellant a wider of the in a heavier
ume of the
ual pressurant in the lines downstream regulators following shutdown the same gases at system
for a stated requirement, range by results the gas. regardless
as those of the propellant tank ullage burnout (700 R and 23 760 gas weight in these lines then
temperature followed
system,
psfa). Residual is
Sample The helium oxidizer
Calculation following pressurization tank: range start, vessel in the 400
5-2 data are given for the A-4 stored stage at It is further start, 4500 residual run storage psia vessel at system tank pressure storage inlet is assumed conditions, that of the or 400 that in the the heat temperature exchangers helium Thus of the is that in the of at the
system in the
of the storage R at system
Temperature system Storage psia Pressure burnout,
vessel
500o-560 pressure
pressurant
or 995 R, and residual psia.
vessel,
a value
160
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
ix400x144 --_I x 995
= 015 .
Ib
the tank
lines
are gas
the
same
as
those
in the is
propellant psfa),
at system
burnout weight 0.4
(660_ in these
R and lines
23 760
residual
is obtained Substituting operating helium perature vessel
for these the
residuals. lower and limit the of the initial (5-15), in the system and the final temThe heat inlet
1.67--I
23 760
=-0.037
lb
temperature, pressures of the at system into residual burnout
equation helium is
storage
temperature exchangers level, of the psia. then residual The
of the is
residual
pressurant to be at the the run pressure heat ex-
in the tank is
obtained:
assumed helium gas weight to:
or 1030 R, and that in the
that
storage
vessel,
T 2 = 500 x ( 400 \4500)
'_ 1.67
or 400 = 500 x (0.089) ' = 191R changers
in the
amounts
Using
equation
(5-13),
the
pressurant
volume
VL
i x 400 x 144 =0.145 lb
required for oxidizer be calculated, based perature 4500 limit
tank pressurization on the lower storage
can now temFrom equation are (5-13), pressurant using the volume lower VL
of 500 R: and mass ature limit: obtained, temper-
x 144 x V L =9.79+
400 144 x VL --0.035+0.15 _--_) x 191
4500 9.975 6.9 3.78 ft 3
x144
xVL =10.65+
400x [1544\
144xVL
{1544\x500
VL-0.374
x191
ft a
+0.037+0.145
Gross
pressurant
weight:
i,
10.832 L =_
_ - 4.2
x 1.02 = 12.95
lb Gross pressurant 4500 weight:
x 144 x 4.2 500
1 B2 = 14.45
lb
including Using (560 R), sel
2 percent the the upper required
reserve. start temperature of the is hmit storage vesincluding Required x 560x 12.95 -4.3 ft 3
Yn =
volume
for oxidizer
pressurization
calculated:
2 percent volume
reserve. of the storage vessel:
Vu=
4500x
144
(_)x560 4500 use
14.45 = 4.82 ft 3
x 144
From use factor:
equation
(5-14),
LOX
tank
pressurant Pressurant factor:
12.95 -9.79
14.45 = 1.325 10.65
- 1.36
(_b) From the net pounds.
sample
calculation requirement temperature is
(5-1), given and
case as pressure
(__, 10.65 in
(c_.) Without ature burnout of helium can
heat
exchangers, propellant
the tank
bulk
temperof the
pressurant Assuming
in the
at system
be expected
to be the
average
DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED-GAS PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
161
initial and final age vessel, or
helium
temperatures
in the stor-
Tg =
500 + 191 2 = 346 R
(_ The expansion process of helium in the storage vessel is assumed to be polytropic, with n= 1.2. From equation (5-14), the temperature of residual helium in the vessel at system burnout:
1.2--1
Since this temperature is lower than the propellant temperature, no heat loss from pressurant to propellant is assumed. The net pressurant weight required may then be calculated by equation (5-1): 23 760 119 Wg:/l_aa\ =21.2 x 346
T2=500x(400_ _4500]
12
= 500
2.73 4.--.'.[_7 336 R = in the propellant
The helium bulk temperature tank at system burnout:
Ib
Tg=500+336=418 2 The required net pressurant 119
weight:
The weight of residual system burnout: 0.4 23 760 x 346
helium
in the lines
at 23760 Big_ [_A_,\
= 0.071
lb The residual system burnout:
&)
helium
- 17.5 lb
X
418
weight
in the lines
at
From equation (5-13), pressurant volume VL and mass are obtained, based on the lower ambient temperature limit:
0.4 x 23 760
- 0.059
lb
4500 x 144 x VL "(__/500 =21,2+
400 144 x VL + Pressurant (_)191 0.071 lower ambient volume and mass, limit: 400x 144x VL based on the temperature
21.27 VL =_ = 8.25 ft 3 2,58 Gross pressurant weight =
4500x 144 x V L
(% ooo
, 17.56 L=_=6.01 ft 3 Gross pressurant weight:
+ 0.059
4500 x 144 x 8.25 500
x 1.02 = 28.2 lb
including 2 percent reserve. The required volume of the storage
vessel
is
4500x
144x 6.01
x 1.02 =20.6
lb
Vu =
-_)x560 28.2 4500 x 144 - 9.4 ft s
including 2 percent reserve. The required volume of the storage
vessel:
Pressurant use factor: 28.2 _=1.33 21.2 _1_4--) 560 20.6 4500 x 144 - 6.88 ft 3
Vu -
162
Pressurant
use factor: 20.6 --= 17.5
1.178
Experimental data indicate that gases of low molecular weight such as helium and hydrogen will not leak through homogeneous metals such as good-quality, hot-rolled stock or forgings. However, they can leak through porous metals such as may exist in castings and in welded joints. Good welding workmanship and effective leakage inspection are most important in the fabrication of storage vessels. Pressure Regulators For most pressurization systems a regulator of high accuracy is a necessity. Regulation becomes particularly difficult if gases with temperatures higher than 1200 R have to be handled, or if high flow rates or large pressure differentials are involved. Design detail of pressure regulators will be discussed in chapter VII. For some applications, a control system combining a pressure switch, a solenoid valve, and an orifice may be preferred. Thrust Chamber Heat Exchangers For helium systems using thrust-chamber NOZZLE WALL HEAT EXCHANGER
Design
of Stored Gas System
Components
Since system components can be expected to require relatively extensive development effort to achieve satisfactory performance and reliability, they require careful design considerations. This is especially true for large, high-pressure, lightweight, pressurant storage vessels, pressure regulators, and thrust chamber nozzle skirttype heat exchangers. Storage Vessels Because of the combined requirement of high pressure and light weight, pressurant storage vessels are generally spherical in shape and made of high-strength-to-weight materials. PH-15-7-MO stainless steel, 6A1-4V-titanium, and light aluminum liners wound with plastic filaments for strength, such as fiber glass, have been successfully employed as construction materials for the vessels. Design details for pressurant storage vessels will be further discussed in chapter VIII. For weight estimates in preliminary designs, it is assumed that the vessel is made of two hemispherical shells, and that the thickness of the weld lands can be accounted for by assuming a 3-inch-wide band of one-half the wall thickness total placed weight over the weld seam. Hence, the of the vessel can be estimated as: + 3,_dpm (0.5 pd/ 4s) (5-16)
heat
Wv = rrd2 pm (pd/4s) where
_.THRUST CHAMBER
Wv = weight of the vessel, lb d =inside diameter of the vessel, p s =maximum =allowable
in
storage pressure, psia working stress of the material,
psi pm =density of the material, lb/in 3 It is of prime importance in the design of stored gas systems that the storage vessel be capable of containing the gas at high pressure for long periods of time without loss by leakage. Frequent checking of the storage pressure or recharging is undesirable in most applications.
f
Figure 5-6.-Thrust chamber heat exchanger.
DESIGNOF PRESSURIZED-GASPROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
163
exchangers as shown in figure 5-2, the heat exchanger should be designed as an integral part of the thrust chamber expansion nozzle. As a rule, the heat exchanger is made of coiled tubing formed to fit the nozzle contour (fig. 5-6). The combustion-gas side heat-transfer coefficient can be determined by methods described in chapter IV. The heat conducted through the wall of the heat exchanger is assumed to be totally absorbed by the pressurant helium, raising its temperature. The determination of the heliumside heat-transfer coefficient and the design of the heat exchanger tubing are similar to the regeneratively cooled tubular wall thrust chamber analyses. The number of tube turns for the heat exchanger is a function of the helium temperature rise required and of the heat exchanger location at the nozzle. The various operating parameters of a thrust chamber heat exchanger can be correlated by the following equation:
compatibility with the main chamber nozzle wall. Firm attachment of the heat exchanger to the nozzle wall is mandatory, since heat exchanger efficiency depends on intimate contact. Selection of tube thickness must be based on pressure and thermal stress conditions.
Sample
Calculation
(5-3)
The following data are given for the design of the pressurant heat exchangers for the A-4 stage engine thrust chamber nozzle extension, when located at the station of area ratio = 10, and used in parallel: Helium flow rate through each heat exchanger, I_h = 0.024 lb/sec (considers requirements for both tanks and for other uses) Helium specific heat ratio, y= 1.67 Helium specific heat at constant pressure, Cp = 1.25 Mean temperature of helium at heat exchanger inlet, Ti = 346 R Mean temperature of helium at heat exchanger outlet, To : 1030 R (from sample calculation (5-1), case (_) Combustion-gas side adiabatic wall temperature, Taw = 4900 R Combustion-gas side heat transfer coefficient, fig--5.7 Calculate: x 10 -s (Btu/in:-sec-deg F)
WhCp (To - Ti)
(5-17)
where Cp Ti To A hg =helium flow rate, lb/sec = specific heat at constant helium, Btu/lb-deg F =mean helium temperature changer inlet, R =mean helium temperature changer outlet, R =effective area of the heat pressure at heat of ex-
at heat exexchanger, in:
(.E) Heat exchanger tube dimensions, assuming it to be made of 13V-11Cr-3AC titanium alloy with the following physical characteristics, at a recommended maximum working temperature range of 1400-1550 R: Minimum yield strength, Sy : 40 000 psi Modulus of elasticity, E-- 12 106 psi Thermal conductivity, k= 2.04 x 10 -4 Btu/in 2sec-deg F/in Coefficient of thermal expansion, a : 5.0 10 -_ in/in-deg F Poisson's ratio, v: 0.33 (b) Number tubing. of turns of the heat exchanger
=combustion-gas side heat transfer coefficient, Btu/in2-sec-deg F ha =helium-side heat transfer coefficient, Btu/in2-sec-deg F t = heat exchanger tube wall thickness, in k = thermal conductivity of the tube material, Btu/in:-sec-deg F/in Taw : combustion-gas side adiabatic wall temperature, R Heat exchanger design must consider that the temperature of the helium leaving the heat exchanger at any given time depends on the storage vessel exit temperature. The choice of heat exchanger tube material must be made with consideration of its brazing
Solution (_a) The wall temperature at given sections of the heat exchanger will vary directly with the bulk temperature of the helium in these sections. Maximum wall temperature occurs at the heat
164
exchanger
outlets.
A mean combustion-gas
side
wall temperature (Twg) at the outlets of 1400 R is allowed. From equation (4-I0), the heat flux at that section is: q = hg (Taw - Twg) = 5.7 x 10 .5 (4900-
Inside tubing diameter, d = 0.44 inck. Check for combined pressure and thermal stresses at the heat exchanger outlet (neglecting bending stress), using equation (4-27), and assuming bending stress due to discontinuities to be negligible
1400) = 0.2 Btu/in 2 sec St- (Pco - Pg) r + 2 (1-v)k Eaqt t
A tube wall thickness (t) of 0.05 inch isused. This will be checked further below for compatibility with pressure and thermal stresses. From equation (4-19), the mean helium-side wall temperature is tq Twc= Twg --_ = 1400 0.05x0.2 - 1350 R 2.04 x 10 -4 heat
4500 x (--_) 0.44 0.05 = 19800+2200= 4
12 x 106 x 5.0 x 10-6 x 0.2 x 0.05 2 (1 - 0.33) x 2.04 x 10 -4 22000 psia
Using equation transfer coefficient q -Tco)
(4-20), the helium-side is calculated as 0.2 - (13501030)
The combined pressure and thermal stresses at the heat exchanger inlet are now checked. It can be assumed that the difference between the combustion-gas side wall temperature and the helium bulk temperature remains approximately constant throughout the heat exchanger. Then: F Twg at the inlet = 1400- (1030- 346) = 716 R (mean temperature) Heat flux q at the inlet = 5.7 10 -s (4900- 716) = 0.239 Btu/in2-sec Combined stress St at the inlet
hh = hc =(Twc
= 6.25 x 10 -4 Btu/in2-sec-deg Equation (4-15) permits determination Prandtl number of the flowing helium: 47 Pr= 9---_= 4xl.67 9 x 1.67_ of the
5:0.665 according to
= 19800+
2200 x (_) psi
The viscosity of the helium equation (4-16) is: _=(46.6 #=46.6 x 10-1)x_ST 6
= 19800+2630=22430
Therefore, it is safe to use the selected tube size of 0.440-inch inside diameter and 0.050-inch wall thickness, with sufficient margin for the fact that the heat exchanger helium inlet temperature will be higher than the maximum at the beginning of the process. (b_) From equation (5-17), the required effective area for each heat exchanger element ss A = 0.024 1.25 (1030 - 346) 1 5.Tx10-s 0.05 + 1 2.0410 -4 6.25_10 1030-346 4900 2 at area )
x 10-1 x 4 _ x (1030) _ =60.2 x 10 -8 lb/in-sec (4-25)
From equation
hh: p2 3
0.029 Cp# 2 (GO.S._(Tco_
6.25 x 10-4 = 0.029 x 1.25 x (60.2 x 10-s) 2 (0.665) 2`,3 (4 *___hh_ s
-d
=95in
d0_
d 1.8= 0.235
x(103o .ss
k1--_-6-)
The nozzle diameter A-4 chamber is:
ratio = I0 of the in
D = Dt x V1--0-=7.18 x _/i-G= 22.7
DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED-GAS
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEM_
165
Assuming face number as the
40 percent effective heat
of the
internal
tube area, required
surthe is:
and
mass
transfer which and rate average ullage
processes in turn are
within
the
main by
pro-
exchanger tube 95 turns
pollant tank, pressurant a given the and tank, tank
influenced temperatures. propellant the be
of heat A
exchanger
environmental flow gas rate
For in vent, foltank the estab-
of evaporation
of the through
N=
- 2.42 0.44 x0. 4
turns
reD x rrd x 0.4
_2 x 22.7x
or vapor correlation
condition, can
lowing lished: 5.3 PROPELLANT This stable, such which able such as as concept low normal cryogenics EVAPORATION is practical boiling and used. of low point near only SYSTEMS for thermally for suitwhere
steady-state
tkPv WP-pRT
(We-Wv) N (5-18)
propellants,
cryogenics,
it is widely for cryogenics hydrogen.
It is particularly molecular weight,
_Pp = required propellant Ib/sec
flow
rate
per
engine
bled
off for
tank pressurization, Ib/sec
[Pe =rate of propellant evaporation in the tank, Application in Pump-Fed Systems for pump-fed
OA_EOU$ *[0 _AIN NI'I FUEL _OGEN
Propellant evaporation systems engines usually employ downstream exchanger, ize the were engine used ized is the as exchanger the main of the pump after which propellant Figure used The source. is bled of the As shown the tank pressurant is provided oxidizer located oxidizer stage the of the thrust thrust of the exchanger of the of this from
propellants tapped off

TANK -_ _ I_ MOT G4S FRO_ E_AUST
and vaporized in a heat they are used to pressurtank 5-7 from shows exhaust Sometimes directly from which they pump-fed gases the the passage cooled in figures A-2 stage tapped turbine The by fuel main off
EXHAUST
_,*$EOU$
OXY6EN
TO M,L{N
TURBINE
withdrawn. design system. heat
a typicalheat are vapormanifold if it thrust 3-3
in an LOjRP-1 turbine
uoo.o,,.. ..---..
propellant coolant
downstream chamber. and 5-8, oxidizer downstream in a heat haust fuel hot fold tubes. lated tors. both series, regulator The vaporization determined the pump binations, The cases, if a narrow duct tank hydrogen
chamber
cooling
in a regeneratively schematically for the by oxygen pump at the turbopump. is pressurized
and
vaporized exmain bleeding maniFigure
OUCT
5-7.-Typical
heat
exchanger
design.
chamber chamber tanks 5-8, is can
downstream The as by pressure latter band flow
cooling be regucom-
pressure shown are
of both switch/solenoid in figure often
valve
or by regulaparticularly essential. may with valve bled for is rate at heat Figure 5-8.-A-2 zation stage system propellant schematic. tank pressuriIn in r_ibr" : or [ cox._., ft be used
preferred, orifices
of regulation limiting reliability, to fail flow tank
for increased design-biased required and by inlet the
open. rate
propellant main main
pressurization flow and by the
propellant outlet),
(or tank
166
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
Wv = average lb/sec = main pump p R T N =density =gas
flow
rate
through
the
tank
vent,
(b) engine,
The bled
required
steady-state tank
flow
rate,
per
off for fuel
pressurization.
propellant inlet, of the tank R constant
flow lb/sec liquid of the of the
rate
(per
engine)
at Solution
propellant, lb/ft 2 propellant tank in the ullage system
lb/ft vapor, gas,
3 (a_) The ft-lb/ R state lb/ft is 3, the 1544/32= Substitute equation flow (5-18) rate density gas 48.2 this of liquid ft-lb and qb-deg data the oxygen gaseous R. given above into steadypressurant: is 71.38 oxygen constant of the
PT :propellant lb-deg =temperature =number
pressure,
of engines
to obtain of evaporated
required oxidizer
Sample The A-2
Calculation following engine oxidizer 290.5 oxidizer of oxidizer
(5-4) data and flow tank were vehicle rate established systems at pump (table for the during b(.b) The inlet, per lb/ft drogen tank, 1.6 equation state flow 3, and is Substitute (5-18) rate 3-3) 45 psia in the density the 1544/4 this gas of the constant and data the = 386 to obtain of the liquid hydrogen gaseous R. above fuel into steadypressurant: is 4.42 hyWp= 290.Sx45x144 71 .---_--8_ 4{_.2 x-2"20 (1.6-1.64)_2.50 4 lb/sec
stage Main Main Rate lb/sec Average vent,'
steady-state
operation
conditions:
of the given
engine,
lb/sec
ft-lb/lb-deg required
pressure,
evaporation
evaporated
flow 1.64
rate lb/sec of the
through oxidizer
the
oxidizer tank ullage
tank i. gas, 59.838144 P - _-_ x _g _-i-20 (42-6"6)--2.21b/sec 4
Temperature 220 R Main 59.8 Main Rate fuel fuel flow tank
rate (table
per 3-3)
engine, 38 psia in the
at pump
inlet, fer
It is instance,
noted 71.0 consider
that
some lower
engine propellant and that vented 4.4
specialists densities; for LH 2. and to atmosphere, because
prefor These vehicle
lb/sec of fuel
to use
slightly the
pressure,
for LOX fact when
evaporation
tank,
4.2
values containers, tank
storage
lb/sec Average vent, Temperature 120 z R Number Calculate: (a_) The required steady-state engine, bled off for oxidizer tank IFor fire hazard reasons, vehicle flow rate, per pressurization. design very of engines in the vehicle system, 4 fuel z 6.6 flow lb/sec of the fuel tank ullage gas, rate through the fuel
even positive
have valve
small
pressures resulting
of vent increased later require engine
resistance,
in slightly However,
propellant engine input absolute tank ularly is not storage anticipated. corrections
temperatures. calibration-run for a number consistent probably It is regulation throughout method, for the allow
since will
evaluations of run-to-run usage
deviations, is value.
of design than out that particgas rate their
parameters pressure
more further
important pointed venting, onboard
through the since
if used must
systems
duration, vent
likely will require provisions to prevent venting during first stage boost. Also, during regulated A-2 stage operation, venting should normally not occur, as it would be a performance loss. However, as a pressurization system performance margin it is well to lay out the system on the basis of some vent losses. Also, in cryogenic systems it may be desirable to increase the tank pressures toward the end of stage operation to improve pump NPSH conditions, when the upper tank layer, in which somewhat warmer liquid may have accumulated, is about to reach the pump. This can be simply done by opening an orificed bypass around the regulator, using the vent valve liftoff pressure as the regulating factor.
an efficient
maximum
Applications Systems The tems result
in Pressurized
Gas
Propellant
Feed
application
of propellant propellant Evaporation storage
evaporation feed systems can vessel
sysis weight,
to pressurized limited. in lower
somewhat
systems
pressurant
_ SYSTEMS
DESIGNOF PRESSURIZED-GAS PROPELLANT-FEED
167
as compared to stored gas systems, because of higher storage densities and lower storage pressures. However, this can be offset by the higher required pressurant weight per unit volume, particularly for propellants with higher molecular weight. For hydrogen, the principal propellant with low molecular weight, another limitation exists because of the low critical pressure. To obtain reasonable volume increases due to vaporization, the tank pressure must be kept sufficiently below the critical pressure. It must be further considered that the propellant evaporation concept, when applied to pressure-fed systems, requires a pressurization system within a pressurization system, since a separate stored gas is required to expel the pressurant from the storage vessel as a liquid, after which it is vaporized in a heat exchanger. This system comprises a relatively complicated array of components, line assemblies, heat exchangers, and support structures. It is further complicated because of the auxiliary pressurization system required to initiate the main propulsion system operation. As shown schematically in figure g-6, the main fuel tank of the A-3 stage propulsion system is pressurized by evaporated hydrogen supplied from a separate liquid hydrogen storage vessel which in turn is pressurized by the stored helium gas. The hydrogen pressurant is vaporized in the heat exchangers, located at the thrust chamber nozzle extensions. For the various reasons stated, the propellant vaporization principle will be used only for the fuel tank of the A-3 stage, for which it still appears attractive because of the relatively low pressure levels selected, and the low molecular weight of hydrogen. The A-3 oxidizer tank will be pressurized by stored helium gas. This decision was further influenced by the difficulty in handling gaseous fluorine and by its toxicity.
solubility in the propellants (nitrogen in liquid oxygen) and a storage temperature significantly lower than that of the propellants (liquid helium). The system design for this concept is similar to that of the propellant evaporation systems.
5.5 SYSTEMS USING PRODUCTS CHEMICAL REACTIONS
OF
Pressurization systems using hot gaseous products generated from solid or liquidpropellants have been successfullydeveloped forthe storableliquid propellantengine systems. Another technique used with noncryogenics is the main propellant tank injection pressurization system. Here a hypergolic fluid is injected into the tank products tank. and pressurization is provided by the of the reaction occurring within the
These methods are not applicable to cryogenic propellants because the products of reaction, such as water, will solidify, and because the heat of combustion will raise undesirably the bulk temperature of the cryogenic propellant. EspeciaiIy in the ease of liquid hydrogen, bulk heating cannot be tolerated because of its limited liquid range (normal boiling point to critical point). Two important considerations for the application of combustion products for pressurization are: propellant compatibility and gas temperature level. Except for very short operating durations (few seconds), fuel-rich hot gases are used for fuel tanks, to prevent reactions. Similarly, oxidizer-rich hot gases are applied to oxidizer tanks. The temperature of the product gas pressurant should be maintained at, or should be cooled to, a level below 1200 F.
Solid Propellant Systems
Gas Generator
Pressurization
5.4 SYSTEMS EVAPORATING NONPROPELLANTS This type of pressurization system has not been employed frequently.Two types of inert cryogenics could be considered applicable: liquid nitrogenand liquid helium. Both have definitedisadvantages which would generally preclude their use in nonpropellant evaporation systems. The main disadvantages are their
Severaleffective solid-propellant gas-generator systems have been developed fortank pressurizationof prepackaged storable liquid propulsion systems. Pressurant gas temperatures up to 3000 F and tank pressures up to 2000 psia have been proven successful for short-duration applications. This pressurization method is primarily employed for its inherent simplicity, low production cost, long-term storability, relatively light
_m
168
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
system weight, and compactness. The system is usually composed of two electrically fired initiators, or squibs, a charge of igniter pellets, safety and arming devices, a pressure-relief-type regulator, and the propellant grains. A device to cool the hot gases may be required in specific applications. Figure 5-9 shows a typical design. The solid-propellant gas-generator assembly is enclosed in an insulated steel housing. This housing is installed within an aluminum casing, which in turn is an integral part of the propellant tank constructed of aluminum alloy. The gas generator unit is completely integrated into a compact package ready for testing, storage, and installation into the propulsion system, with minimum effort and maximum safety. All gas outlets are hermetically sealed with burst dia-
phragms to maintain system long storage periods.
reliability
even after
Upon ignition, the propellant grains are ignited by the igniter pellets. Combustion starts and produces pressurization gases for the duration for which the propellant grains were designed. The burning rate of the grain, and in turn the gas pressure level of a solid propellant system, is affected by grain bulk temperature. Within a given service temperature range, the grain is designed to produce required gas pressures and flow rates at the lower temperature limit. When operating at a higher temperature, the pressure level will be maintained by a regulator which vents all excess gases overboard. The required grain charge is sized for full propulsion system operating duration at the upper temperature limit, at which maximum grain burning rate occurs.
OXIDIZER
TANK
O-RING
SEALS
ISOLATION DIAPHRAGM DIAPHRAGM
PROPELLANT _URST
PELLETS INHIBITOR
INHIBITOR PERFORATED SUPPORT PLATE
DIAPHRAGM
PREssuRERELIEF TYPE REGULATOR
SQUIB MOLDED CHOPPED PHENOLIC
-/_- O- RING GAS SEAL
PROPELLANT GRAINS
_AS GENERATOR HOUSING _8-7-5 STEEL /--FF-34 FORMICA INSULATION EXPULSION DIAPHRAGM
DIFFUSER /_OXIDIZER
PROPELLANT
TANK
WALL
Figure
5-9.-Typical
solid
propellant
gas generator
pressurization
system.
169
The selection and design of solid propellant gas generator pressurization systems must consider potential problem areas, notably the following: (1) Chemical and temperature compatibility of the gases with the propellants (2) Pressure regulation difficulties (3) System clogging by solid particles carried in the gas stream (4) Lack of restart capability (5) Requirement to vent gas rapidly in the event of premature engine cutoff. A brief discussion of several solid propellant systems follow: commonly used FILTER_ VENT_--J __PRESS-RELIEF '-r' REGULATOR _ORIFICE V TO MAIN PROPELLANT TANK 5-10.-Solid TYPE OR _ w_.,--_ SOLID IGNITER WITH PROPELLANT
1. Solid propellant gas generator system without cooling.-This system is shown schematically in figure 5-10 and consists of a solid propellant charge, including igniter, filter, and hot gas regulator or orifice. This system is suitable mainly for relatively short durations. Upon ignition, hot gases are fed through the filter, regulated, and ducted to the main propellant tanks. The regulator dumps excess gas overboard, for which a vent line must be provided. As an alternate, an orifice may be installed in place of the regulator. In the latter case, the engine thrust level is a direct function of the solid gas generator pressure which in turn is a function of environmental temperature. 2. Solid propellant gas generator system with solid coolant.-This system (fig. 5-11) consists of a solid propellant charge and igniter, a sublimating solid coolant, a filter and a regulator. In operation, the hot gases generated are cooled as they pass through a bed of solid material, subjecting it to decomposition or sublimation. Thus the cooling process simultaneously results in additional gases available for pressurization. The gases finally pass through a filter and are regulated and dueted to the main propellant tanks. In a typical design an ammonium nitrate base propellant is used with a theoretical flame temperature of 2320 F. Oxalic acid pressed into pellets is the solid coolant. This chemical decomposes endothermically at temperatures above 250 F, producing a mixture of CO, CO:, and H20. The desired temperature level of the mixed product gases is achieved through selection of the propellant to coolant ratio. Final gas temperatures as low as 400 F have been obtained.
Figure
propellant gas generator out cooling.
with-
_--- SOLID
PROPELLANT
ID COOLANT
FILTE VENT PRESSURE-RELIEF TYPE REGULATOR
TO MAIN PROPELLANT Figure
TANK sys-
5-11.-Solid propellant gas generator tem with solid coolant.
170
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
3. azide of' this hot of azide
Solid cooling system
propellant pack.-The are cooled
gas
generator principal in figure passing However,
system components 5-12. through and the the gas
with
tems
is
in providing
relatively
pure level
nitrogen (as low as
gas
at a reasonable 600 F). 4. sists with Helium
temperature
shown when wluch
Here, a bed yields
gases
are material
system
with
solid system helium
propellant (fig. storage 5-13)
gas convessel
decomposes
generator
heating.-This
essentially leaving with sition the metal of the
pure azide particles
nitrogen. pack resulting These The to the of these
of a high-pressure a solid-propellant a filter, and
is often have
contaminated from decompoto be removed are then propellant filtered regutanks. sys-
gas
generator
mounted regulator. both is the storage heat need
internally, The gas.
a pressure provides additional system
azide. separator.
solid-propellant expansion large, A disadvantage
charge and of this
in a cyclone to remove lated, The and any
gases
for helium
pressurizing
remaining
particles, main
directed
advantage
pressurization
for a relatively vessel.
high-pressure
Liquid Systems
Propellant
Gas
Generator
Pressurization
SOLID PROPELLANT CHARGE
Both propellant cessfully
liquid gas
monopropellant generators have
and liquid been used gases
bisucin
for generating
pressurant
-_//
AZI DE PACK
\\\\\
\\\\\
!
SEPARATOR I CYCLONE
_FI
LTER DUMP TYPE
JL
,.-.-..-, REGULATOR
#
TO MAIN PROPELLANT TANKS
Figure 5-i2.-Solid tem with propellant azide cooling gas generator pack. sysFigure
#
TO MAIN PROPELLANT 5-13.-Helium gas system generator TANKS with heating. solid propellant
i :_
171
engine systems with relatively long operating durations. The selection and design of a gas generation system must consider propellant compatibility, operating temperature limits of propellants and tank materials, and gas molecular weight. Among the monopropellants, hydrazine is considered the most satisfactory with respect to chemical characteristics and molecular weight of the product gases. The decomposition products of hydrazine can be made even lighter by catalytic decomposition of the ammonia component. The gases contain no carbon, deposits of which could lower the heat transfer rate if a heat exchanger is used for cooling. The theoretical gas decomposition temperature of pure hydrazine is 1800 F. Additives can be used to reduce the temperature level. To meet the requirement for compatibility with the propellant, bipropetlant gas generators possess the flexibility of operation at either fuel-rich or oxidizer-rich conditions. Thus the same propellant combination duce both a fuel-compatible can be used to proand an oxidizer-
weight. However, if excess fuel is injected to lower the temperature to well below 1000 F, this benefit is not obtained, resulting in a gas with high molecular weight which readily condenses. Liquid-propellant gas-generator pressurization systems, some of which will now be discussed, require relatively complex components and controls. Their selection and application is determined mainly from vehicle mission requirements, such as long operating duration, restart, etc. 1. Single gas generator system with injection cooling.-Here, a single generator provides pressurant gas for both the fuel and the oxidizer tank. The liquids employed consist of either a monopropellant and a nonreacting injection coolant, or a bipropellant combination with cooling achieved by injecting an excess of one propellant. As shown in figure 5-14, system components include a small, high-pressure helium gas storage vessel assembly (including start, relief, and fill valves), a pressure regulator, two liquid storage vessels, and a gas generator assembly (including controls). This system is potentially simple and reliable. The product gases are cool enough for use in the propellant tanks. The difficulty is to find a combination of liquids that will produce a product gas meeting all requirements, including compatibility with both propellants. It has been demonstrated, however, that fuel-rich gases can
compatible pressurant gas. For instance, nitrogen tetroxide in combination with hydrazine, UDMH, and various other amine fuels permits hypergolic starting and stable operation in either fuel- or oxidizer-rich modes. Several avenues are open to meet the pressurant gas temperature requirement. The aforementioned flexibility to operate at either fuel- or oxidizer-rich conditions has the additional advantage to combust well off stoichiometric mixture ratios, resulting in lower temperatures. A limitation exists if one of the bipropellants is also a monopropellant which continues to decompose exothermically. The cooling effect can also be obtained by injecting into the hot gases a given amount of noncombustible liquid which absorbs heat when evaporating. A third method of cooling is heat exchange with one of the liquid propellants in a heat exchanger. This can be applied with essentially any propellant combination, provided the cooling liquid can safely absorb the heat transferred from the gas. The requirement of low molecular weight will be met by most fuel-rich product gases if they are at approximately 1000 F, where the complex organic compounds composing most fuels are cracked into simple gases of low molecular
(_R
HELIUM
EGULATOR
GAS
GENERATOR
L ts uSED
P_LLA_T Figure 5-14.-Single tor system
TO
MAIN
TA_KS
liquid propellant gas generawith injection cooling.
172
be used
to pressurize
storable
oxidizers.
For
instance, ammonia-rich, ammonia-nitrogen tetroxide gas generator products and hydrazine decomposition products with either water or ammonia injection have been successfully applied as the pressurant for storable oxidizers. 2. Single gas generator-helium system.Figure 5-15 shows the main components comprising this system. The number of propellant tanks depends on whether a monopropellant or bipropellant gas generator is used. The hot gas generator products are ducted to a heat exchanger where heat is transferred to the cold helium. The heated and expanded helium gas is then used to pressurize the main oxidizer tanks, while the gas generator gases are used to pressurize the main fuel tank. While the system efficiently uses the available heat for both tanks, it has the disadvantages of requiring a moderate-size, highpressure helium storage vessel and of pressure regulation problems. 3. Dual bipropellant gas generator system with injection cooling.-The major components for this system are shown in figure 5-16. During operation, fuel and oxidizer are fed to the gas generators by pressurizing the auxiliary propellant tanks with helium. One gas generator operates with excess fuel injection to produce relatively cool, fuel-rich gases which are used directly to pressurize the main fuel tank. The second gas generator operates with excess oxi-
HELIUM
AUXILIARY PROPELLANT TANKS
FUELGAS GENERATOR - RICH "_
R ICH
G/LS GENERATOR
OXIDIZER
TO
MAIN
TO
MAIN FUEL
OXIDIZER TAN K
TAN K
Figure
5-16.-Dual bipropellant gas system with injection cooling.
generator
dizer injection to produce relatively cool, oxidizer-rich gases which are used directly to pressurize the main oxidizer tank. A design problem is produced by the need to balance the output of the two gas generators and to provide proper pressure control in both tanks. Gas temperatures as low as 600 F have been successfully generated with these systems.
Main PropellantTank DirectInjection Pressurization Systems The directinjectionsystems employ injection of small quantities fueland oxidizerintothe of main oxidizerand fueltanks,respectively. Following hypergolicreaction, the pressurizing gases are thus produced withinthe main propellanttanks themselves. The fuel system (fig. 5-17) includes a small, high-pressure helium storage vessel assembly, a helium pressure regulator, and two small auxiliary propellant tanks from which propellants are injected into the main tanks. The series injection system (fig. 5-18) consists of only one auxiliary oxidizer tank for main fuel tank pressurization, or vice versa, instead of two separate auxiliary tanks for each main tank. The series system takes advantage of the situation where one of the main propellant tanks can operate at a slightly lower pressure than the other. In the case shown in Figure 5-18, a small quantity of the main fuel supply is fed through a regulator to the main
REGULATOR
-]
/ x PROPELLANT
SECOND PROPELLANT TANK (BIPROPELLANT GAS GENERATOR)_
I....
TAINK
L._ EXCHANGER HEAT
ENERATOR
:t
OXIDIZER TANK TO
1
FUEL TANK
TO
Figure 5-15.-Single liquid propellant tor helium system.
gas genera-
,a mml
DESIGN OF PRESSURIZED-GAS PROPELLANT. FEED SYSTEMS
173
HELIUM _ HELIUM
_REGULATOR
!REGULATOR
MAIN FUEL TANK
MAIN FUEL TANK
MAIN OXIDIZER TANK
]=.
Figure
5-17.-Main
propellant injection system. these simplest
tank
dual
direct
Figure
5-18.-Main
propellant injection system. selection
tank
series
direct
oxidizer offer the
tank. lightest
Although and
systems method
appear of pressystem steady
to
The vehicle material system clude start, (constant
four
principal
criteria propellant reliability, requirements start pressure from
are: and and inrelevels includes and
mission performance. storability, and closely inertness, and on the of failure the
requirements, system Mission system instant controllable freedom soluble basis modes, reliability gas level. and
surization safety, regulated
by number reliability, tank pressures
of components, and ability are
compatibility,
to produce questionable.
or variable).
Compatibility
5.6 SELECTION SYSTEM
OF
THE
PRESSURIZATION chemical condensible excessively and proper is products, Reliability complexity, of system must of limits of which the number
At the beginning of the design of a pressurization system, a preliminary study of the various design approaches but can become is conducted. This will selection, task in view provide a technical basis for systems a relatively complex of the great number niques developed.
pressurant evaluated number components be attained development nents able ability thrust pressure and mined ization which
temperature
of system level within funds
economically time can and effort include heat
of tank pressurization techIn the course of the study,
allotted. to require
Compoconsiderreli-
be expected toward gas
all information pertinent to the wide range of systems is gathered. A standard vehicle confor mission de-
development levels chamber storage entirely system on regulators.
satisfactory assemblies, large hot-gas highducting is deterpressur-
generator
figuration and uniform assumptions and performance,
exchangers, and performance basis which
structural materials, and other
vessels, System the
factors affecting the pressurization system
sign are adopted to permit valid weight and size comparisons of the various systems studied.
of gross is
weight
influenced
by
J.74
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
TABLE
5-1.-Comparisons
o[
Various
Tank
Pressurization
Systems
for
the Total
A-4
Stage
Propulsion
System
Number complex component designs 3
of i System
I
System
Stored gas and generants
Gas
produced
quantity of system components
overall weight, percent 100
System overall volume )ercent 100
Helium
with thrust chamber
Helium
Helium age
at 995 R aver-
11
heating (fig.5-2) Helium-no heating (fig.5-I) Helium
Helium age
at 354 R aver-
182
183
Helium
cascade
(fig.
5-3)
Helium
Helium average
at 1000
17
81
75
Solid
propellant helium
gas (fig.
generator 5-12)
Helium, nitrate
ammonium base grain
aMixed
helium
and
solid at
15
79
72
heating
propellant
products
I000 _ R average Solid propellant gas generator with solid subliming coolant (fig. 5-10) Solid propellant gas generator with azide cooling (fig. 5-11) Single liquid propellant (fig. gas 5-14) Ammonium grain, pellets Viton azide propellant.l coolant Nitrogen at I000 c R 11 4 70 ii nitrate acid base aN)lid ucts propellant prodat 1000 c R 3 53 12
oxalic
lithium
azide
Helium,
hydrazine
bHelium oxidizer, products fuel
at
1000 R on hydrazine at 1200 R on
11
63
51
generator-helium
Dual liquid generator cooling
propellant gas with injection (fig. 5-15)
Helium, nitrogen tetroxide, ammonia
aAmmonia-rich
gas at
16
48
16
generator products 1000 R on fuel;
N20,-rich gas generator products at I000 R on oxidizer aQuestionable compatibility of pressurant with bMarginal pressurant temperature level on fuel. propellants.
pressurant weight. system entire part of is
molecular The gross as and
weight weight inert system of
and the
specific pressurization since
system
The tity of sels two.
results of like or System design; check
presented Components" i.e., valves two
in
table
5-1, include
"Total
Quan-
components storage vesof to time
treated
weight,
the are
identical considered Designs" long
pressurant the vehicle
components weight at study system The vehicle burnout. was
are
a quantity refers
system
"Complex requiring high for production overall
Component relatively cost. weight percentages helium for with
A sample ducted A-4 sion stage was for the
preliminary tank
design pressurization system. to require
confor the
parts and values various
development of absolute of the
Instead and volume of thrust the
propulsion assumed
mis-
single-start, operations. Eight compared.
systems, (stored are used
selected heat-
constant-thrust, different
full-duration pressurization systems
system ing)
chamber
were
comparison.
Chapter Design
In high-thrust, rocket tems, 4-58, and tems sures, the thrust This in large As the pressure tinues, tem the surized engine as higher gas require and major shown
VI
of
Turbopump
liquid turbopump 1-13, when 2-10, systems compared Turbopump low pressures, required by weight, higher rocket in an the propellant feed 3-3, sysand
Propellant-Feed
larly with the introduction engines. weight chamber power range is engine
Systems
of high-porto As ohown the in an ........ in figure proportionaI system as as flow operating rocket 6-2. power figure does a rate. 6-1
long-duration applications, in figures result
hydrogen-t'ueled for two propellant turbopump-assembly rises the with required
combinations,
generally feed
in lower
weight to presf_oa syspreswhile at the pumps.
engine
performance systems. only thus portion
increasing turbopump of total
pressure, expressed
relatively propellant-tzL_k of the
putnp-inlet
percentage
propellant of pump shown in
A representative parameters engine Figure designs. 6-3 for various applications depicts
pressure supplied tank toward
liquid
propellant of turbine
chamber saves vehicles. overall
inlets
is
considerable trend
particularly chamber engines engine consysparticu-
an envelope
requirements propellant of turbopumps greater
for a number
of actual
turbine
of liquid role
io_,oo0
becomes
of even
importance,
IO 8
L_
Z
*oo0
ZU
ItP-LUOMM. ! LOz' , I0 _ ,,,,HI _ , , J,,,,,I _ FLOW, GPM d _ ,LJ,,,I IO_OCO _zO_. _ NIN4. '*104 L ,,,,:L '00_00 SO/S_O
_-
2 __.LOX/LH 2
pooi
Figure 7O
6-2.-Range
of pellant
operation pumps.
for
typical
pro-
_ m
40i 20 h.
a
,, ..=.30; LOX/RP,
0 0 , 500 CHAMBER Figure and 6-1.-Variation ratios with I000 PRESSURE, 1500 PSI weight pressure. Figure 2000
mo i(x_ TURBINE to,ooo HORSEPOWER _o,o(_
i
i ooo.o(x_
of turbopump/engine change of chamber
6-3.-Envelope
of designs.
rocket
engine
turbine
Ilow
175
,ummm
176 DESIGN OF LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES OUTLET 6.1 ELEMENTS OF TURBOPUMP PROPELLANT FEED SYSTEMS The supply of propellants to the inlet of the INLET ---_ DRIVE
pumps at required minimum pressures is customarily considered the responsibility of the vehicle propellant system and thus of the vehicle designer. The main function of the turbopump feed system then is to raise the pressure of the prot_ot_,_,_t_ received from the vehicle tanks and deliver them to the main thrust chamber, through ducts and valves, at pressures and flow rates commensurate with rated engine operation. A turbopump feed system may consist of the following basic elements: (1) Propellant pumps (2) Turbine(s) to drive them (8) A power source for the turbine(s) (during engine start as well as main stage) (4) Speed reduction gear transmissions (if any) (5) Lubrication system for bearings and gears (if any) (6) Shaft-speed pickup for instrumentation and for safety purposes (overspeed cutoff) (7) Accessory drives (if any) (S) Propellant inlet and discharge ducts (if any) (9) Turbopump mounts
CENTRIGUGAL IMPELLER SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
CROSS-OVERVOLUTES 7
OUTLET
MULTISTAGE
CENTRIFUGAL OUTLET
PUMP
INDUCER_/L..f;::
E_X G
tV: L_::E LLER
MULTISTAGE Propellant Pumps Figure 6-4.-Schematics The principal requirementsof a rocket engine propellant pump are reliability, optimum speed, lightweight, high deliveryrateat maximum pressure head, smooth flow fora wide range of operating conditions, and high efficiency.The most widely used pump types are centrifugal (orradial) flow, axialflow, and mixed flow pumps. Centrifugal pumps are generallydesigned with a single stage, while axial pumps are primarilyof multistage design. However, multistage centrifugal pumps with crossover-type volutes have also been considered. Various pump configurations are shown schematically in figure 6-4. 1. Centxilugal pumps.-Almost all operational rocket propellant pumps (except those for highflow, high-pressure liquid hydrogen applications) are of this type. They can handle large flows at high pressures efficiently as well as economically in terms of weight and size. The elements of a centxifugal pump are shown in figures 6-5,
AXIAL
PUMP pump configu-
of various rations.
6-14, 6-43, 6-47, and 6-48. Centrifugal pumps, like other steady-flow rotating machinery, consist essentially of two basic elements: the rotor and the stator. Their working principle is the acceleration of the fluid flow by imparting kinetic energy to it in the rotor and then decelerating or "diffusing" it in the stator. This results in increased fluid pressure head. The rotor assembly usually includes an inducer, an impeller, and a shaft. The stator assembly consists of a casing with stationary diffuser vanes, a volute with discharge outlet, shaft bearings, and seals. An inducer is an axial-flow-type impeller. Its main function is the increase of the static pressure of the entering fluid sufficiently to permit normal operation of the main impeller. An inducer can reduce the pump inlet pressure net-positive suction head (NPSH) requirements
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMPPROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
177
_- VOLUTE PASSAGE (TO DISCHARGE) PUMP CASING
FRONT WEARINGRING REAR WEARING RING (OPTIONAL FOR HYDRAULIC BALANCING OF AXIAL THRUST IN PLACE OF BALANCE RIBS) ALANCE RIBS
DRIVE FLUID SHAFT__ __
SHAFT BEARINGS INLET FLANGE
SHAFT SEALS DIFFUSER VANES Figure 6-5.-Elements of a centrHuga1-flow pump.
substantially. The impeller of a centrifugal (or radial) pump basically is a rotating wheel with radial vanes. Fluid is admitted axially to the impeller which, when rotating in an enclosure, ejects it at the periphery with increased velocity (fig. 6-5). The primary functions of the pump stator assembly are: diffusing (i.e., decelerating) the fluid to convert the velocity head into pressure head, collecting and redirecting the fluid to the pump discharge outlet, and providing structural support and a pressure enclosure for the pump. The main function of the wearing rings shown in figure 6-5 is to provide axial thrust control and to minimize internal leakage, or circulating of the fluid between the high-pressure (discharge) and the low-pressure (inlet or suction) zones. External leakage along the shaft is prevented by the use of dynamic shaft seals.
2. Multistage centriiugal pumps.-For higher pressure rises, multiple-stage centrifugal pumps can be designed if a single stage proves limited. The basic construction of a multistage pump is similar to that of a single-stage pump, except that proper channeling of the fluid between stages is added. 3. Multistage axial pumps.-This design is well suited to liquid hydrogen service which entails the problems of extremely low fluid temperature and density. Low fluid density resultsin high-volume flow and in high pressure-head rise requirements. For applications at either c_ flow rates higher than 60 lb/sec or pressure-head rises above 1400 psi, a multistage axial flow pump is generally superior with respect to construction and performance. Elements of an axial flow pump are shown in figures 6-6, 6-51, and 6-53. The rotor assembly
178
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
V ROTOR BLADES PUMP CASING

'\
STATOR BLADES
'\
\,
\
VOLUTE PASSAGE (TO DISCHARGE)
TFLANGE
'\ \\
SHAFT I
FLUID FLOW
DRIVE
SHAFT SEALS \
/
INTERNAL EARING SEAL
-_--.
BEARING INTERNAL SEAL
INDUCER
Figure
6-6.-Elements
of an axial-flow Turbines
pump.
consists of an inducer, a cylindrical rotor with multiple rows of rotating blades, and a rotor shaft. The stator assembly includes a cylindrical casing with rows of stationary blades spaced between inducer and rotating blades, a volute casing, bearings, and seals.
An inducer is placed at the pump inlet to supply the fluid to the main-pump section at the required pressure and velocity. Both rotor and stator blades have a hydrofoil shape. The main function of the rotor blades is to accelerate the flow relative to the stator and thus to increase the kinetic energy of the fluid, while the stator blades, acting as diffusers, convert the velocity head of the fluid into pressure head. However, the velocity vector of the fluid in the axial direction is kept constant throughout the various stages of the pump.
The turbines which provide shaft power to the propellant pumps derive their energy from the expansion of a high-pressure, high-temperature gas to lower pressures and temperatures. The basic elements of a turbine are shown in figures 6-7, 6-14, and 6-54. Turbines can be divided into two major types: impulse turbines and reaction turbines. Impulse turbines can be either single or multiple stage. Reaction turbines are usually multistage. Various turbines employed in rocket engine applications are described as follows: 1. Single-stage, single-rotor impulse turbine.This turbine consists of a single-rotor disk or turbine wheel to which is attached a row of turbine blades or buckets. Gas is fed to the rotating blades through stationary nozzles (fig. 6-8).
DESIGN
OF
TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
179
STATIONARY
NOZZLES
,/--
FIRST
ROW
ROTATING
BLADES
INLET
GAS MANIFOLD
-STATIONARY SECOND
BLADES
OR SECOND ROW NOZZLES BLADES
ROW ROTATING
DIAPHRAGM BEARING HOUSING
ROTATING
SEAL SHAFT
TURBINE
DRIVE
BEARINGS '-- TURBINE J --TURBINE

/
EXHAUST
DUCT
WHEELS
SHAFT
SEALS-
/ Figure 6-7.-Elements
-- TURBINE
HOUSING
of
turbine.
DIRECTION OF MOTION
Figure
6-8.-Schematic rotor impulse
of
a single-stage, turbine.
single-
Figure rotor,
6-9.-Schematic velocity-compounded
of
single-stage, impulse turbine.
two-
180
In the nozzles, the gas pressure is converted into kinetic energy (velocity head) with attendant static pressure drop. The gas flow velocity is maximum upon entering the rotating blades, where the kinetic energy of the gas is imparted to the turbine rotor as mechanical energy of rotation. Ideally, the static pressure of the gas remains constant when it passes through the rotating blades (except for the effects of friction). 2. Velocity-compounded impulse turbine.Figure 6-9 shows a schematic of this turbine type. Here, two separate rows of rotating blades instead of one are used to transfer the kinetic energy of the gas discharged from the set of stationary nozzles. A row ot stationary blades is placed between the wheels to guide the gas into the second set of moving blades. This principle is credited to Curtis who originally developed it. Ideally, the entire pressure drop occurs in the stationary nozzles. The gas velocity decreases during passage through the first row of rotating blades, remains constant through the stationary blades, and decreases further as it passes through the second rotating row. Velocitycompounded turbines are considered single stage, since only one pressure step is involved. 3. Pressure-compounded impuIse turbine.-As shown schematically in figure 6-10, the expansion of the gas is accomplished in steps, through two or more rows or stages of stationa_' nozzles, each set being followed by a row of rotating blades. A design objective is that the velocity, and thus the kinetic energy, of the gas flow is the same at the entrance of each row of rotating blades. This results in equal energy transferred to each rotating blade row, while the pressure drop in each stationary nozzle row will vary. Since the pressure is greater in region A than in region B, it is necessary to separate the stages by a sealing diaphragm to prevent bypass flows (fig. 6-7). However, because of clearances required at the rotating seal between diaphragm and turbine shaft, some losses do occur at this point due to leakage from stage to stage. 4. Reaction turbine.-The main difference between an impulse turbine and a reaction turbine (shown schematically in fig. 6-11) is that in an impulse turbine no static pressure drop occurs (no expansion) while the gas passes through the rotating blades, whereas in a reaction turbine the pressure does drop (expansion occurs). Both
Figure 6-10.-Schematic compounded
of a two-stage, impulse turbine.
pressure-
Figure
6-II.-Schematic
o[ a reaction
turbine.
impulse and reaction wheels are driven by a change in momentum of the gas. In a pure reaction-type turbine, the driving force is derived entirely from the reaction due to gas expansion within the rotating blades (similar to the gas expansion in a rocket nozzle). In actual reaction turbine designs, however, a portion of the driving force is derived from impulse due to gas impingement on the rotating blades. Turbine Power Sources driven by monopropower "tapoff"
In most applications the turbine is gas produced in either bipropeltant or pellant gas generators. Other turbine sources have also been used, such as
181
and "topping" systems. Typical turbine power sources are shown in figure 6-12 and are described briefly as follows: 1. Bipropellant gas generator.-This is the most widely used system since it has the advantage of using the engine main propellants. 2. Monopropellant gas generator.-This provides the simplest gas-generating system. However, it requires a third propellant if neither one of the main propellants is suitable for monopropellant application. 3. Thrust chamber bleed.-This is applied in "tapoff" engine systems. Gases are bled off directly from the main combustion chamber to drive the turbine. 4. Topping.-In a topping cycle, such as with a hydrogen-fueled engine system, the heated hydrogen gas emerging from the thrust chamber cooling jacket is used as the turbine working fluid before being injected into the main combustion chamber. In systems using a monopropellant as one of the main propellants, the monopropellant can be decomposed and used to drive the turbine prior to injection into the main combustion chamber. Topping gas turbine drives render the highest possible theoretical cycle efficiency. 5. Dual combustion.-The entire fuel flow reacts with a portion of the oxidizer in a bipropropellant gas generator and thus provides the gas to drive the turbine. The usually fuel-rich exhaust gas is then ducted into the main combustion chamber and reacts with the balance of the oxidizer. Dual combustion cycle equals that of the topping cycle. efficiency
A.
BIPROPELLANT
B.
MONOPROPELLANT
C.
THRUST BLEED
CHAMBER (TAPOFF)
_$T
i i
T. c._.
TURaJNE CMA=aER _s _XE R_, TOll
D.
TOPPING
E.
DUAL
COMBUSTION
Figure
6-i2.-Typical
turbine
power
sources.
start tanks pressurized to up to 90 percent of rated pump outlet pressures supply the propellants to the gas generator during engine start until main propellant pump discharge pressures build up. In some applications (first stages), the start tanks have been made a part of the groundsupport equipment. 3. Main propellant tanks.-Experimental engine systems have been successfully started with the propellants supplied directly from the vehicle main propellant tanks, thus initiating gas generator and main thrust chamber operation until pump "bootstrap" occurred. In a hydrogen-fueled topping cycle engine, hydrogen vapor is used under tank head pressure to start the turbine directly. 4. Stored gas.-Stored gas under high pressure has been used to spin the turbine during engine start. In the case of hydrogen-fueled engines, hydrogen gas stored in a rechargeable bottle is used to drive the turbine during initial as well as restarts. 5. Solid propellant gas generator.-Solid propellant gas generators or turbine spinners, as shown in figure 4-49, have also been widely used to power turbines during engine start.
For most systems, an auxiliary power source is required during engine start to drive the turbine until the main power source takes over. The energy and its rate of delivery required for the start transient depend to a large extent on the engine system design. Several common turbine power sources for engine start are as follows: 1. Monopropellant.-In systems using a liquid monopropellant gas generator, the fluid is supplied by an independently pressurized tank, such as in the German V-2 engine. Thus, no additional turbine power source for engine start is required. 2. Bipropellant start tanks.-In a system using a liquid-bipropellant gas generator, fed from the main propellant system, bipropellant
Turbopump Drive
Arrangements
The specific type of coupling between turbine and pumps depends not only upon the propellants being pumped but also on the design of the overall engine system. Various turbopump drive arrangements are shown schematically in figure 6-13. Where a single turbine directly drives both propellant pumps through a common shaft, the turbine can be located either on the shaft end
182
DIRECT
DRIVE
GEARED
DUAL
SHAHS
pump shaft. The turbopump gears and bearings are cooled and lubricated either by a separate oil supply system, or by a fuel additive subsystem (fig. 6-17). During mainstage operation, the turbopump supplies oxidizer and fuel to the main thrust chamber as well as to the gas generator at the required pressures and flow rates. Operating characteristics and materials of construction for this turbopump are listed in table 6-1. Both oxidizer and fuel pumps are of singleentry, centrifugal-flow type. They are mounted back to back on a common shaft, one on each side of the gearbox. The fuel pump is bolted to the gearbox, while the oxidizer pump is secured to it by radially inserted steel pins. These pins allow the oxidizer pump housing to expand and contract during extreme temperature changes without distortion and misalinement. Each pump has an axial-flow inducer, a radial-flow impeller with backward curved vanes, stationary diffuser vanes, and a volute. The propellants pass from the inducers to the guide vanes in the impeller inlets through the impeller rotor vanes into stationary diffuser vanes in the pump casing and into the pump volutes. The diffuser vanes assure uniform pressure distribution and reduction of fluid velocity around the impellers. Balance ribs are provided on the back side of the impellers to neutralize pump shaft axial thrust. The gearbox includes a series of full-depth reduction spur gears with integral bearing inner races, gear carrier and main shaft bearings, accessory drives, pump shaft bearing seals, and a bearing heater on the oxidizer pump shaft. A drain manifold is provided for horizontal drainage. The gears reduce the speed of rotation between turbine and pump shaft by an overall ratio of 4.88 to 1. Details of typical turbopump gears and bearings are shown in figure 6-16. The pump shaft turns c:lockwise as viewed from the oxidizer pump. The sequence of powertransmission is as follows: turbine to high-speed pinion gear, to intermediate shaft gear, to intermediate pinion gear, and to pump shaft gear. Power is also transmitted to a main accessory drive gear from a drive pinion gear mounted on the intermediate gear shaft. The turbine is an impulse-type, two-stage pressure-compounded unit (fig. 6-10). It is bolted to the fuel pump housing and consists of hot gas inlet manifold, stationary nozzles and
O_A.
TURBINES
IN
SERIES
F FuEa F,u_p *" _'_ g. 1URBINES IN PARALLEL
C. SINGLE
GEARED
PUMP
Figure
6-I 3.-Principal
tllrbopump
drives.
(with back-to-back pump arrangement), or between pumps. In this case both pumps and turbine will operate at the same shaft speed. Geardirven turbopump arrangements include: the pancake type, which uses different reduction gears and is applied where there are speed differentials between pumps and turbine; the offset turbine, with both pumps on one shaft but driven through a gear train: and the single-geared pump where one pump is mounted with the turbine on the same shaft, while the other is driven through a reduction gear. Dual-shaft turbopump arrangements with pump and turbine for each propellant on separate shafts include: two gas turbines in series with the discharge gas from the first turbine driving the second turbine; and two gas turbines in parallel, both receiving gas directly from the power source.
Description
of Developed
Turbopump
Systems
Figures 6-14 and 6-15 illustrate a typical liquid bipropellant rocket engine turbopump system. It was developed for a 188000-pound-thrust LOX/RP-1 booster engine. Figure 6-14 shows the major elements of this turbopump design. Figure 6-15 is a cutaway view of an actual assembly with the inlet elbow ducts attached. This assembly is a dual-pump unit consisting of an oxidizer pump, a fuel pump, a reduction gearbox, an accessory drive adapter, and a turbine. The turbine is started by hot gases from a turbine spinner (solid propellant gas generator) and powered from a liquid propellant gas generator during mainstage. The turbine shaft drives a series of reduction gears, which in turn drive the
DESIGN
OF
TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
183
FUEL OXIDIZER PUMP GEAR BOX PUMP
PUMP .UTE PASSAGE (TO DISCHARGE)
PELLER
BALANCE
RIBS
RADLAL- FLOW
IMPELLER RING
WEARING IUCER
_MP INLET IMP SHAFT AND SHAFT NUT
SHAFT PUMP INLET FLANGE AND SHAFT
SEAL BEARING ROW ROW ROTATING ROTATING BLADES OR NOZZLES WHEELS BLADES BLADES
SECOND
ROW
ACCESSORY DRIVE PAD SHAFT
SHAFT NUT
AND
TURBINE DRIVE GEAR TRAINS TURBINE INLET GAS MANIFOLD SHAFT STATIONARY NOZZLES TURBINE
SEAL SEAL SEALS DIAPHRAGM
Figure 6-I4.-Major
elements
of a typical
turbopump.
LOX
PUMP
dry,
GEAR
=-_V', Box ,_
E_EL pu,,P
"_=
""
.....
'
TURBINE
Figure
6-15.-Cutaway view assembly.
of
turbopump
blades, turbine ing the
firstshaft, turbine
and and shaft
second-stage a splined to the quill
turbine shaft
wheels, connectpinion
high-speed
gear. The turbine shaft is supported on the inboard side by a ball bearing; on the outboard side, by a roller bearing. Carbon-ring shaft seals are used to prevent hot-gas leaks. The turbine inlet manifold distributes the gases to the first row of stationary nozzles which, in turn, distribute the gases to the first row of rotating blades. When leaving these, the gases again increase their velocity when passing through the second row of stationary nozzles. They finally pass through the second row of rotating blades and leave the turbine through an exhaust duct. A sealing diaphragm between the first and second turbine wheel prevents the hot gas from bypassing the second row of stationary nozzles. In later systems, a fuel additive blender unit (fig. 6-17) was substituted for the oil lubrication system to increase reliability and to reduce weight by eliminating the separate oil tank, its pressurizing equipment, plumbing, and controls
184
DESIGN
OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Figure
G-iG.-Typical
turbopump
gears
and
bearings.
"FULL"
INDICATOR
INDICATOR
, ,>. ,.,,., ....,,...,
ADDITIVE i':?,i:!i'%i:._ .!i_:}!;_i !:{H _---i:.':
CHAMBER
ADDITIVE
-_
ADDITIVE DRAIN
.";._ :}ii! iC{i
PISTON
J t ..
' /L PLUG , !ili Ii _, , 1 __,-=:_#!_ ____/
/-STRA,NER ASSEMBLY
t
[ _,/ i
OUTLET _._ ADDITIVE BLENDING FILL
'
PORT
-J' _ -/
/ SPOOL-'
"
_ L_ METERING ORIFICE
L_
INLET PORT FUEL UNDER TURBOPUMP DISCHARGE PRESSURE
CHAMBER
Figure
G-I7.-Fuel
additive
blender
uniL
DESIGN
OF
TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
185
TABLE
6-1.-Operating
Characteristics
and
Materials Figure 8-14
o[
Construction
[or
the
Turbopump
Shown
in
Oxidizer
Fuel
Pumps-
Fluid inlet Inlet
............................................... density pressure ........................................ (total) ................................. .................................... (total) .............................
Liquid oxygen 71.38 lb/ft a 80.0 psia 70.95 lb/ft 915.2 psia a
RP-1 50.45
lb/ft
_ _
Discharge Discharge
density pressure
57.0 psia 50.55 lb/ft 1023.0 psia 966.0 psi 2751.0 ft 2007.6 gpm 225.7 lb/sec 653' rpm 72.1 1565 35.0 percent bhp ft sand
Pressure rise in pump ................................ Pump developed head ................................. Volume flow ......................................... Flow Shaft Shaft rate speed power ........................................... ......................................... .......................................... .........................................
835.2 psi 1696.2 ft 3257,4 gpm 518.0 lb/sec 75.5 2117 35.0 percent bhp ft TENS 7075-T6 forging TENS sand 50.T6 aluminum alloy
Efficiency
NPSH required ....................................... Casing material ...................................... Inducer material ..................................... Impeller Shaft Bearing Turbine: Inlet Exit gas gas pressure pressure ratio: (total) (static) Total .............................. ............................. exhaust .............. material material material ..................................... ....................................... .....................................
alloy
casting aluminum aluminum alloy alloy
aluminum
die I 2024-T351 [ plate alloy
50.T6 aluminum casting '
] 9669-48230-3 [ sand casting alloy alloy steel steel
4340 9310
597,6 32.86 18.21
psia psia
Pressure Inlet Inlet gas gas
inlet/static
pressure (static) ............................ temperature ................................. temperature ................................. rate .......................................
517.8 psia 1200 F 938 F 17.34 Ib/sec 3793 hp
Exit gas Gas flow
Brake horsepower .................................... Shaft speed ......................................... Efficiency .......................................... Housing Nozzle Wheel Shaft Bearing Gearbox: Reduction Gearbox Gear speed material ratio ................................ ..................................... material ............................... material ..................................... block material ................................ material material material ...................................... ....................................... .....................................
31740 rpm 66,2 percent Hastelloy Hastelloy "B" "B" AMS-5727 steel
Timken alloy 16-25-6 4340 alloy steel 9310 alloy steel
1/4.855 TENS 9310 9310 50-T6 alloy alloy aluminum steel steel die alloy forging sand casting
and-shaft material
Bearing
.....................................
previously principle to at as inlet tive fuel the the the fuel fuel of
required. adding tapped pump
The a small off outlet The through and fuel to to the the
blender amount
works of
on
the
to
inject
a proportionate into the The where bearings. 6-18 system. aircraft and table It was it fuel
amount flowing then
(2.75 through flows and cools
percent) the to blendthe the
of
a chemical orifices
additive ing
metering of using this the side of
chamber.
mixture lubricates
mixture blender the addiThe and
turbopump gears and Figure turbopump pound-thrust
lubricant. port is admitted and causes
entering top
the
6-2
illustrate for
another a 6000rocket
chamber pressure
blending piston to
chamber. displace
developed
superperformance
186
ROCKET ENGINES
NPSH.
]URBINE
Pump are Turbine form turbine
inducers, fabricated manifold, an integral wheel
impellers, from 300 housing Hastelloy-X
shaft series and
and nozzle alloy.
cast
u_L
' '
.---T:--
housings steel. blocks The
stainless
weldment.
is made
of Timken
C
Figure 6-18.-Cutaway turbopump view of an aircraft rocket assembly. engine Pumped and JP-4 centrifugal single stage, supported tween the overhung used shaft by two (shown fluids fuel. pumps which schematically are The 90 percent turbopump mounted is directly back in fig. hydrogen consists to back 4-60). peroxide of two on a driven turbine. bearings and oil just bearings system. forward are operation by a singleThe located shaft beis
6.2 TURBOPUMP AND DESIGN
SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS and design param-
Turbopump
performance
eters are closely related. Variation of the turbopump design and operating parameters performance. The will conand tribute to the optimization of both turbopump engine system system turbopump and mechanical
design procedure includes the evaluation
of all possible design approaches configurations which specifications. From
can satisfy engine system this, the selection of the reliis made.
best design with respect to overall systems ability and performance
single-rotor
impulse
antifriction pumps, The lube pumps
of the lubricated are
Turbopump The simply est level, takeoff impulse ture load 1. weight stage payload. 2. lates level. system stage 3. drive charge ciencies, impulse the case decreases impulse "best
System
Performance turbopump which with affords a given system the gross specific mixefficiency). the vehicle paythe part of is
turbine.
by a pressure-fed on both
Inducers
performing" as that
to permit
at a low
defined range
heavistage
payload
for a vehicle or velocity and thrust
thrust
TABLE
6-2.-Aircraft ating
Rocket Characteristics
Turbopump
Oper-
increment: chamber
weight; (based and ratio,
on propellant chamber ways: component
combination,
Oxidizer Pumps: Fluid .................... 90% H:O 2 Density .................. 86.7 lb/ft 3 Inlet pressure (total) ....... 25 psia Discharge pressure (total)., 862 psia Pressure rise in pump ...... 837 psi Pump developed head ...... 1382 ft Volume flow ............. 106.8 gpm 20521b'sec Flow rate ................. 30 000 Shaft speed ............... 60 percent Efficiency ................ Shaft power ............... 87 bhp Turbine: Inlet gas pressure (total) ,.. Exit gas pressure (static)... Pressure ratio: Total inlet*static exhaust Inlet gas temperature ....... Exhaust gas temperature .... Gas flow rate ............. Brake horsepower .......... Shaft speed ............... Efficiency ................ 510 psia 25.5 psla 2O 1364 F 910 F 0 54 lb/sec
Fuel
operating affects
Turbopump JP-4 50.5 lbtft s 15 psia 657 psia 642 psi 1910 ft 264 gpm 284 lb/sec rpm 40 percent 25 bhp in three
performance
Turbopump of the burnout Required into
weight.-Since is affects pressure directly tank reduce weight. the pressurization
turbopump weight,
components it directly suction pressure propellant and and thus tank
stage
pump-inlet suction main increase for a given gas the types
head.-Required required
transpressure the turbine
If it is raised, weights payload Turbine gases,
burnout
[love rate.-Since flow and rate of which rates, and
is a function pump turbine diseffispecific (except flow rate vehicle specific in
of propellant are than the and
and
flow
pressures, the
of pump ejected chamber cycle), engine the
usually thrust topping overall
at a lower gases their system
112 hp 30000 rpm 40 percent
of the thus
decreases
allowable
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
187
stage burnout weight. For a fixed weight of engines, tanks, guidance, and other equipment, a decrease in allowable stage burnout weight results in decrease of payload weight. The relation between turbine gas flow rate and stage payload weight can be expressed by an equivalent-weight factor, EWF, which is defined as the decrease of payload weight (lb) as a function of turbine flow rate (lb/sec). EWF is proportional to the ratio between turbine exhaust specific impulse (Is)te and thrust chamber specific impulse (Is)tc.
Solution From equation (6-2): Turbopump equivalent
weight
per engine = 1900 + 92 x 55 : 6960 lb
Turbopump
System
Design
Parameters
(6-1) (Is)tc ]
The total effect of the turbopumo on allowable vehicle stage payload, i.e., the equivalent weight of the turbopump, EW, is the sum of turbopump component weight, Wtb , and the product of EWF and the turbine weight flow rate, _i,t: EW : Wtb + (EWF) (#t) (6-2)
Equation (6-2) permits a quantitative definition of the "best performing" turbopump system possessing the lowest equivalent weight. Values for the turbopump equivalent-weight factor EWF range from 5(lb/lb/sec) for booster stage engines to 200(lb/lb/sec) for upper stage engines. The equivalent-weight EW helps to establish the optimized point between turbine and pump efficiencies, and corresponding turbopump component weights. It is not practical to include the effects of pump inlet pressure on vehicle tank weights, since the required information is usually unavailable to the turbopump designer. It is advisable however, that the pumps should be designed for the lowest possible inlet pressure.
In the design of turbopump systems the following parameters, which are often interdependent, are considered paramount and will be discussed: (1) Propellant properties (2) Pump developed heads and flow rates (3) Pump specific speeds (4) Pump net positive suction head (NPSH) (5) Pump efficiencies (6) Turbine overall performance and operating efficiency (7) Turbopump system cycle efficiency (8) Turbopump system calibration and offdesign characteristics No simple rules are available for optimizing the correlations of these parameters when designing a specific type of turbopump for a given engine systems application. Generally speaking, however, available pump suction pressure together with the basic pump flow characteristics will determine the maximum shaft speed at which the unit can operate. The higher this shaft speed, the lower the turbopump weight is likely to be. Once the pump speed is determined, turbine type, turbine driving arrangement, and turbine power source are selected on the basis of efficiency, weight, simplicity, and other factors. Propellant Properties General data for some propellants used in liquid rocket engines are given in tables 1-3 to 1-5. Table 6-8 lists those properties of commonly used liquid propellants which have specific significance in the design of pumps These propellants include Earth-storable liquids such as RP-1 and N204, cryogenics such as LO2 and LH2, and liquids having a wide range of physical and chemical properties. The low temperature of cryogenic liquids creates problems with turbopump construction materials, seals, bearings, lubricants, and through the danger of ice formation The total temperature range to which the structural elements of a cryogenic turbopump may be exposed varies from
Sample
Calculation
(6-1)
The following design data are set forth for the hypothetical A-1 stage engine: Turbopump weight, Wtb , 1900 lb Turbine gas flowrate, wt, 92 lb/sec Turbopump equivalent-weight factor EWF, 55 lb/lb/sec Determine the turbopump per engine. equivalent weight (EW)
188
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
TABLE
6-3,-Fluid
Properties of Commonly
Used
Liquid Propellants
aData at normal conditions Conversion Liquid Temper-I ature, F Vapor pressure, psia Density, lb/ft a Head, ft Pressure, psi factors Viscosity, lb-sec/sqin
gpm lb/sec
N204
....................................
H202(90 percent) ............................ N2H ( ....................................... RP-I ...................................... Ethyl-alcohol (95 percent) ..................... UDMH .................................... 50 percent UDMH,,'N2H 4 ..................... LO: ....................................... LF 2 .......................................
L]'],
60 60 60 60 60 60 60 -297.6 -307 -4229 -320.4 60
1t.1 026 .158 031 .62 183 1.77 14.7 14.7 147 14.7 .256
b_
LI bWatet
...................................... 2 ...................................... .....................................
90.7 87.8 63.3 508 (max) . 49.8 (rain) 504 49.66 5666 71.17 94.21 4.43 50.44 62.37
1.59 1.64 2.28 2.83(min) 2 89(max) 2.85 2 90 2.54 2.02 1.54 32.5 286 2.31
4.96 5.12 7.12 8.84(rain) 9.00(max) 8.91 9.06 7.94 6.32 4.79 101.5 8.92 7.2
0.637 1.868 1.49 3.22
* 10-r _10-" 10-7 10 -7
2.22 ,10-: .842 _ 10-: 1.378 _ 10-7 .2765_10 -7 .353 x 10-: .020810-: .226 10-: 1.64 10-:
aNormal conditions not necessarily do imply standardconditions,ftank pressureshave been applied. i blncludedhere because thesefluids are frequently used as pump calibration media.
-300 at the ents which tural Radial permit ently pump.
to -430 F at the turbine. between must flexibility thermal connecting a cryogenic of a turbine vapor en_ne total inlet. head density produce requirements, flow. and This the
pumps induces
to 1200%1700 temperature
F gradi-
hydrogen volume other
pump flow and
requires driving pumps. pumps of the along the the
more power Thus requires pumped
than as the
10 times compared design of coneffects flow
the to
various or suitable expansion pins pump and/or
turbopump and devices and are often
components requires to permit employed independto structhe
propellant
be accommodated
liquid hydrogen siderations. The boundary passages size pump of the viscosity layer within
specific fluids of the below
required
contraction.
surface There
to contract
pump.
is a minimum which As the
of a normal-temperature of the propellants directly requirements discussed net positive propelpump differences per unit is influid. 10 the of liquid than For rise, a liquid headinlet under inat
impeller
cross-section will fall
performance clearances will
off rapidly. impeller the
The normal fluences the pump
pressure operation suction This with (NPSH). variations substantially as The the
passage a point dominantly than The
in the
are decreased, flow is prerather This together pump pump, up. also of the This, are fluid, in of a pump.
conditions pressure will pump be further
be reached boundary forces changes of the of the an axial impeller
where layer, become the boundary fluid and
viscous
turbulent drag the as effect rotation from in the
predominant. layers, in certain
in conjunction suction The lants rise
completely with such results together direct and seen lower with that pump
performance
of different different as large required rise
passages
to a radial
direction,
well power
of a centrifugal flows losses being which constitutes in a pump. viscosity set
in volume weight versely This percent same is hydrogen
in secondary with proportion leakage of the a high friction
flow
pressure to the dramatically has
of a pump of the case
proportional shown which of that weight flow
density in the of less
to the losses, energy
viscosity
a major It is tends to
a density pressure
portion
losses
of other and
propellants.
propellant
efficiency.
DESIGNOF TURBOPUMPPROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
189
Some liquid propellants, such as LF 2 and 4, are highly reactive chemically, and thermally unstable, beyond certain temperature limits. In the design of turbopumps for these propellants, special consideration must be given to the selection of compatible materials as well as to the construction of mechanical parts. Seals, bearings, and the protection (insulation) of the pump section against heat influx from the turbine section following engine shutdown, are typical problem areas.
N2H
curves is thus obtained experimentally for the range of speeds through which the pump may operate, all of them having similar parabolic shape. Typical H-Q curves of a pump at various speeds are shown in figure 6-19, along with the system flow resistance curve. Together they form the design operating range of a system. Two dimensionless coefficients are frequently used to indicate the head and flow characteristics of a given pump. They are the pump head coefficient 0 and the pump flow coefficient _5. The pump head coefficient the ratioof rated is pump head (ft) the maximum theoretical to head at zero flow formeridional(axial) inlet(no prerotation) expressed as AH
Pump Developed
Heads and Flow Rates
The term "pump developed head," AH (ft), is defined as the difference between pump discharge head and pump suction head. The relationship between developed fluid pressure Ap (psi) and fluid head AH (ft) is given by
(6-4)
g 144xAp(lb AH (ft)= Fluid \in2/ density l(f___) _ (6-3) where =overall pump head coefficient at rated design point (range is 0.2 to 0.7 for single stage centrifugal pumps and up to 1.5 to 2.0 for multistage axial pumps, depending on number of stages) AH=pump rated developed head, ft u 2 =mean tip velocity of pump impeller at rated design rotating speed, ft/sec g =gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec 2 The pump flow coefficient can be expressed as
CrD2
g,
The required pump developed head at the design propellant flow rate (i.e., engine thrust level) is dictated by the sum of the hydraulic resistances within the engine propellant flow system. These resistances include the pressure drops across injector, thrust chamber manifold, cooling jacket, propellant valves and ducts, as well as the injector end thrust chamber pressure. An additional pressure margin is usually allowed for systems calibration. An engine propellant flow system hydraulic resistance curve representing the resistance head to flow-rate relationship at various pump operating levels is shown in figure 6-19. Any value for developed fluid head of a given pump is tied to a corresponding level of fluid flow at any impeller rotating speed. At the maximum flow rates, the entire pump drive energy is consumed by internal flow losses and kinetic energy imparted to the fluid. Thus the measured head rise at the pump outlet is zero. At the other extreme, where fluid flow is zero (except for secondary flows), head rise is a maximum. A pump developed head versus flow capacity curve, commonly called H-Q curve, is derived by connecting the pump operating points between the two extremes for constant speeds. A family of
=-U 2
(6-5)
f-ENGINE SYSTEM CURVE
PROPELLANT HYORAULIC
FLOW RESISTANCE
r-PUMP
H-O
//
,_IO%RATED CHARACTERISTIC DESIGN CURVE
DESIGN
POINT-"
' I
t
O Des PUMP FLOW RATE, Q, gDm
Figure
6-19.-Engine system resistance characteristic curves.
and pump
190
ROCKET ENGINES
where 6 =overall pump flow coefficient at rated design point (range 0.01 to 0.15 in rocket engine application) cm2 =velocity of pump flow in meridional direction at rated design point, ft/sec Rated pump flow, A2 A2 =discl_,;',:'ge area rection, ft 2 normal to meridional dift3/sec
The (6-6a), useful speed,
relationships established in equations (6-6b), and (6-6c) permit us to derive a pump design parameter, the pump specific Ns: Ns : N(Q)3 (AH) o-Ts (6-7)
where Ns : pump specific speed (dimensionless) N :pump rotating speed, rpm Q =pump flow rate, gpm _H :- pump developed head, feet Pump specific speed is a characteristic value defined as the rpm required to produce 1-gpm flow at 1-foot head rise across the pump impeller (or across the combination of inducer and impeller). In pump design, this term is very useful to classify inducers or impellers on the basis of their performance and geometric proportions regardless of the actual size or speed at which they operate. Ns is a function of design configuration; it does not vary significantly for a series of geometrically similar impellers (having the same angles and proportions), or for one particular impeller operating at any speed. Since the H-Q characteristic curve of a pump ranges from zero flow at shutoff to zero head at maximum flow, the specific speed for one curve varies from zero to infinity. To make the term definite, it is necessary to relate it to a defined condition. The logical point is that of maximum efficiency, usually the rated design point. It is generally understood that this point is meant when specific speed is stated. Figure 6-20 indicates typical pump specific speeds for various impeller geometries. For a given speed, a low value of specific speed is characteristic for low-volume flow, high-headrise pumps. Higher specific speed indicates a higher volume flow, low-head-rise pump. 1. Radial-type impeller.-The head is largely developed by the action of centrifugal force. This type is used for heads above 200 feet. Specific speed ranges from 500 to 1200. Geometric proportion, r2/r 1, varies from 2 to 3. 2. Francis-type impelier.-This type has an axial inlet, a radial discharge, and is used for lower heads. Specific speed ranges from 1200 to 2400. Geometric proportion, r 2/q , varies from 1.3 to 1.8.
Pump Specific Speeds For any given pump design, the relation between fluid flow rate Q, developed fluid head ,AH, required driving power hp, and rotating speed N can be defined by three expressions called the affinity laws of a pump. These laws state: (1) Pump volume with speed: flow rate varies directly
QI _N1 Q_ N_ (2) Pump developed head varies the square of the speed: directly
(6-6a)
as
(6-6b)
(3) Pump driving power cube of the speed: hp I hp 2
varies
directly
as a
N_3 N23
(6-6c)
The affinity laws are based on the assumption that the pump efficiency is independent of the rotating speed. Actual pump operation has shown, however, that pump efficiency does change with speed. The degree depends on the individual pump design, but is usually not more than 2 or 3 percent within a reasonable range from the rated design point. Furthermore, it affects only the power requirements rather than the relationship between developed head and flow rate. Thus the pump affinity laws hold quite well in most cases.
191
Since 1 ft3/sec= 449 gpm Oxidizer pump volume flow rate, = 12 420 gpm
---.o }
l._w F 11 __0
J&$1(:
IOI[LL|R
TYPt
( .....
mG_ F_W Nm=IZ1300
Qo = 1971 x 449/71.38 From equation Oxidizer (6-7): speed, Ns =
Figure specific
6-20.-Relationship speeds and pump
between impeller
the pump geometries.
pump specific
3. Mixed-flow type impeller.-The head developed in this impeller is due partly to change in tangential velocity and partly to change in fluid velocity relative to the rotor. The discharge is partly radial and partly axial. The impeller vanes are doubly curved. Specific speed varies from 2200 to 3500, 4. Propeller-type impeller.-The head developed by this type is through push of the vanes only. Flow direction is axial. Specific speeds range from 3000 to 6000 for multistage impellers, and from 6000 to 12 000 for inducers.
7000 x (12 420) s (2930) -Ts
7000 111.7 - 1980 395
Fuel
pump developed
pressure, Ap= 1720-45= 1675 psi
From equation
(6-3): head, AH= 144 x 167_-= 4790_ 50.45 ft
Fuel pump developed
Sample
Calculation
(6-2) Fuel pump volume
The following data are given for the propel1ant pumps of the hypothetical A-1 stage engine at the rated design point:
flow rate, Qi= 892 x 449/50.45 = 7960
From equation Fluid Pump inlet Pump Pump Pump suction dischargeweight speed, ideasity' pressures, pressure, flowrate, rpm Ib/ft3psia(total)psia Ib/sec 55 45 1505 1720 1971 892 7000 7000
(6-7):
Fuel pump specific
speed,
Ns-
Pump
7000 x (7960) s (4790) .rs =.7000 x.89:1 = 1083 576
Oxidizer. 71.38 Fuel... 50.45
Determine
the pump specific
speeds.
Solution Oxidizer pump developed Ap= 1505-55= From equation Oxidizer (6-3): head, AH = 144 1450 - 2930 ft 71.38 pressure, 1450 psi
Pump Net Positive Suction Head; Cavitation Steady flow operation of a pump creates a low-pressure area at the pump inlet, thus allowing the static head upstream of the pump to push fluid into the inlet at a continuous rate. There are local regions within the pump which are at static pressures even lower than the inlet static pressure. If the static pressure of the fluid at the pump inlet or any regions within the pump is allowed to drop below the local fluid vapor pressure level, these regions will cavitate; i.e., the fluid will pass from liquid to vapor and form bubbles. The formation of vapor alters the effective flow passages of the fluid and hence seriously affects normal pump performance. The
pump developed
192
DESIGN
OF
LIQUaD
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
subsequent collapse of these vapor regions creates local pressure forces which can result in flow instabilities and/or substantial damage. To avoid cavitation during operation of a propellant pump, the pump-inlet available net positive suction head, (NPSH)a, furnished by the propellant feed system upstream of the pump, must be higher than the suction head above the propellant vapor pressure at which cavitation would set in. (NPSH)a is the difference between the propellant inlet total pressure head and the propellant vapor pressure. This can be expressed as: Pt 144 P Api 144 + Z- -P pv 144 P
/--CURVE OF CRrTICAL NET ,/ POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD
laJ H DESI:'ERCENT , RATED DESIGN FLOW
C_
"r
J__'_
RAI'ED
DESIGN
FLOW
//x.
PERCENT RATED DESIGN FLOW
(D n
Q.
\
{ NPSH }C DESIGN
NET
POSITIVE. SUCTION
HEAD
AT THE
PUMP
INLET, FEEl
(NPSH)a
(6-8)
Figure 6-2I.-Typical of a pump operated supplied (NPSH)c
cavitation characteristics at rated design speed. than the
where (NPSH)a Pt p Z =available ft net positive suction head, by the vehicle must be larger of the propellant pumps, or (NPSH)a > (NPSH)c
Apt
Pv
= propellant tank pressure, psia =density of propellant, lb/ft 3 = height of propellant above the pump inlet and within the tank (corrected in flight for vehicle acceleration and gravity effects), ft = pressure drop due to friction losses within the propellant suction ducts, psi =propellant vapor pressure for the propellant temperature at the pump inlet, psia
(6-9)
It is useful to compare the suction characteristics of various pump designs on the basis of a design parameter called suction specific speed, Nss, which is defined as follows:
Nss where
N(Q)s (NPSH)c _
(6-10)
In design practice the term "critical net positive suction head," or (NPSH)c, is used to indicate the minimum suction head required above the propellant vapor pressure to assure suppression of cavitation. This critical net positive suction head is defined by convention, as that value which will result in a 2-percent headgeneration loss at the rated design speed and flow rate of a given pump. Usually further reduction in inlet NPSH below the (NPSH)c point results in rapidly increasing cavitation. In turn, the developed head is further reduced, and nonsteady flow can result. This fluctuation of propellant flow can cause erratic combustion in the thrust chamber. Figure 6-21 represents the cavitation characteristics of a typical pump operated at rated design speed. To insure a margin of safety for pump operation, the (NPSH)a
: pump suction specific speed = pump rated design speed, rpm = pump rated design volume flow rate, gpm (NPSH)c : pump critical net positive suction head, ft Suction specific speed is related to the critical net positive suction head in the same manner the specific speed is related to overall pump developed head. Design values of suction specific speeds for rocket propellant pumps range from 10 000 without inducers approximately to 55 000 with inducers.
Nss
N V
Another coefficient describing pump characteristics is the Thoma parameter the ratio of critical net positive suction (NPSH)c and rated pump developed head (NPSH)c _ 1 Ns _1.333 /
suction r. It is head AH, or
(6-11)
193
The Thoma parameter is a function of pump design quality and specific speed. For a given vehicle (NPSH)a, the pump suction characteristics (Nss) determine the maximum permissible rpm at the design flow rate. A high pump Nss or vehicle (NPSH)a permits a higher pump rpm, lower turbopump weight, and possibly higher turbine performance. It is desirable to operate a pump at the highest practicable speed. Figure 6-22 represents the results of a parametric turbopump system design study for a typical LO2/RP-1 booster stage rocket engine system, such as the A-1 stage engine. The study reflects the effects of N, (NPSH)c, and Nss on the selection of turbopump configuration. In addition to the pump (NPSH)c values during steady-state operation, the engine starting transient pump (NPSH)c must be determined and specified to permit satisfactory engine acceleration from zero to nominal design speed and flow rate in the desired time and manner. The starting (NPSH)c depends on the rate of acceleration and on the control system of the engine, as well as on vehicle acceleration, gravity effects, and propellant suction duct geometry. Therefore, sufficient tank pressure must be provided to accelerate the propellant and to overcome the hydraulic resistance in the suction duct, as well as to supply the necessary pump (NPSH)c during all phases of system operation.
Pump
Pump Pump Pump Pump Fluid volume developed speed,[ pumped flowrate, head, (NPSH)c' rpm gpm ft ft 7000 7000 LO_ RP-I 12420 7960 2930 4790 58 70
3xidizer.. _uel .....
Determine pump suction specific speeds and Thoma parameters. (b_..)The following system design data are given for the A-1 stage vehicle:
Pump
Longituapermanent[ dinal static Propellant !distance pressure Fluid Tank !between loss in temperdensity, pressure, tankand suction ature lb/ft _ psia pump duct. atpum_ inlet, inlet, including OF R valves, psi' 71.38 50.45 60 50 3.5 25 5 8 -297.6 60
3xidizer Fuel ..
aThe dynamic bead at the pump inlet is considered a part of the available NPSH and thus is not subtracted from the tank pressure.
Determine
the available
NPSH at the pump inlets.
Sample
Calculation
(6-3) for the
Solution (a_) Substitute Oxidizer given data specific

Ns _
(a__)The following test data are given propellant pumps of the A-1 stage:
into equation speed,
(6-10):
pump suction
7000 (12 420) os

( 't'_ STAP.d[$ I
(58)o.;s
AIir_
_ 7000 x 111.7
TUPtOINE
"
= 37 230 Fuel pump suction specific speed, Nss - 7000 (7960) s (70) o._
{ NPe_,I IC,, F'T
Figure 6-22.-Effects or"N, (NPSH) c, and Nss on turbopump configuration selection for a typical LO2/RP-1 booster stage rocket engine system.
_ 7000 x 89.i 24.2 = 25 790
194
DESIGN OF LIQUID PROPELLAHT ROCKET ENGINES
Substitute given data intoequation (6-II): Thoma parameter of the oxidizer pump, 58 r = 2--9-_ = 0.0198 Thoma parameter of the fuel pump, 7O r =4_=0.0146 (b) From table Vapor pressure 6-3: oxygen = 14.7 psia psia
disk, which is relatively minor, and (b) a pumping action on the fluid in contact with the disk, whereby the fluid is circulated locally by centrifugal action. The energy loss due to disk friction is transformed into heat and can appreciably increase the temperature 3. Mechanical 1osses.-These bearings tion. and seals caused of the fluid. are losses in
by mechanical
fric-
of liquid
at -297.6 F at 60 c F
Vapor
pressure
of RP-1 = 0.031
Assume the vehicleis at sea-levelholddown conditionand substitute given data intoequation (6-8): Available NPSH at oxidizerpump inlet (60-5-14.7) 144 +3.5 71.38
4. Leakage Iosses.-To prevent the pumped fluid from leaking back to the suction side after it has passed the impeller and is at outlet pressure levels, close-clearance labyrinth-type seals or wearing rings are provided. Leakback lowers the flow capacity of a pump and thus increases required pumping power. For a new design, losses are difficult to predict and are usually estimated from data derived during actual testing and other past experience with similar designs. The overall efficiency of a pump, r/p, can be expressed by the ratio of pump fluid horsepower output, fhp, to brake horsepower input by the pump drive, bhp: fl_p _P = bhp
(NPSH)a -
(6-12)
=81.5+3.5=85ft Available NPSH at fuelpump inlet (NPSH)a = (50-S-0.031) 144 + 25 50.45 ft
=120+25=145
The pump fluid horsepower flip is the actual usable output delivered by the pump. It is the product of delivered propellant weight flow, _i,p (lb/sec), times the actual head AH(ft) developed by the pump, divided by a conversion factor:
Pump Operational Efficiency; Losses Several types of energy losses occur during pump operation which affect efficiency. 1. Hydraulic losses.-These include friction losses in the passages and flow turbulence losses. The friction losses are a function of the "wetted areas" in the passages and of the roughness of their surfaces. The turbulence losses are caused by disturbances in certain regions of the pump, such as at the inlet and outlet edge of the vanes of both impeller and diffuser and in the return guide vanes. 2. Disk friction losses.-The energy required
(_p,_H fhp = 550
(6-13)
The brake horsepower bhp represents the mechanical horsepower delivered to the pump by the drive. This delivered brake horsepower is consumed in the pump as fluid horsepower and as the various losses.
bhp: where bhp fhp (hp)h
fhp + (hp)h + (hp)df + (hp)m + (hp)l (6-14)
to rotate a disk, such as an impeller or inducer, in a fluid is known as disk friction loss. The disk friction losses are due to two actions: namely, (a) the actual friction of the fluid on the
= brake horsepower = fluid horsepower = horsepower required draulic losses
to overcome
hy-
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
195
(hP)dt=
horsepower friction
required losses required losses required of a pump Q, the N, all speed is the is
to overcome
disk
developed than pump pump 6-24 that
head
and
rotating pumps. specific shown
speed The speed, in figure between
ranges 10 percent variation
from lower of Figure flow devel-
60 to 85 percent. to overcome to overcome related head are volume Of these, meleakto the AH, included the flow with disk higher fricSample The propellant Calculation following pumps and
This
is about
(hp)m (hp)l The volume the most rate nite pump tion, large hand, ing lower ti6n ciency in the
=horsepower chanical =horsepower age efficiency flow pump rate speed specific one loss
of industrial with is
efficiency capacities, shows and the the
at various 6-23. pump
correlation three and
rate oped
following efficiency,
parameters: required pump. brake
developed of which Ns. design
head,
horse-
rotating important
power,
for a typical
centrifugal
or capacity trend toward capacities, and
of the because
pump.
There efficiency
is a defi-
(6-4) test data A-1 are given for the
increased
hydraulic, represent horsepower head capacity The handled.
of the
stage
engine:
mechanical of the total are
losses brake being
a smaller when other rotatin Oxidizer... Vuel ....... LO 2 RP-1 friceffiof high Pump Fluid pumped Pump volumel flow rate, gpm 12 420 7960 Pump developed head, ft 2930 4790 Drive shaft power, hp and disk pumps On the
percentage
capacities increased speed and efficiency mechanical of rocket
pump-developed of given losses. engine because
for a pump
results
of increased overall propellant
14 850 11 790
D5
[
ql. dl, ,wll _ _
..
_
.[
III, ._... I
I
i
b.] tD e,W r,
"
I -7"
Z I,U
tL U. t_
!_:L:
_0
I000
aO00
$000
4000
IO, O00
(5,000
VALUES Figure 6-23.-Variation
OF SPECIFIC SPEED, NS: _f pump elliciency
RPM, H 3/4 with specilic speed.
196
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
Determine pumps.
the overall efficiencies _p of both
Turbine Efficiency The
Overall
Performance
and
Operating
overall as the thp, and
performance ratio of turbine required
of a turbine shaft turbine per second
is de-
Solution Substitute sample given data (6-2) and into flow rates from (6-13):
fined output, flow Overall calculation equation
horsepower working-fluid or
rate,
#vt, in pounds turbine performance
Oxidizer
pump
fluid
horsepower 1971 2930 550 - 10500
z--
thp (hp/lb/sec) vvt
(6-15)
fhp-
hp
In general, upon two pound The working pound per
turbine variables: of turbine
overall the
performance available energy AHt, 7/t. of the enthalpy
depends content and turbine drop per the
Fuel
pump
fluid
horsepower 8924790 550
working-fluid, efficiency, content as the in the
overall -7760 hp
turbine available fluid of working
operating energy is defined fluid
fhp-
turbine
Substitute
into
equation
(6-12): AH t=H o- H e (6-16)
Oxidizer
pump
overall
efficiency where 10500 9P=14 850 =70.7% AHt---available fluid, H o = enthalpy energy Btu/lb per per unit unit content weight weight pressure, expansion and as (1-13), equation of the of the Btu/lb of the working asworking working
Fuel
pump
overall
efficiency
7760 _p=]-_-_=6a.8_
. He
fluid = enthalpy fluid suming Using (6-16) equations can
at turbine-inlet,
at exhaust isentropic (1-10)
Btu/lb,
PUMP PUMP PUMP
DEVELOPED
HEAD H, FEET
EFFICIENCY _p, PERCENT REQUIRED POWER, Bhp
be rewritten
AHt=Cp(Twhere
DEVELOPED HEAD RATED DES IGN /'EFFICIENCY
Te)=CpT
_(Pe_ \Po/
Y / )'=' -I J
(6-17)
Cp:working fluid specific pressure, Btu/'lb-F T o = working inlet, Te = working exhaust, Po =working inlet, Pe = working exhaust, y =working ratio can Rt, fluid R fluid R fluid psia fluid psia fluid specific inlet and as static total static total
heat temperature
at constant at turbine at turbine at turbine
COND TION I
/ /
temperature pressure
pressure heat
at turbine ratio pressures, pressure in parameter
PUMP Figure 6-24.-H-Q,
FLOWRATE e[ficiency, curves
Q, gpm and required typical power
The centrilugal ratio turbine
of turbine be which design. is
exhaust the turbine used
P_,/P2,
expressed
characteristic pump.
o[ a
a frequently
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
197
17
AH_--CpTo -
(6-18)
perature is offset by the turbine efficiencylosses (blade losses; see below) resulting from higher
gas jet speed (spouting to the 6-26 pressure fluid again and of energy it may turbine weight Thus often overall as the velocity Co) which is proportional turbine-inlet the and temperature. between energy of
It is seen turbine ties and pressure for rocket uct table gases 6-4. 6-25 working inlet ratio.
that
the fluid Most
available is a function and of the by
energy of the
in the properfluids prodturbine
Figure turbine the
shows ratio
relationship available propellant
of gas working fuel-rich
temperature, application
working
for a turbine-inlet for the 2.
temperature combinations a large in a working it efficiently of the engine ratio turboof a
turbine are
of 1200 F, LO_/RP-1 amount fluid, into severe pumps.
engine generated working
LO2/LH may
Although
bipropellant properties the are
combustion. listed in
be available to convert because on rocket pressure used.
Typical Figure turbine-inlet fluid the
fluid shows
be difficult shaft the cannot ratio limitations available
horsepower
relationship and available ratio
between working of 20 and limdeare for
temperature for a turbine Turbine inlet
energy two 2. the
pressure temperatures
turbine The defined
be fully of turbine
propellant
combinations
LO2/RP-I
efficiency
of a turbine, shaft
77t, is horsepower,
LO2/LH ited sign levels by turbine
high-temperature materials. 1700 F. a higher is around gain from
properties Above
of the
2O00 I
construction limit the
A practical certain
turbine-inlet
tern-
_" 1#00
i
E_
TABLE
6-4.-Properties Combustion Inlet Fluid
of Product
Typical Gases
Fuel-Rich
-r <:1 12oo >. ul
.oo temper- Btu/ Cp, ature ibF F 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 N20(/CH,(UDMH) .. 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 0.635 .639 .643 .646' .648 .651 .653 y R, Mixtur_ ratio, ft/R O/F /
,< .<
4oo
LOX/RP-1
.........
1.097 i.i00 1.106 1.111 1.115 1.119 1.124
43.3 45.1 47.1 58.6 50.4 51.8 53.6 55.4 58.0 59.0 60.7 62.4 64.0
0.308 .320 .337 .354 .372 .390 .408 .425 .443 .460 .478 .497 .516 .lt0 .165 .220 .274 .328 .382 .785 .903 1.025 1.143 1.273 1.410
IOO_
1100
1200 INLET
1300
_4OO
1500 F
I_00
1700
TURBINE
TEMPERATURE,
Figure
6-25.-Effect on working
of turbine-inlet temperature fluid available energy.
.655_1 1.128 .6571 1.132 .659 1.137 .660 1.140 .661 1.144 .662 1.148 .380 .398 .416 .434 .452 .470 2.05 1.94 1.86 1.80 1.73 1.69
2O00
tOX/U41
1.420 87.5 1.420 91.6 1.420 95.7 1.420 999 ! 1.420, 104.0: 1.4201108.21 1.374 434 1.3641 403 1.3541 378 1.343 1.333 1.322 358 336 320
12OO
g
Z e
LOX/LH 2 .........
.I o
Figure
_
6-26.-Effect working
;2
PRESSURE
,;
RATIO
2'o
pressure energy.
;,
ratio on
==
of turbine fluid available
198
thp, to enthalpy drop rate or the available delivered rate of the working fluid. 550 thp thp
energy
Also, centrifugal action of the rotor flisk causes some of the gas to flow radially to the casing and to be dragged along the face of the casing by the rotor blades. 5. Mechanical losses.-These result from the mechanical seals. friction in bearings and rotating
Combining Turbine
equations
(6-15)
and (6-19):
overall
performance
_7?tAHt_ O.7O7 In turbine byI. Nozzle
7ItCpT
_ 0.7O7
1 -_(6-20)
operation
efficiency
can be affected in thrust
losses.-Similar
to those
chamber nozzles, these losses are due to the gas leaving the nozzle at a lower velocity as compared to that of an ideal nozzle. The losses are due to flow turbulence, fluid friction, and loss of heat to and through the turbine nozzle blocks. 2. Blade losses.-These are caused by residual velocity of the gas as it leaves the rotor blades, the obliquity of the nozzle (i.e., the nozzle angle 0 in fig. 6-8 cannot be made zero), flow turbulence, and fluid friction. Losses due to residual gas velocity can be reduced by optimizing the turbine blade-to-gas velocity ratio U/Co, where U is the pitch speed of the rotor blades, and C o is the ideal spouting velocity of the gas based on available energy and isentropic expansion. These conditions can be analyzed quantitatively by means of turbine gas flow velocity diagrams which will be discussed in section 6.5. Flow turbulence can be reduced through turbine improved blade shape nozzle admission. and through full
The design of turbines for rocket turbopumps tends toward the simpler and lighter impulse types, with most of the expansion occurring in the stationary elements. Figure 6-27 shows the typical efficiency curves of various impulse-type turbines. The design problem becomes one of balancing efficiency (optimum velocity ratio U/Co, weight (number of stages or rows), and structural considerations. A higher performance can be achieved by employing a working fluid with high available energy, and by matching its high gas spouting velocity Co with a high rotor blade pitch speed U. However, the blade speed is often limited by the required pump rpm, by the practical size of the rotor wheel, and by the strength of materials. The optimum velocity ratio (or optimum value of blade speed for a given gas spouting velocity) is reduced by the use of velocity or pressure-compounded arrangements (shown schematically in fig. 6-9 and 6-10). However, these designs increase weight and complexity. In general, for a direct-drive configuration (fig. 6-13) with an rpm lower than ideal, a low value of U/Co results, and a velocity compounded turbine will be used because of its low overall weight and simplicity. Where a reduction gear is
I00
_-_
PllSSUR_
tOM P OU_,C_D
3. Leakage or clearance losses.-The clearante required between rotor blade tips and casing permits some gas to leak past the blades without doing work, thus causing energy losses. The gas leakage from stage to stage in a multistage pressure-compounded turbine due to required clearance between shaft and sealing diaphragm results in similar losses. 4. Disk friction losses.-Fluid friction occurs at the interface of gas and rotor disk surface.
Z u
2(
i 01 OVERALL (1.2 ISENTROPIC G.3 VELOCITY 04 RATIOU/Co 05 O.6
Figure
6-27.-Typical impulse-type
efficiency turbines.
curves
of
199
provided between pumps and turbine, a higher value of U/Co is possible and a more efficient pressure-compounded turbine can be used. Since the turbine pressure ratio has only a small effect upon available energy content of the working fluid (fig. 6-26), the power level of a turbine is usually regulated by controlling the inlet pressure Po and in turn the flow rate wt of the turbine.
Total shaft horsepower required (sample calculation (6-4)):
by the pumps
14 850 + 11 790-- 26 640 hp Thus a margin of 510 hp is available for auxiliary drives and contingencies. Substitute the values for thp, AHt, and _ into equation (6-19): 0.707 27 150 92 x 359
Sample
Calculation
(6-5)
Overall
turbine
efficiency
r/t -
The following test data are given for the turbine of the A-1 stage engine turbopump: Turbine gas mixture ratio, LO2/RP-1 = 0.408 Gas total temperature at turbine-inlet, T O= 1860 R (1400 F) Gas total pressure at turbine-inlet, Po = 640 psia Gas static pressure at turbine exhaust, Pe = 27 psia Turbine gas flow rate, ti,t= 92 lb/sec Turbine shaft speed, 7000 rpm Turbine shaft torque, 20 380 ft-lb Determine the overall turbine efficiency in percent and the performance in horsepower per lb/sec of turbine flow _t.
=58.2% From equation (6-15): 27 150 9_ =295 hp lb/se_
Overall
turbine
performance
Turbopump System
Cycle
Efficiency
Turbopump system cycle efficiency is an indicator of the energy losses and their effect on overall engine systems performance because of turbopump operation. It can be defined as the ratio of the specific impulse of the complete turbopump-fed engine system, (Is)eng, to the thrust chamber specific impulse, (Is)tc. (]s)eng (Is)to
Solution From table 6-4, for a LO2/RP-1 mixture ratio of 0.408, we derive a specific heat Cp = 0.653 and a specific heat ratio y = 1.124. Substitute the above and other given data into equation (6-17) to obtain the available energy content of the turbine gas: Turbopump cycle efficiency r/c(6-21)
Generally, two types of energy cycles are employed in rocket turbopump applications: the separate-flow cycle and the topping-flow cycle. Because of certain systems-design limitations the second type is used less frequently than the former. In the separate-flow gas flow is discharged into the low-pressure chamber exit nozzle. cycle the turbine exhaust separately or is ducted region of the main thrust This is shown schemati-
AHr,:0.B53x1860
1-(6-_0)
1.124--1
_'J
-]
= 0.653 1860 [1 - 0.705] = 359 Btu/lb Turbine shaft horsepower Turbine thp shaft torque 2 _rN 33 000
_ 20 380 x 2 rrx 7000 33 000 = 27 150 hp
cally for cases (A), (B), and (C) in figure 6-12, and for the A-1 and A-2 stage engines in figures 2-10 and 3-3. The separate-flow cycle system design affords a lower discharge pressure by the propellant pumps and yields a higher pressure ratio for the turbine. Generally, this results in a simpler and lighter system. However, the turbine exhaust gas of a separate-flow cycle is usually not utilized efficiently to generate thrust.
2OO
Thus, it has a relatively The separate-flow cycle pressed as (ls)eng r/sc= (Is)re _ Wtc (Is)tc
low cycle efficiency
efficiency. can be ex-
+ _'_ (Is)re
Weng (Is)to Fte+ Fte IPeng (/s)tc (6-22)
topping flow cycle is sometimes considered a "no loss" cycle. However, that net energy which is required to lift the propellants from their respective pump inlet pressures to the thrust chamber nozzle stagnation pressure must be considered. The topping flow cycle efficiency may be approximated as Ep _hc = (Is)eng (/she _ 1 Cp(Tc)ns MRhHo + hHI 778 (1 + MR) Cp (Tc)n s where = topping flow cycle efficiency =ideal energy required to pump 1 pound total propellant flow of an engine system from pump inlet to main chamber nozzle stagnation pressures = specific heat of the thrust chamber Cp gases, Btu/lb-F (Tc)ns--thrust chamber nozzle stagnation temperature, R MR = propellant mixture ratio of the engine system, O/F Ho =pressure head, based on the difference between thrust chamber nozzle stagnation and oxidizer pump inlet pressures, ft AHt :pressure head, based on the difference between thrust chamber nozzle stagnation and fuel pump inlet pressures, ft the Ep Topping flow cycle efficiencies may range from 0.996 to 0.9996. Typical cycle efficiency versus chamber pressure curves of various propellants are illustrated in figure 6-28. (6-23)
where _sc (Is)eng (ls)tc (Is)re liPeng Wtc = separate-flow cycle efficiency -- engine system specific impulse, sec =main thrust chamber specific impulse, see = turbine exhaust specific impulse, sec =engine system total propellant flow rate, lb/sec = thrust chamber propellant flow rate, lb/sec = turbine gas flow rate, lb/sec
The efficiency of the separate-flow cycle can be increased somewhat by better utilization of the turbine exhaust gases to generate thrust. A higher expansion area nozzle may be attached to the turbine exhaust duct for upper stage engine applications, for a higher (Is)re, or the turbine exhaust gases may be burned with additional propellant in an afterburner similar to that in a jet engine. Separate-flow-cycle efficiencies range from 0.96 to 0.99. In the topping flow cycle the turbine exhaust gases, before being expanded and ejected through the thrust chamber nozzle, are ducted into the thrust chamber combustion zone for further reaction with one of the main propellants. This is illustrated schematically in cases (D) and (E) of figure 6-12. Because this system requires a turbine exhaust pressure higher than the thrust chamber pressure, it results in higher propellant pump discharge pressures and a much lower turbine pressure ratio. Also, for bipropellant combinations, two-stage combustion is required. Usually combustion products of 100 percent of one propellant and a portion of the other are used as the turbine drive fluid. This method results in higher cycle efficiency, but tends to be heavier and less flexible. Since the residual kinetic and chemical energies of the turbine thrust as efficiently exhaust gas are generating as the main propellants, the
I O0
099
_--
--
r-
, Z
091
097
095 1000 2O0O CH/_.MSER PRESSURE, 3OO0 PSIA 40O0 5O0O
Figure chamber
6-28.-Typical cycle efficiency versus pressure curves of various propellants.
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
201
Sample
Calculation following A-1
(6-6) component engine, for sea test as level flow results schematically and rate. rated 1941 are
Total
engine
system
propellant = 2768
flow
rate lb/sec (6-22) turbo-
(a_) The given shown
+ 92 = 2860 equation of the
for the
stage 2-10,
in figure
Substitute to obtain the pump
the flow
above cycle
data
into
design conditions: Thrust chamber lb/sec Thrust Thrust 1000 Thrust Gas Gas Thrust Determine system, pulse pellant and chamber chamber psia chamber generator generator generated the engine thrust, mixture cycle
efficiency
oxidizer
fuel nozzle thrust, oxidizer fuel
flow
rate,
827
lb/sec pressure,
_sc-
2768x270 + 9229.34 2860x 270
_ 747 300 + 2700 772200
= 0.971
stagnation 747 300 flow rate, rate, 65.3 exhaust, of the engine conditions. lb
From 26.7 lb/sec 2700 turbopump lb lb/sec cific
equation
(6-21), level
the
engine
system
spe-
impulse
at sea
flow
by turbine efficieucy sea-level overall at rated as
(Is)eng
= 0.971
270=
262.2
see
Total engine system thrust system and ratio that, and that at the as specific system improFeng : 262.2 x 2860= 1941 750 000 Ib
(b_) Assume flow stage cycle engine
an alternate, turbopump engine system Estimate and with and engine the this
a topping of the system thrust the following combustionof the in mix(2) oxidizer (3) fuel pump A-1 is to and
Engine
system
mixture
ratio-
+ 26.7
is used
for the same
827 + 65.3
-2.20
be operated mixture turbopump sea-level assumptions: produced thrust ture pump inlet gas chamber ratio inlet pressure ratio
engine (}).
The calculations can also be made bining Ftc and Fie to derive Feng. and l),'eng are used
by first comThen Feng
in case efficiency impulse
ideal
cycle specific
system
to calculate (Is)eng. rls can c
(1) no change properties, due to the
in (Pc)ns, minor
be calculated by forming the ratio (Is)eng to (Is)to.
performance changes
and
two-stage
combustion; and
b(b.) Use from sample (Tc)ns
the combustion
product gas properties
pressure
= 55 psia;
calculation (4-1)(a__): y= 1.222 1544 y - 1) Btu/lb-deg F
= 45 psia. = 6460 R,
Solution (a__)hrust chamber T 1941 mixture ratio =--_ = 2.35 _=22.51b/mol:
C9=778_(y = 0.486
Thrust
chamber
propellant wtc
flow
rate lb/sec Pressure pressure and head difference pump between inlet: = 1910 ft chamber
= 1941 + 827 = 2768
oxidizer
Sea-level
thrust
chamber
specific
impulse AH o = (1000 - 55) 144/71.38 difference pump inlet: between 747 300 2768 -270
(Is)tc-
sec
Pressure pressure and
head fuel
chamber
Turbine
gas
flow
rate
wt=26.7+65.3=
92 lb/sec AHt= (100045) 144/50.45 = 2728 ft
Sea-level turbine exhaust
specific impulse Substitute (Is)re 2700 =_= the 29.34 sec pump topping these flow data into efficiency equation of the (6-23) turbofor cycle
202
77re= _/ 1
778 2.2 x 1910 + 2728 (i 2.2) x0.486_6460
: ,,,'0.9991 --0.9996 Since (Is)to--270 see, substitute 77t and (Is)re c into equation (6-21); the ideal engine system specific impulse (/s)eng-0.9996 270 = 269.9 sec
Turbopump System Characteristics Ideally,
Calibration
and Off-Design
necessary to calibrate a turbopump prior to its integration into an engine system. Here, the performance of each pump is determined experimentally. By modifying the pump geometry (impeller trimming) and varying the discharge hydraulic resistances, the desired operating characteristics required by the engine system are achieved. For turbopumps with a single direct or geared turbine drive (as shown in fig. 6-13), the calibration procedure begins with the experimental determination of that shaft speed at which one of the pumps (usually the oxidizer pump) develops the required head and flow. Simultaneously, the suction characteristics of this pump are determined at this speed. The other pump is then operated at the same speed and the discharge adjusted for the required flow. Based on the pressure readings, the diameter of the pump impeller is trimmed on a lathe until the desired head is produced at rated speed and flow. The pump suction characteristics at these conditions are also determined. Figure 6-30 shows the trimming effects of a typical pump. The trimming procedure requires that the pump impellers be made sufficiently large initially, since addition of material is not feasible. The calibrated pumps are then combined with a turbine. The amount of turbine working fluid which must be bled from the pump discharges to operate
an engine
system
is designed
to
operate at a single set of conditions, specifically at rated thrust and mixture ratio. Each of its components in turn is designed for optimum function at that rated thrust level. In addition, however, most of these engine components, notably pumps and turbines, are also required to operate satisfactorily within a certain range away from the design point. This may be caused by(l) System and component calibration characteristics (2) System operational deviations (3) System start and shutdown transients (4) Special system requirements, such as throttling Figure 6-29 illustrates typical operating ranges for the turbopump of a rocket engine system. The elliptically shaped areas represent ranges of operational probability. For instance, the 95-percent ellipse envelopes those values at which the pumps or turbine will operate with a 95-percent probability. Because of engine and component performance tolerance requirements and to correct for hydrodynamic variations within the components, it is
120
(z:
I00
Q: 90
6aoo
NO=_A_ 80
6000 3"= 4OO 6 _ 5500 6ooo _ ,_t_
Q. w
q
70
/
60 70 80 90 IO0 HO 12'O
45oo13 PUMP
114 FLOW,
115
116
17
$2oo
4o
$1o POWER,B
_ _o HP IIN
i 7o
8o
60
GPM IIN THOU$=_ND$}
TURBINE
J'HOUSANDS)
PUMP
FLOWRATE
Q,
PERCENT
OF
RATED
LEVEL
Figure
6-29.-Typical pump and turbine operating ranges o[ a rocket engine system.
Figure
6-30.-Trimming
effects
of a typical
pump.
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
2O3
the tally
gas
generator required considers The
is now the
established point.
experimenThis provariawith engine in engine the often is always systhe exlevel reason, thrust speed. required For require based (Seech. of one supply of operaof inan on II.) to dismake installation the
dome pump shorter in less need flight nents.
priming. must than than and attain that
The
time
in which level
a rocket
turbo-
at the
operating influence is then
full-power
is substantially turbomachinery. must be achieved by the in comporesatisfied of flow
cedure tions. remaining systems mixture charge
of turbine matched
of conventional operation This the chamber with throttling,
turbopump engine system
Frequently,
full-power 1 second.
in complete Adjustments by orificing Orifice of propellant orificing this
is dictated economy and other other transient be possibility
calibrations. ratio of one can of the and to assure same the fuel. is the
for propellant for avoiding in thrust This, together such as
consumption
be made pumps. type
instability quirements by the The
considerations it desirable done tems, pump cess are for the usually for that head. made
that For
must
propellant;
in LOX/RP
off-design
characteristics influence problem with under 6-32
of a turbopump. selection of
latter
substantially
system Adjustments
trimmed in engine turbopump
for a slight
type. Basically, the the pump characteristics of the engine system Figure
is that of coupling those of the rest operating off-design
by varying system stage at certain upper of the
off-design typical types
An engine operate stance, effective variation This pump gas ment tional
is frequently off-design vehicles utilization mixture of the the control due Design must and consider levels. often ratio. discharge
conditions. characteristics One usually operation sulting the of the occurs
shows
of various most is tends
of pumps. pump off-design point The point, head which pump reand
significant the pump low-flow erratic loss
propellant control
system
characteristics
stalling region. at this of developed
engine
in the to be abrupt
involves and
possibly
of turbine to the and
in the
if correction ratio of the
of thrust is desired.
shifting developthese
danger
of overspeeding.
mixture
turbopump the start
requirements. shutdown flow transients and pressure system the 14 ._'_PUMP I I
During an engine characteristics design
system, are
propellant determined Figure
by engine 6-31 shows
characteristics.
STALLINGPOll'
propellant flows and chamber pressure buildup history for a typical engine start transient. Note temporary oxidizer flow drop as a result of LOX
1.2
BACKWARD /
............
"'-..
.+, "\
\--.
J
,,=,_
RADI_L
""
I00
\
\
\
\ AXIAL
,p_ //'-O,.uJ /' OXIOIZER_ I / FUEL-"_
_-
tD >
80
"-,+'_-
u-
{z:
--
STARTING RANGE
0 O "--'_TIME Q5 FROM 1.0 MAINSTAGE 1.5 20 SIGNAL, 2.5 SECONDS 30
I
0 .2
PUMP RATED
.4
.6
Q
.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
FLOWRATE, DESIGN
PUMP FLOW,
Qd,s.
Figure sure system
6-31.-Propellant transient start.
flow
and
chamber during
presengine Figure 6-32.-Typical o[ various oH-design types characteristics
characteristics
of pumps.
2O4
6.3
DESIGN
OF
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMPS (6-24c)
Because of its specific needs, the rocket industry has developed its own pump design approaches which may differ from those for conventional applications. In addition, designers may employ their individual methods of analysis and calculation. However, the broad underlying principles are quite similar. The range of speeds, proportions, design coefficients, and other mechanical detail for rocket engine pumps has been well established by earlier designs as well as through experiments.
where
gl, Q1,
and AH] :rotating speed (rpm), flow rate (gpm), and developed head (ft) of the existing model at rated conditions
N2, Q2, and AH: : rotating speed (rpm), now rate (gpm), and developed head fit) of the new pump at rated conditions [: D2 /D 1 D, : scaling factor : impeller diameter existing model, of the ft
General
Design
Procedures D2
As a rule, rated pump head-capacity (H-Q) requirements and expected available NPSH at the pump inlets will be established by engine system design criteria. The first step then is to choose a suitable suction specific speed (Nss) and the type of inducer which will yield the highest pump speed (N) at design conditions (eq. (6-10)). The pump specific speed (Ns) or type of impeller can now be established from the chosen pump speed and required head-capacity characteristics. Owing to its relatively light weight and simplicity of construction, a singlestage centrifugal pump may be given first consideration. With suction specific speed and specific speed of the proposed pump design established, the designer can now look for a suitable "design model" among comparable existing pumps which approximate the desired performance. The latter includes satisfactory suction requirements, suitable head-capacity characteristics, and acceptable efficiency. If a suitable model is available, the design calculations of the new pump will include application of a scaling factor to the parameters of the existing model. The following correlations are valid for pumps with like specific speed, based on the pump affinity laws (eqs. (6-6a) and (6-6b)):
= impeller diameter of the new pump, ft This approach assumes that other dimensions of the pump are in approximately linear proportion to the impeller diameter. If a suitable model is not available for the design of a new pump, the designer can use "design factors" established experimentally by other successful designs. These may permit establishing relations between rated pump developed head and flow rate, and such parameters as velocity ratios. However, best results are obtained through experimental resting of proposed design itself. The test results then are used for design revisions and refinements. In the discussions below, the following basic symbols are used: c--flow velocities absolute (relative to ducts and casing) v : flow velocities relative to inducer or impeller u = velocities of points on inducer or impeller Subscript: 0 : inducer inlet 1 = inducer outlet : impeller 2 = impeller outlet 3 = pump casing prime 1 : actual or design inlet
N1Q1 3
N2Q2 's
(6-24a)
Operating Impeller
Principles
of the Centrifugal
Pump
(6-24b)
In its simplest form, the impeller of a centrifugal pump can be regarded as a paddle wheel with radial vanes, rotating in an enclosure, with the fluid being admitted axially and ejected at
205
the periphery. This is shown schematically in figure 6-33. The tangential velocity component of each fluid element increases as it moves out radially between the vanes. Therefore, the centrifugal force acting on these fluid elements increases as the fluid moves out radially. Assuming constant flow velocity in the radial direction and no energy losses, the ideal head rise due to centrifugal force between the central entrance (1) and the peripheral exit (2) is 2 Co) 2 AH ie :-_ (r 2 - r l 2) where AHic =ideal ft rl r_ g head rise due to centrifugal forces,
2_
OUTLET
_qOTH
u=
8ACXWA_O Ve, NE$
s_c_r io_
_,-A
,_
Figure
6-34.-Typical shrouded centrifugal peller with backward curved vanes.
im-
(6-25)
= angular velocity of the wheel, rad/sec =vane radius at the entrance, ft = vane radius at the periphery, ft =gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec 2 For optimum performance, most impellers in high-speed centrifugal rocket engine pumps have shrouded, backward curved vanes. The impeller width is tapered toward the periphery to keep the cross-sectional area of the radial flow path near constant. A typical impeller design of this type is shown in figure 6-34. Velocity diagrams may be constructed to analyze the fluid flow vector correlations at various points of an impeller. Let us assume the following ideal conditions: (1) There are no losses, such as fluid-friction losses (2) The impeller passages are completely filled with actively flowing fluid at all times
(3) The flow is two dimensional (velocities at similar points on the flow lines are uniform) (4) The fluid leaves the impeller passages tangentially to the vane surfaces (complete guidance of the fluid at the outlet) The ideal inlet (point (1)) and outlet (point (2)) flow velocity diagrams of the impeller described in figure 6-34 are shown in figure 6-35. At this point with corresponding fluid velocities u, v, and c (as identified above), a is the angle between c and u, and fl is the angle enclosed by a
T
co--Lb _1
u -_ INLET ut
v:
_-',
VELOCITY DIAGRAM
PAOIIL
.! !- Fos.
VINES EN CLOSUI_E
.._WMEEL
Cu= OUTLET VELOCITY DIAGRAMS Figure 6-35.-Flow velocity diagrams peller shown in figure 6-34 (draw normal to the impeller axis). for the imin a plane
Figure 6-33.-Paddle
wheel
(schematic).
2O6
tangent to the impellervane and a linein the direction vane motion. The latter equal to of is the angle between v and u (extended). Based on these velocitydiagrams,the following correlations have been established:' u22- u,2+ v, - v2 2 AHip 2g
Crn_ ="meridional" or (by definition for radial flow impellers) radial component of the absolute inlet flow velocity, ft/sec c2 Cu2 = absolute ft/sec outlet velocity of the flow, of the absolute ft/sec of the ft/sec
=tangential component outlet flow velocity,
(6-26a)
Cm 2 = meridional absolute /9, /32 =impeller =impeller
or radial component outlet flow velocity, inlet vane angle discharge vane angle
l/2 2 --
U,
2 +
V]
2 -
V2
2 +
C2 2 -
C12
AHi=
2g UlCu])(6-26b )
=I(u2CU
2 -
Qimp=448.8cm,A,
=448.Scm2A2
(6-27)
cm2 Cu 2 = U2 - tan fl-----_ where
(6-28)
AHip=ideal static pressure head rise of the fluid flowing through the impeller due to centrifugal forces and to a decrease of flow velocity relative to the impeller, ft _\H i =ideal total pressure head rise of the fluid flowing through the impeller= the ideal developed head of the pump impeller, ft Qimp=impeller (rated A_ As d, d_ u, u2 flow rate at the design conditions), gpm point
For pumping low-density propellants (such as liquid hydrogen), which is associated with very high developed heads, straight radial vanes are frequently used in centrifugal impellers, since they permit a higher obtainable head coefficient _. Figure 6-36 presents a typical radial vane impeller and its outlet velocity diagram. The vane discharge _2 =90 and Cu2 = u2. The ideal developed head of a radial vane impeller becomes
U2 2 tlICUl
AHi =
(6-29)
= area normal to the radial impeller inlet, ft 2
flow at the
For centrifugal pumps of the noninducer type (which are now rarely used in rocketry), proper selection of the impeller inlet vane angle _ or the provision of guide vanes at the inlet minimizes the absolute tangential component of fluid flow at the inlet, cu_, which for best efficiency should be zero. This is defined as no prerotation, where becomes a_ =90 . Thus, equation (6-26)
=area normal to the radial flow at the impeller outlet, ft 2 = vane diameter at the impeller inlet., in =vane diameter at the impeller outlet = outside diameter of the impeller, in = ,7 rpm d,,/720 = impeller peripheral velocity at inlet, ft/see = r, rpm d2/720 = impeller peripheral velocity at outlet = impeller tip speed, ft/sec =inlet flow velocity relative to the impeller, ft/sec = outlet flow velocity relative to the impeller, ft/sec =absolute ft/sec inlet velocity of the flow, of the absolute ft/see
U2Cu2
_H, -
(6-3o)
v_ v2 c1 Cul
c.2,v
_fi
OUTLET
VELOCITy
DI&V.*_M
R_D_.L
VANE
_LLER
=tangential component inlet flow velocity,
Figure
6-36,-Typical its outlet
radial vane impeller velocity diagram.
and
'2O7
The above
discussions
assumed
ideal
condi-
Cm
tions. For most rocket applications, centrifugal pumps are designed with an inducer upstream of and in series with the impeller. The flow conditions at the impeller inlet thus are affected by the inducer discharge flow pattern. In addition, two types of flow usually take place simultaneously in the flow channels; namely, the main flow through the passages, and local circulatory flows (eddy currents). The latter are relatively small but modify the former. The resultant effect at the impeller inlet is to make the flow enter at an angle flz', larger than the impeller inlet vane angle f_L. The fluid is also caused to leave the impeller at an angle/_2', less than the impeller discharge vane angle f_:, and to increaae the absolute angle a2 to a2'. This and the hydraulic losses in the impeller correspondingly change the relative flow velocities v 1 and v 2 to vl' and v2', the absolute flow velocities ci and c 2 to c,' and c:', and the absolute tangential components Cul and cu2 to cu_' and Cur'. Since the radial flow areas A_ and A s, and the impeller flow rate Qimp remain constant, the absolute radial or meridional components cm_ and cm2 also remain unchanged. The inlet and outlet flow velocity diagrams in figure 6-35 may now be redrawn as represented by the dotted lines. The correlation established in equation (6-26b) may be rewritten as
Cu2' = u2 - tan _ 2"----'_p By definition, the required head can be determined as impeller
(6-33) developed
AHim p =AH + He - hHind where
(6-34)
AH =rated design pump developed head, ft AHin d =required inducer head-rise at the rated design point, ft He = hydraulic head losses in the volute, ft. Typical design values of He vary from 0.10 to 0.30 AH. The required impeller flow rate can be estimated as Qirap = Q + Qe where Qimp=required impeller flow rate at the rated design point, gpm Q = rated delivered pump flow rate, gpm Qe =impeller leakage losses, gpm. Most of these occur at the clearance between impeller Typical wearing rings design values of Qimp. and casing. of Qe vary from (6-35)
1 to 5 percent
U2Cu2
s -
U 1 Cul
AHim p = where
(6-31)
Centrifugal
Impeller
Design
Elements
3,Himp = impeller actual developed head, ft Cut' --tangential component of the design absolute inlet flow velocity, ft/sec Cu2' = tangential component of the design absolute outlet flow velocity, ft/sec The ratio of the design flow velocity Cu2' to the ideal flow velocity Cu2 can be expressed as
C/j2 _
After general pump design parameters, such as developed head Afl, capacity Q, suction specific speed Nss, rotating speed N, and specific speed Ns have been set forth or chosen, the design of a centrifugal (radial) pump impeller may be accomplished in two basic steps. The first is the selection of those velocities and vane angles which are needed to obtain the desired characteristics with optimum efficiency. Usually this can be achieved with the help of available design or experimental data such as pump head coefficient _,, impeller vane coefficient ev, and leakage loss rate Qe. The second step is the design layout of the impeller for the selected angles and areas. Considerable experience and skill are required from the designer to work out graphically the best-performing configuration based on the given design inputs.
e v = -CU2
(6- 32 )
where
ev=impeller design 0.75.
vane coefficient. Typical values range from 0.65 to 6-35, equation (6-28) may
Referring be rewritten
to figure as
208
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
The design radial-flow
following elements impeller:
are
considered
minimum layout
basic of a or
28 , with specific Figure typical vanes. by the
an average speeds. 6-37 radial-flow The shaft presents
value the
of 22.5 c for most basic with d s may layout backward of a curved
required velocity is best
for proper impeller of inlet velocity
1. Radial eye, such duct cml design 2. Crn] ,-This as size. should values Radial value design u 2. 3. trance, ducer Diameter d 1.-Its inducer
at the a function
entrance conditions and inlet of value Typical discharge, impeller coefficient from vane 0.01 en-
impeller diameter correlations
be determined
discharge
following
For
performance, reasonably range at the u 2 and from
the low.
be kept velocity velocity
of Cml
10 to 60 ft/sec.
16 T Ss = _ rrds3 32M (5. to Ssw= \/4Ss { St+ 2 +St 2 _ \_q Ss2 + St 2 Strrds 3
(6-37)
impeller of the flow
Cm 2.-Its peripheral Typical 0.15
is a function the values of the value
(6-38)
for Crn2 range impeller at the
(6-39) (6-40)
is determined
by the in-
Stw= where ds T =impeller = shaft (2-9) M =shaft yield ultimate and
design as well as by impeller shaft and
hub size. 4. The impeller peripheral velocity at the discharge, u2.-The value of u 2 can be calcudevelhead lated by equation (6-4) for a given pump oped head H and a selected overall pump coefficient, d,. The maximum thus determines the maximum
shaft torque loads
diameter, corresponding as moment loads and defined lb-in
in to yield or by equations to by
(-10),
design value of u 2 developed head
bending
corresponding as defined lb-in lb/in 2
is often limited by the material strength which Ss S_
or ultimate (2-9) due due
equations = shear =tensile lb/in stress stress 2
(2-10),
that can be obtained from a single-stage impeller. Typical design values of u 2 range from 200 to 1500 ft/sec. With u 2 and N known, readily. is 5. The affected inlet vane angle _,.-The value of/3, by the inlet flow conditions. Generbe made /3]' which equal can or close to the the impeller discharge diameter d 2 (in) can be calculated
to torque, to bending shear shaft tensile shaft
moment, (yield lb/in (yield lb/in diameter diameter inforces stress 2 de of or 2 or
Ssw = allowable ultimate) Stw = allowable ultimate) Impeller may be equal the inducer. duced hub The
working of the working of the diameter maximum
stress material, stress material, eye tip
ally, inlet by
/31 should flow angle
dh and and tensile
be approximated
to hub
diameter by the
in an impeller
centrifugal
tan Typical 30 . 6. special /32 =90. /32 is the Usually determining since ciency important a given Typical most and design The
/3,'=Cml/(ulvalues
cu,') from
(6-36) 8 to
b I ---
for /3_ range vane vane angle/32.-In impeller vane
discharge of radial backward
the designs
i
case For most the
curved single of/32 impeller
impellers, element. step constants, Pump effiare For with from /32. Figure flow 6-37.-Basic impeller with layout backward o[ a typical curved radialin
_2
important
design first
selection the other
is the
design /32.
of them considerations
depend
on
head-capacity
characteristics for the capacity selection.
u2,
head
and values
increase
design
for /32 range
17 to
vanes.
1
DESIGN
,._
OF TURBOPUMP PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
2O9
occurs as the tangential stress shaft hole. It may be checked
at the edge of the by
S'max= PU22rnax(3+F) 576g where Stmax
I1 +3-_:-:] 1-F[ds_7
JKs
(6-41)'
p /_ ds d:
=maximum tensile stress, lb/in 2 (should be less than the allowable working tensile stress of the impeller material) =density of the impeller material, lb/ft 3 = Poisson's ratio of the impeller material =impeller shaft hole diameter, in = impeller outside diameter, in
Qtmp= impeller flow rate at the rated design point, gpm After the vane angles and other dimensions at inlet and discharge have been established, no set rule is available for designing the backward curved vanes. However, the number of vanes is usually between 5 and 12, and may be determined empirically by z =-where /32 =discharge vane angle z =number of vanes If there is a space limitation at the impeller entrance, every other vane may be made a partial vane, starting at a larger radius. The contour of the vanes is designed to afford a gradual change of flow cross-sectional area (total divergence of 10 to 14), at reasonably short flow passage length. The flow passage shape should be as close to a square as possible. The vanes should be as thin as material strength and manufacturing processes will permit. They may be of constant thickness; i.e., a contour similar for both sides may be used. This allows a thinner edge (typical value: 0.12 inch) at the inlet and resuits in better efficiency if the angle fit has the correct value. The impeller is usually a highquality aluminum-alloy casting, the vanes being integral with the shrouds. In some high-speed applications, forged aluminum alloys or titanium alloys are used. A typical aluminum forging, the 7075 alloy with a T73 heat treat, has a yield strength of 63 000 psi and an ultimate strength of 74 000 psi. In this case a two-piece construction might be preferred to facilitate machining operations. Mixed-flow-type vanes which extend into the impeller entrance or eye (shown in fig. 6-38a)are frequently used in radial-flow impellers or centrifugal pumps. This is done to match the impeller inlet flow path with the inducer discharge flow pattern and to provide more efficient turning of the flow. The mixed-flow-type impeller as shown in figure 6-38b is also frequently used in a "centrifugal flow pump." The velocity correlations and design constants of a mixed-flow impeller are essentially the same as those of a radialflow impeller. Mean effective impeller diameters (6-44)
u2 max = maximum allowable peripheral impeller speed, ft/sec = 1.25 x design value of u 2, for most rocket engine applications =gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec 2 =design factor, determined experimentally. Typical values vary from 0.4 to 1.0, depending on impeller shape. The surface finish and contour of the impeller shaft hole should be free of stress concentrations. First-class splines are preferred rather than ordinary keyways. The width of the impeller can be calculated by the following correlations: g Ks
bt =3.12
Qimp rrdlcmlq
(6-42)
b2 -3.12
Qirnp rrd2crn_e2
(6-43)
where bl /92
el
=impeller width at the =impeller width at the =contraction factor at considers effective from vane thickness
vane inlet, in discharge, in the entrance. It flow area reduction and other effects flows. Typifrom 0.75 to
such as local circulatory cal design values range 0.9.

42
=contraction Typical to 0.95
factor at the discharge. design values range from 0.85
According
to S.
Timoshenko.
210
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
are used
in the calculations
for head rise,
flow
velocities, etc. The), are presented 6-38 a and b as:
in figure
diagrams and the plane normal to the axis. The value of y varies along the flow passage. The layout of a mixed-flow impeller on the drawing board is a rather complicated drafting problem. This is due to the three-dimensional vane curvature and other complexities. The method of "error triangles" suggested by Kaplan may be used. Details of this method can be found in standard Design pump reference of Cavitating books.
dl2 - (d102 + d112) 2

(d202 d22 +d2i 2 2)
(6-45)
(6-46)
where d I =mean effective impeller diameter at the inlet, in dl o=outer vane diameter at the inlet, in dli =inner vane diameter at the inlet, in d 2 =mean effective impeller diameter at the discharge, in d2o=outer vane diameter at the discharge, in d2i =inner vane diameter at the discharge, in Effective impeller widths at inlet and discharge, b, and b2, are also presented in figure 6-38 a and b. They are equal to the diameter of a circle which is tangent to the contours of both front and back shrouds. 7 is the angle between the meridional flow vectors (cm_ and cm2) and the plane normal to the axis of rotation. It is also the angle between the plane of the velocity
Inducers
The cavitating inducer of a centrifugal propellant pump is a lightly loaded axial-flow impeller operating in series with the main pump impeller as shown in figure 6-5. The term "cavitating" refers to the fact that the inducer is capable of operating over a relatively broad range of incipient cavitation prior to a noticeable pump head dropoff. It produces from 5 to 20 percent of the total head rise of a pump. The conditions of pump critical NPSH at the 2-percent dropoff point may correspond to a 10- to 30percent inducer-developed-head reduction, depending upon its match to the main pump impeller. The required inducer head rise for a given design is expressed by the correlation
t fco2
/c_z
T!
I
d2
t
dlo dli
I d2i
dZo
I I d R
_
i
dl
AXIS--
L__
Figure 6-38.-(a) Radial-flow (b) Mixed-flow impeller impeller:
L.
vanes at the impeller entrance;
with mixed-flow
DESIGN OFTURBOPUMP PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS

hHind or = (NPSH)imp - (NPSH)ind
211
(6-47)
o,5
l
(6-48)
Figure 6-39 presents the basic elements of a typical inducer design. The primary increase in static pressure occurs at the leading (upstream) edge of the vane through free stream diffusion; i.e., through a reduction of relative speed and by operating at a small angle of attack between relative inlet flow and inducer inlet vane. The cavitation performance of an inducer depends strongly on the inlet flow coefficient qSin d (ratio of inlet axial flow velocity Cmo to inlet tip speed %0- To obtain high suction specific speeds (for highest pump speed N), the inducer must have a low flow coefficient. This results in small angles (Or, Oh) between vanes and the plane normal to the axis of rotation. As a rule, the inducer vane angle 0 varies radially according to a constant c=dtan0=dttan0t=dhtan0h (6-48a)
where AHind (NPSH)ind = required inducer head rise at the design point, ft = inducer critical NPSH = pump critical NPSH or (NPSH)c = Thoma parameter r pump total developed head H for
(NPSH)im p = impeller critical NPSH N =pump shaft speed, rpm (same inducer and impeller Q =rated pump flow rate, gpm (Ns)in d :inducer specific speed (Nss)imp (Nss)ind :impeller suction :inducer suction =pump suction
Nss
specific specific specific
speed speed speed
It also often varies axially, according to the variation of the axial or meridional component cm of the absolute flow velocity. Inducer inlet flow coefficient Ctnd, inducer diameter ratio ra (ratio of hub diameter dh to tip diameter dr), and
AXIAL FLOW
L_ AXIS
_-VANES
ROTATION
OF ATTACK
INLET FLOW --Pi
l_
DEVELOPED
_
VIEW OF VANES AT THE TIP DIAMETER
-,
OF VANES AT THE HUB DIAMETER
Figure
6-39.-Elements
of a typical
inducer
design
(three-vanes;
cylindrical
hub and tip contour).
212
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
suction specific speed (Nss)ind are related, based on theoretical one-dimensional fluid cavitation considerations, by the expression
element inducer.
used
to describe the design dictates while must
the
proport}ons suction
of an perlarge impeller for best
Frequently formance
of high
inducers diameter, diameter This diameter minimize hub inlet desired
a relatively the remain pump small can tip (as taper, may inlet flow main
(Nss)ind (1 - rd2) O's
8150(1
- 2
ind
2)075
inlet (6-49) inlet
eye eye
6ind
performance. Figure ically. inducer The equally defined is three spaced as 6-40 The also shows shown this relationship graphdated from 6-41). 6-39 This as are is inducer tain the calculation may sons, be used the one To
condition the inducer other tip the diameter to the
be accommoto lead shown tapering over in fig. of the to mainIn the values reaare normal the axis is
by tapering
actual vanes "pitch"
performance shown and can
of a typical
for comparison. in figure Pi.
be added area. mean
at a tip distance
inducer
be expressed
of tapered for dt and vane inducer to cant
inducers, dh. For elements instead The plane angle. typical variables. and outlet effective angle normal
structural sometimes of being between to the
p_ = -where Pi = pitch d e =inducer z =number The pitch defined ducer. relating the area It can ratio Pi is as Vane or vane tip spacing,
ndt
Z
(6-50)
designed to the canted defined axis
forward the
of rotation. and the sweep and inlet
vane as
in in
Table design length element. tip" of an C_ to vane It is interm to flow. presents grams For 6-41 hub the and and
6-5 contains parameters inducer
values
for inducer Figure 6-42 diathe 6-39,
diameter, tip
of vanes of vane an important "vane solidity solidity chord design at the
velocity diameters. (figs.
based design
on the
mean may
calculations For inducers
of inducers, be used with
following
correlations 6-42). tip
Sv is a descriptive (actual normal as Ci Sv =_/ or projected) to the axial
cylindrical
the vane area of the annuli
contour: dt2 + dh 2 2
be expressed
d2 = d12 "= (6-51) Li to inducer important tip (assume c. o'= O)
(6-52)
The diameter
ratio
of inducer
length
de, (Li,/d_)
is another
design
CO'--Cmo:Cml :
Qind (6-53) 3.12 -_ 4 (dr2 - dh _)
Uo=U_
r.N =_20do
nN = 7_d_
(6-54)
FLOw
_,_- '__
Figure flow speed.
6-40.-Relation coefficient and
between inducer
inducer suction
inlet specific Figure 6-4I.-Taper
i
_L_
contour
inducer.
:
SYSTEMS
213
TABLE
6-5.-Cavitating
Inducer
Design
Parameters
and
Variables
Parameter Specific Suction Head Inlet Inlet Angle Diameter speed, specific (Ns)ind speed,
or variable .......................... (Nsshn d .................. ........................... _lnd .......................
Typical
design
values
Design
requirement
6000 to 12 000 20 000 to 50 000 0.06 0.06 8 to to 0.15 to 0.20 16 (measured to axis) from plane
Head-capacity characteristics Suction characteristics Head rise performance angle flow shaft area of attack
coefficient. _ind flow coefficient, vane angle,
Cavitation Flow
O .............................. i ............................... rd ...............................
coefficient,
of attack, ratio,
normal 3 to 8 0.2 to 0.5
Performance, vane loading Performance, at the to tip speed Desired Desired 15 taper and flow
coefficient, critical
Vane solidity, Sv ............................... Number of vanes, z .............................. Hub Tip Vane Leading Sweep Vane contour contour loading .................................... .................................... ...................................
1.5 to 8.0 3 to 5 Cylindrical Cylindrical Leading lead Swept
solidity with geometry with main geometry impeller main impeller shaft
Compatibility Compatibility and shaft Performance back
to 15 taper edge loading, radial, channel swept
edge ................................... angle thickness .................................... ................................. inducer ratio outside diameter and
forward,
Vane Vane Vane
stress, stress stress
performance
(shown in fig. Normal to shaft 0.070 to 0.300
6-39) to 15 forward chord length Ci out-
Tip clearance (between casing) Length to tip diameter
(Li/dt)
................
0.5 to 1 percent side diameter 0.3 to 0.6
of inducer
Shaft axial tions Head-capacity
and
radial
deflec-
characteristics
dlt 2 +d,h 412 2
2 (6-56)
uo
INLET VELOCITY
t
DIAGRAM
r dt -
dot+d[t
2
doh +d,h 2
(6-57)
, Cl ;, C'ml
Vt "_
_:
dh =
(6-58)
Qind Co' __-Cmo : 3.12 OUTLET Figure an eters. 6-42.-Typical inducer based on VELOCITY flow the DIAGRAM (no velocity mean diagrams effective diamCml : /7 3.12x_-(dlt 2-dlh 2) of Qind (6-60) prerotation) (6-59) x4(dot2 -doh 2)
For
inducers
with
tapered
hub
and
tip
contour:
(6-61)
do 2-dt
2 +do
h2
(6-55)
(6-62)
214
For all inducers: Qind = Q Qee + Qe dh rd =_(6-63)
u1 ut Uot ult v o' v I' c o' nN Uot =-_-_dot (6-65a) Cuo' Cm o (6-66) cl
(6-64)
7rN ut = _-_ dt
(6-65)
= inducer peripheral veloci:y at mean effective outlet diameter, ft/sec = mean tip speed of the inducer, ft/sec =inducer inlet tip speed, ft/'sec =inducer outlet tip speed, ft/sec = inlet velocity of the flow relative to the inducer, ft/sec = outlet velocity of the flow relative to the inducer, ft/sec = absolute inlet velocity of the flow, ft/sec = tangential component of the absolute flow velocity, ft/sec = meridional or axial component of the absolute inlet flow velocity, ft/sec =ideal absolute outlet flow velocity, ft/sec
llr
UlCII
I'
_Hind
= ind .... g
_Hindt
Hind UlCul =" Tlind g Cm o _ind = -Uot
(6-67)
(6-68)
where Q Qind Ve Qee = rated pump flow rate, gpm = required inducer flow rate at the rated design point, gpm = impeller leakage losses at the rated design point, gpm
= inducer leakage loss rate through the tip clearance, gpm. Typical design values vary from 2 to 6 percent of Q AHind =required inducer head rise at rated conditions, ft AHindt=ideal inducer head rise at rated conditions, ft 7lind = inducer efficiency = inducer mean tip diameter, dt in = inducer tip diameter at the inlet, in dot = inducer tip diameter at the outlet, in d_t = inducer mean hub diameter, dh in doh = inducer hub diameter at the inlet, in = inducer hub diameter at the outlet, in d_h =inducer do mean effective diameter at the inlet, in dl =inducer mean effective diameter at the outlet, in
UO
=absolute outlet flow velocity, ft/sec = tangential componen t of the absolute outlet flow velocity, ft/sec cm 1 = meridional component of the absolute outlet flow velocity, ft/sec rd = hub to tip diameter ratio ind = inducer head coefficient (for range, see table 6-5) _ind =inducer inlet flow coefficient (for range, see table 6-5) The inducer is generally made from a highquality aluminum-alloy forging of single-piece construction. For manufacture, special machines and tooling are required for best results. Experimental results have indicated that a high-pressure fluid-injection system can be designed to increase the suction performance of a pump with inducer by imparting an inlet "prewhirl" to the fluid entering the inducer. Fluid injection provides a tangential component c u o in the proper direction to the absolute fluid inlet velocity c o' and thereby lowers the fluid inlet velocity v o relative to the inducer. Jet momentum and directed whirl in the direction of blade rotation combined should serve to reduce the tendency for the blade tips to cavitate as aresult of high relative velocities and low static pressure. The suction specific speed of one typical inducer design was increased from 34 000 to 44 000 by applying "prewhirl." Fluid injection is introduced tangentially (at a small angle with the plane normal to the axis of rotation) several inches upstream of the inducer inlet. It is fed from the pump outlet fluid pressure.
c 1' Cu ]'
= inducer peripheral velocity at mean effective inlet diameter, ft/sec
215
Sample
Calculation
(6-7)
The following required design data and experimental model test results are given for the oxidizer pump of the A-1 stage engine: Required pump developed head, AH :2930 ft Required pump flow rate, Q= 12420 gpm Pump shaft speed, N = 7000 rpm Pump specific speed, Ns = 1980 Pump critical NPSH, (NPSH)c = 58 ft Pump actual suction specific speed, Nss = 37 230 (from experimental tests) Pump overall head coefficient, = 0.46 Basic inducer configuration (tip and hub taper contours) (similar to fig. 6-41) Inducer head coefficient, ind = 0.06 Inducer diameter ratio, rd = 0.3 Inducer ratio, Li/dt = 0.4 Angle of attack at inducer inlet tip, i = 4 maximum Inducer tip contour taper half angle = 7 Inducer hub contour taper half angle = 14 Inducer solidity based on mean tip diameter, dt=2.2 Inducer leakage loss rate, Qee : 0.032 Q Basic impeller configuration = radial-flow type with mixed flow vanes at the inlet(similar to fig.6-38a) Impellersuctionspecificspeed, (Nss)imp = 11 000 Impeller discharge vane angle, /3 2 = 24 Impeller contraction factor at the entrance, _,=0.82 Impeller contraction factor at the discharge, % = 0.88 Impeller coefficient, ev = 0.74 Impeller leakage loss rate, Qe = 0.035 Q Pump volute head loss, He --0.19H Design and calculate the basic parameters and dimensions impeller. Solution (a__)Oxidizer pump inducer Modifying equation (6-10), the impeller NPSH can be calculated as [ NQ'S I"3"_ = L(Ns s)impj of: (a._)pump inducer, (b_) pump
Substitute (NPSH)imp intoequation (6-47)to obtain the requiredinducerhead rise AHind = (NPSH)imp - (NPSH)iad = (NPSH)imp - (NPSH)c = 293 - 58--235 ft
From equation (6-66), inducer mean tipspeed
ut= ][ Inducer d
0.06
=355 ft/'sec
mean tip diameter 720 t:-_-ut--_ 720355 ,. =ii.62
in
(from eq. (6-65)). For the given (Li/dt) ratio length of the inducer becomes Li=11.620.4=4.65
of 0.4,
the axial
in of 7 ,
For a given tip contour taper half angle the tip diameter at the inducer inlet Li dot=dt+2-_tan
7 =11.62+4.65x0.1228= 12.19 in
'rip diameter Li dlt=dt-2x-fftan
at the inducer
outlet
7=11.62-0.57=11.05
in
Mean hub diameter dh = dtrd = 11.62 x 0.3 = 3.49 in (from eq. (6-64)). For the given hub contour taper half angle 14 , the hub diameter at the inducer inlet of
critical doh=dh2X-_-tan14=3.49-4.65O.2493=2.a3 at the inducer outlet m
(NPSH)imp
The hub diameter Li d,h =dh+2x_-tan
: [7000(12420)Q,3.
L 11 ooo j
= 293 ft
14 =349+
1.16=4.65
in
216
ROCKET ENGINES
Substitute = 0.032 impeller quired for the into inducer
the
given
leakage and (6-63)
loss to obtain
rates the
Qee for the re-
From velocity
equation at d 1
(6-62),
the
inducer
peripheral
inducer equation flow rate
Qe = 0.0175
ulQind=Q+Qee + Qe = 12 420(1 From absolute component nent Cuo =0; equation inlet flow no' =0) Refer Qind
C O' :- C m 0-
x 7000 720
8.45=258.5ft/sec
+ 0.032 the
+ 0.0175) actual c o' (= its its tangential
= 13 040 inducer meridional
gpm
From nent
equation inducer
(6-66), absolute
the
tangential outlet
compo-
of the
velocity
(6-59), velocity
Cul' =AHind
cm o, assuming
compoto figure
g -235x32"2-29.2 u1 258.5 6-42 for the based Inducer flow
ft/sec
velocity
dia-
grams diameters
of the
inducer, d I.
on the mean design
effective
d o and velocity
relative
3.12
4(d
ot 2 - doh 2) 13040
inlet
flow
= 37.2 - 5.43)
ft/sec
v o' : V'Cm o2 + uo 2 = \/1384 + 71 825 = 270.6
ft/sec
3.12
_- (148.6
Inducer compovelocity sin/_o
design
relative
inlet
flow
angle
From nent
equation inducer
(6-60), absolute
the
meridional outlet flow
of the
,=cmo, =37'2 v o 270.6 design absolute
=0.135;
f_o'=7
45.
Qind
Cm 1 -
Inducer c/=
outlet +2819.61
flow
velocity ft/sec
3.12x4(d
1 $2_dlh2) 13 040
77
,v/cu 1' :+ Cm 12 -- \/_5264
= 60.5
= 3.12 From tive equation _
- 53.1 - 21.6)
ft/sec
Inducer
design
absolute
outlet
flow
angle
(122.1 the
, (6-55), inlet Inducer inducer mean effectan al
cml =--=_9--._ 1.82;cu 1'
53.1 = al' =6113'
diameter
at the
design
relative
outlet
flow
velocity
V1'= V'( - Cut')2 + Cml 2 ul = \'52 578 + 2820 outlet flow = 235 angle ft/sec
From velocity
equation at d o
(6-61),
the
inducer
peripheral Inducer design relative
7000 u o :_
^ ,,_ x 5. _o = 268
ft/sec
cml tan/31'-ul_cul,-229.3 mean effec-
53.1 -0.232; fi1'=133'
From tive
equation
(6-56), outlet
the
inducer
diameter
at the
Since depends vane
the
cavitation on the edge inlet tip, (6-49).
performance angle of attack inlet
of an inducer of the tip, and on
largely leading
at the flow and
inducer
d:=
_fd,t2 + dlh 2 _122.1 2 -
+21.6
the
inducer inlet
coefficient the vane to check
ind, angle ind with
we now the help
proceed inducer = _'1.85=845 in
to determine
0or at the
of equation
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
217
From speed
equation
(6-65a)
the
inducer
inlet
tip
Our to those ducer.
inducer shown
exhibits in figure a vane mean
characteristics 6-40 angle effective 0_ and the for a typical 0,
similar in' at d,. outlet
If we use outlet
of 1430 diameter relative
7rxN . ut=-7-_ t:
7rx 7000 72----O-- 12.19=372.5
the ft/sec the flow
inducer difference angle
between /3 l'
The tip
relative
flow
angle
at the
inducer
inlet This flow
0_ - t3,' = (14o30 allows (boundary The diameter vane d _t d, tan O_t:--d, t tan for the
') - (133 of local
') = 1_27 ' circulatory
effect
effects). angle _t at the inducer outlet tip
tanflo_
'=cmnot a vane angle
37'2 372.5 angle
:0.0998;
riot':542
'
If we use inlet tip. the
Oot = 9 at the at the inlet
inducer tip 8.45 01 = _--_--_ tan (1430')= 0.198; 01t=1112 '
of attack
ot-t3ot The
:9-(542 angle
I)_7__
318
' (<4 , inducer
as
desired) mean
vane
0o at the do
inlet
The diameter
vane d_ b
angle
OLh at the
inducer
outlet
hub
effective
diameter
tan
0o:
___ooot tan
0ot=_xtan 12.19
9 :0.220; 0o : 12025 '
dl tan --01h-d1 h tan 0_
845 =4..6-5 tan 14o30 , =0.471; 01h=2513 '
(see
eq. The
(6-48a)). We will vane doh angle 0oh at the inducer inlet hub pitch lated 0 12.19 ot : _-3-_ 90 tan : 0.829: 0oh = 39040 ` The chord as length at vane tip can be calculated at the from use three tip vanes diameter (6-50) (z : 3). The vane be calcu-
mean equation
dt can
diameter
tan
_ dot Uoh = do---_tan
pi:n'dt_rrx11.62 z
12.18
in
From coefficient
equation
(6-68),
the
inducer
inlet
flow
Li Cmo ind = u0t into 37.2 - 372.5Ci= 0.0998 -. {Oot+O_t_=sin
4.65
4.65
10o6,=0.175
: 26.57
in
s n\to obtain speed From based equation mean on the
)
(6-51) tip the diameter inducer dt solidity
Substitute the theoretical
this
equation suction
(6-49), specific
inducer
8150(1_2 (Nss)ind =
_ (Pind) 2_o._
ind
_ 8150
(1 - rd2) 0"s
_ Ci_26.57
18
Inducer Design it is
(0.9601) 0.0998
_s x (0.91)
05 A-1 Stage Following Engine Oxidizer Pump Summary
_ 8150
0.97 0.098
x 0.954
completion to compile the
of calculations results
=75 700>Nss
=37 300
advisable
systematically
218
in a summary, prior to start of layouts. This gives an opportunity for cross checks and reduces the probability of errors. Required head rise and capacity, AHind = 235 It, Qind = 13 040 gpm Inlet velocity diagram (at inlet mean effective diameter do) ao' = 90 , _o' = 745' u o = 268 ft/sec, v o' = 270.6 Co' = cm 0 = 37,2 ft/sec, Cuo = 0 Outlet velocity diagram (at outlet mean effective diameter all) a1'=6113 ', fl1'=133' u_ =258.5 ft/sec, v_' =235 ft/sec c_' =60.5 ft/sec, Cul' =29.2 ft/sec cm I = 53.1 ft/sec Axial length of inducer, Li =4.65 in Taper half angle at tip: 7; at hub: 14 Inlet dimensions dot:12.19 in, doh =2.33 in, do :8.76 vane angle at dot, 0or=9 vane angle at doh, 0oh =3940 ' vane angle at d o, 0o = 12025 . Outlet dimensions dlt=11.05 in, dlh =4.65 in, dl =8.45 vane angle at d_t, 01t=1112 ' vane angle at d,h, O_h =2513 ' vane angle at d_, 0_ = 14030 ' Number of vanes, z = 3 in
Substitute the given hydraulic head losses He = 0.19 AH into equation (6-34), to obtain the required impeller developed head AHimp = AH + He - AHind = 2930 (1 + 0.19) - 235 = 3252 ft From equation flow rate (6-35), the required impeller
Qimp = 12 420 (1 + 0. 035)= 12 855 gpm
From equation (6-31), the tangential component of the impeller design absolute outlet flow velocity
Cu2, =g-_Himp + UlCul' u2 = 32.2 x 3252 + 258.5 29.2 = 248 ft/sec 453 From equation (6-32), the tangential component of the impeller ideal absolute outlet flow velocity cu 2' 248 -= -= 335 ft/sec cu2 = ev 0.74 Referring to figures 6-34 and 6-35, and to equation (6-28), the meridional component of the impeller design absolute outlet flow velocity era2 :(%-c.2) tan 132 = (453-335) The impeller velocity design tan 24= 52.5 ft/sec outlet flow
in
Solidity at vane tip, Sv--2.18 Inlet flow coefficient, gSin d = 0.0998 (b) Oxidizer pump impeller We will use a radial-flow-type impeller with mixed-flow-type vanes extending into the impeller entrance eye, as shown in figure 6-38a. The flow path and velocity conditions at the impeller inlet can be assumed to be the same as those at the inducer outlet. From equation (6-4), the tip or peripheral speed at the impeller discharge
absolute
C2' = V/Cu2' 2 + Cm22 _-_ \/2482 + 52.52 = 253.4 Impeller u2 = _f_ = 32.20.462930 = 453 ft/sec , cm2 52.5 tan a2 - c. 2' - 248 - 0.212; The impeller outlet diameter Impeller design relative outlet design absolute outlet
ft/sec
flow angle:
a2' =
1158 '
flow velocity
d2 =
720 u 2 _ 720 x 453 ---14.8 _r N lr x 7000
v 2' = V'(U2 - cu2') 2 + cm2 2 in

=
\/2052 + 52.52 -- 211.6
ft/sec
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
219
Impeller
design
relative
outlet
flow
angle:
Outlet
dimensions outside discharge diameter vane outlet d 2 = 14.8 angle width vanes in in z i =/32/3
fi2 = 24 b 2 = 1.91 (eq. 6-44)
Cm2
52.5
tan
f12' = (u2---c-u2)
=-_--_=
0.256;
/32' = 1422
'
impeller Number = 24/3
Referring (6-42), the
to figure width of the
6-38a,
and
to equation at the vane inlet
of impeller =8
impeller
Qimp bl - 3.12 _rdlCmle 1 12 855 x 7rx 8.45 x 53.1 x 0.82 Design The =3.56 in vert the From ler at the equation discharge (6-43), the width of the impelthe of Casings main kinetic to the in figure which function energy of a pump of high into casing flow is to conat not is con-
=3.12
velocity It does The casing of the
impeller
discharge of a typical 6-5. provides is called of the the
pressure. of head. pump section inlet front pump suction which converts
contribute struction shown casing, the rear
generation The the the casing, and prior path
centrifugal
Qimp b2 = 3.12 _d 2Cm2e-2 12 855 -3.12x,x14.8x52.5x0.88=l.91in
and houses The the velocity called is
inducer, section from
nozzle. collects the is nozzle
fluid
impeller
head into pressure the volute. pump flow Since the flow
to discharge, in a suction are nozzle of the
From coefficient
equation
(6-5)
the
overall
short and the the head loss cm2 52.5=0.116 = _ - 453 is very small.
flow velocities in a suction The to suit contour the
relatively low, due to friction suction nozzle A 6-14), in eye, uniform pumps,
is designed tapered also known a tapered respects.
inducer (as suction yields nozzle,
configuration. in fig. results area impeller oxygen nozzle, best the together
suction as
nozzle an end inducer, This the
shown
A-1
Stage
Engine
Oxidizer
Pump
Impeller
Design
with most p
Summary Required = 3252 ft, impeller Qimp developed gpm flow head aud _Him
of which
gradually greatly feed to the
decreases steadies impeller.
toward flow
the and
= 12 855
capacity
assures
In liquid
Inlet
velocity d _) = 6113',
diagram
(at mean
inlet
effective
diameter al'
frequently a liner Kel-F is inserted nozzle wall. This
made of a material such as between inducer and suction eliminates in the the possibility of
/9,'=133 ft/sec, ft/sec, ft/sec diagram ', fi2' ft/sec, ft/sec (at cu,'
' ft/sec ft/sec, =29.2
u, =258.5 c,' =60.5 Cm, =53.1 Outlet velocity a2' = 1158 u 2 =453 c 2' =253.4 Inlet Cm 2 = 52.5 dimensions inlet inlet inlet inlet inlet eye hub mean vane vane
Vl' =235
metal-to-metal inducer pumps d2) turbopumps the fuel inlet is direction. the the need inducer. tip may
rubbing clearances. cause of the introduced Special
presence explosions. type fuel are drops axially (fig. pump
of narrow oxygen In 6-18), in a radial required because into the in of
Rubbing
in liquid
dangerous single-shaft to the guide the pressure flow
outlet
diameter
= 1422' v2' =211.6 cu2' =248 ft/sec ft/sec,
ft/sec,
devices
to minimize of turning
diameter= diameter effective angle width
dl t = 11.05 = d lh = 4.65 diameter b, =3.56 in
in in in
Two centrifugal fusing the channel
types vane
of volute pumps, volute the (see
casing plain fig. into increasing
are volute 6-43). a single
used and
in rocket the diffirst, the
= d, = 8.45 d, = fl,
In the volute Here,
at diameter
= 133 '
impeller
discharges
of gradually
area.
22O
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
_lrruss_ / ! STATIONA_'Y --
\ _k4 PEU-E_
I40ZZLE
IMPELLER
pLA,IN VOLUTE
_}MP
I_IF'FUS_NG V_.htE V_)L_TE
PUM_ =
Figure
6-43.-Plain volute
vo]ute
and pump
diffusing casings.
vane
centrifugal
major sure nozzle. charges major the the
part takes
of the place In the
conversion in the conical the
of velocity pump with takes channel. is its are impeller first
to presdischarge disA in before main

_ -. e=
latter,
into portion
a diffuser of the between the plain
provided conversion the volute volute volute volutes diffusing
vanes. place vanes The
channels fluid
reaches of the the
advantage However, Head losses Approximately energy volute The are areas walls which is type.
simplicity. efficient. high. kinetic Figure 6-44.-Plain volute pump. casing of a centrHugal
diffusing in pump
is more
relatively of the flow head
70 to 90 percent converted into pressure
in either
hydraulic include: a 0. included (fig. 6-44), the Their by the
characteristics by several volute angle volute volute design pump design throat area
of a plain parameters av and volute av, and Ns
volute flow side radius
The velocity from the
design
value
of the
average
volute
flow
determined
c_' may be determined correlation
experimentally
Os between tongue angle starts, are speed
c3' = Kv'_ where
(6-70)
rt at which width are b 3. influenced formance. All volute passes depending tongue.
tongue values specific
volute and Kv = experimental range higher from design 0.15 specific design to avoid at the velocity pump impact volute factor; pumps head, ft/sec and the 2 separaangle of disft 32.2 shocks tongue, at the typical Kv is values lower for
somewhat perthe
established of the throat through One
experimentally pump section any design flow av, other Q passes but
for best through part the from
to 0.55. speed
AH = rated g In order tion av is of the charge: have losses designed absolute
developed
only
of it amount the volute a con-
:gravitational
constant,
section, away
on the
location
volute direction
approach velocity
is to keep c 3' at all
to correspond vector ttigher of %'
to the
stant average flow the volute. Thus
sections
impeller speed require starts the
av"_a=', higher values
specific and the larger for the coming thus
pumps higher
1 3.12
0 360
Q a0
c3 =3.12av where c 3' = average Q =rated av =area a 0 =area flow design of the
(6-69)
av. should radius
The
radius
rt at which impeller
tongue than flow into
be 5 to 10 percent of the an opportunity to equalize tongue. before
outside and the
to suppress
turbulence leaving contact
to provide velocity pump volute flow throat section in the rate, volute, gpm in 2 at an angular tongue ft/sec impeller with the
section, (in2), from the
of a volute
The ezoidal mize
dimension b 3 at the volute cross section due to friction
bottom of a trapis chosen to minibetween impeller
location
0 (degrees)
losses
b,,.
DESIGN OF TURBOPU/_P PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
221
discharge flow and volute side walls. For small pumps of lower specific speeds, b 3 =2.0b 2, where b 2 is the impeller width at the discharge, in. For higher specific speed pumps, b 3 = 1.6 to 1.75 b 2. Tile maximum included angle Os between the volute side walls should be about 60 . For higher specific impeller discharge 9s should be made The pressure in speed pumps, or for higher flow angles aa', the value of smaller. the volute cannot always be
itsinletcan be approximated in a manner similar to thatused forthe width of a plain volute (i.e., 1.6 to 2.0 impellerwidth ba). A typicaldiffuser layout is shown in figure6-46. The vane inlet angle a 3 should be made equal or close to the absolute impellerdischarge flow angle a2'. The design value of the average flow velocityat the diffuser throat c s' may be approximated by
kept uniform, especially under off-design operating conditions. This results in a radial thrust on the impeller shaft. To eliminate or reduce the radial thrust, double-volute casings have been frequently used (fig. 6-45). Here, the flow is divided into two equal streams by two tongues set 180 apart. Although the volute pressure unbalances may be the same as in a singlevolute casing, the resultant of all radial forces may be reduced to a reasonably low value, owing to symmetry. The diffusing vane volute has essentially the same shape as a plain volute, except that a number of passages are used rather than one. This permits the conversion of kinetic energy to pressure in a much smaller space. The radial clearance between impeller and diffuser inlet vane tips should be narrow for best efficiency. Typical values range from 0.03 to 0.12 inch, depending upon impeller size. The width of the diffuser at
c 3' =_c2' where C3'--average ft/see flow velocity at the diffuser
(6-71)
throat,
d 2 =impeller discharge diameter, in d_ = pitch diameter of the diffuser throats, in Ca'=absolute flow velocity at impeller discharge, ft/sec Since each vane passage is assumed to carry an equal fraction of the total flow Q, the following correlation may be established: z -_ Q (6-72)
b3h3 where
b 3 = width of the diffuser at the throat, in h 3 =diffuser throat height, in z =number of diffuser vanes Q =rated design pump flow rate, gpm The number of diffuser vanes z should be minimum, consistent with good performance, and should have no common factor with the number of impeller vanes to avoid resonances. If possible,
//
"_X
U_PELLER VX_l[S
,/
vot_ur _$b,:.E rid
Figure 6-45.-Typical opposed double-volute pump.
single discharge, 180 casing o[ a centrifugal
Figure
6-46.-Typical centrifugal
layout o[ the diHuser pump volute casing.
[or a
222
the cross section of the passages in the diffuser are made nearly square; i.e., b 3 :h 3. The shape of the passage below the throat should be diverging, with an angle between 10 to 12 . The velocity of the flow leaving the diffuser is kept slightly higher than the velocity in the pump discharge line. Rocket pump casings are frequently made of high-quality aluminum-alloy castings. In lowpressure pumps, the casing wall thickness is held as thin as is consistent with good foundry practice. Owing to the intricate shape of the castings, stress calculations are usually based upon prior experience and test data. For a rough check, the hoop stress at a casing section may be estimated as a St = p_(6-73)
any section from 0 to 180 away from the volute tongue may be calculated for both volutes as 0Q 12420 0=0.0760 a0 = 3,12 360 x c 3' : 3.12 360 x 146 At 0=45 , a4s =3.42 in2; at 0=90 , ago =6,84in2; at 0=135 , a13s=10.26 in2; and at 0:180 , also = 13.68 in 2. Total volute throat area at the entrance to the discharge nozzle av : 2 13.68 : 27.36 The volute angle
2'
in 2 as
av can be approximated = 1158 ', say 12
av-=a
where St --hoop tensile stress, lb/in 2 p =local casing internal pressure, psia (or pressure difference across the casing wall, psi) a : projected area on which the pressure acts, in 2 a'= area of casing material resisting the force pa, in 2 The actual stress will be higher, because of bending stresses as a result of discontinuities and deformation of the walls, and thermal stresses from temperature gradients across the wall. Sample Calculation (6-8) at the outlet of the A-1
The radius rL at which start can be approximated clearance)
the volute tongues as (assuming 5 percent
d2 _. 14.8 r_ =-_ 1. uv --T 1.05 --7.77 The width at the bottom volute section shall be b 3 =1.75b 2 = 1.75x
in
of the trapezoidal
1.91 in=3.34
in
Allowing for a transition from the shape of the volute to round, we use a diameter of 6.25inches, or an area of 30.68 in 2, for the entrance to the discharge nozzle. With a 10 included taper angle and a nozzle length of 10 inches, the exit diameter of the discharge nozzle can be determined as de:6.25+2lOxtan 5
The flow conditions
stage engine oxidizer pump impeller were derived in sample calculation (6-7). Calculate and design a double-volute (spaced 180), singledischarge-type casing (as shown in fig. 6-45) for the same pump, assuming a design factor Kv of 0.337.
: 6.25 + 2 x 10 x 0.0875 : 6.25 + 1.75 = 8 in (or an area of 50.26 Flow velocity at the nozzle 12420 3.1230.68 Flow velocity inlet: in 2)
Solution From equation (6-70), the average velocity may be calculated as volute flow
:130
R/sec
c3' = Kv _/2 g_/-/= 0.337 x \/2 x 32.2 2930 =146 ft/sec Referring to figures 6-44 and 6-45, and from equation (6-69), the required volute flow area at
at the nozzle
exit:
12 420 = 79.4 ft/sec 3.12 x 50.26
DESIGNOF TURBOPUMP PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
223
Balancing
the Axial
Thrust of Centrifugal
Pumps
Unbalanced axial loads acting on the inducerimpeller assembly of centrifugal pumps are primarily the result of changes in axial momentum, and of variations in pressure distribution at the periphery of the assembly. These unbalanced forces can be reduced by mounting two propellant pumps back to back, as shown in figures 6-14 and 6-18. More subtle balancing of the axial loads can be accomplished by judicious design detail, which is especially important in highpressure and high-speed pump applications. Either one of the following two methods is frequently used. With the first method (as shown in fig. 6-47), a balance chamber is provided at the back shroud of the impeller, between back wearing ring diameter dbr and shaft seal diameter ds. Balancing of axial loads is effected by proper selection of the projected chamber area and of the admitted fluid pressure. The pressure level Pc in a balance chamber can be controlled by careful adjustment of the clearances and leakages of the back wearing ring and the shaft seals. The required Pc may be determined by the following correlation: pcrr (dbr 2 - d s 2) : pvrr (dbr 2 - d fr 2) + plrr(dfr 2 -dt_)+ porrdh _ + 4fvicm g + Te (6-74)
the turbine; lb. A positive sign indicates a force which tends to pull tile impeller away from the suction side, a negative sign indicates the opposite. The static pressure at the inducer outlet, p;, can be either measured in actual tests, or approximated by Pl = kiPo where ki :design factor based on experimental data (ranging from 1.1 to 1.8) Po = static pressure at the inducer inlet, psia The average pressure in the space between impeller shrouds and casing side walls, Pv, may be approximated by
3 u2 2 Ul 2
(6-75)
Pv:P, where u 2 : peripheral diameter u 1 ---peripheral effective p =density of
+57"----6 2g
'P
(6-76)
speed at the impeller outside d 2, ft/sec speed at the impeller inlet mean diameter d,, ft/sec the pumped medium, lb/ft 3
where Pc Pv :balance chamber pressure, psia :average net pressure in the space between impeller shrouds and casing walls, psia p_ : static pressure at the inducer outlet, psia Po = static pressure at the inducer inlet, psia ds :effective shaft seal diameter, in dh =hub diameter at the inducer inlet, in d t =inducer tip diameter =eye diameter at the impeller inlet, in dtr = front wearing ring diameter, in dbr = back wearing ring diameter, in _ei :inducer weight flow rate, lb/sec cm o =axial flow velocity at the inducer inlet, ft/sec (converts to radial) g =gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec 2 Te = external axial thrust due to unbalanced axial loads of the other propellant and/or
The main advantage of the balance chamber method is flexibility. The final balancing of the turbopump bearing axial loads can be accomplished in component tests by changing the value of Pc through adjustment of the clearances at the wearing ring and shaft seals. However, this tends to increase leakage losses. In the second method (as shown in fig. 6-48), straight radial ribs are provided at the back shroud of the impeller to reduce the static pressure between the impeller back shroud and casing wall through partial conversion into kinetic energy. This reduction of axial forces acting on the back shroud of the impeller may be approximated by the following correlation:
_ a,_ Fa -4--_
" =-d =_(u_-2-us2) (at s _ 2g
(s+t) p_
(6-77)
where Fa :reduction of the axial forces acting back shroud of impeller, lb dr =outside diameter of the radial ribs,
on the in
224
ROCKET ENGINES
,4.--- pv EXTERNAL AXIAL THRUST T e POSITIVE----_ ---=" dfr

dt
,,L.:E l
CIt&MBER
AXIAL MOMENTUM CHANGE

w i C mo
It
d_ dh
-'----r
dE',
NEGATIVE.,4.---
$H_F'T
Figure
6-47.-Balancing
axial
thrusts
of a centrifugal
pump
by
the
balance
chamber
method.
'i
......
Pl \ EXTERNAL AXIAL THRUST T a POSITIVE ---"NEGATIVE-.,"---
AXIAL MOMENTUM CHANGE Wc

mo
=
----d_, d_ , ._._.___
SEA,
i
-
"'" _ RI/
RADIAL RIBS
, _
rib metl_od.
__]L
WEARING RING Figure G-48.-Balancing axial thrusts of a centrifugal pump by the radial
ds = effective eter ur =peripheral Us =peripheral g p t s :gravitational :density =height :average impeller The following required
shaft of the
seal
diameterTinside ribs, in dr, ds, ft/sec lh/ft ribs, wall radial casing in ft/sec ft/sec 2 s
diam-
pvr;(dtr -ds 2) -4 F a =p, r,(dtr -dr 2) 2 2
radial speed speed
at diameter at diameter 32.2 medium, of the between shroud,
+ po.rdh2+4 fVCmo + Te g The pressures in and p, and Pv may
(6-78)
constant, of the distance back pumped
be approximated
or thickness
by equations (6-75) and (6-76). See equation (6-74) for other terms. Sample Calculation ribs (similar shroud (6-9) to those of the in fig. A-1 stage 6-48) are
Fa may
be determined
by the used
tZadial
correlation:
on the
back
engine
_'.
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
225
oxidizer pump impeller, with the following dimensions: Outside diameter of the radial ribs, dr= 14.8 in (equal to d 2) Inside diameter of the radial ribs, ds = 4.8 in Height of the radial ribs, t=0.21 in Width of the radial ribs, w = 0.25 in (not critical) Average distance between the casing wall and impeller back shroud, s = 0.25 in Estimate the reduction of the axial forces acting on the back shroud the radial ribs. of the impeller, due to
axial-flow pump is selected. For each stage of an axial-flow pump, head rises of 5000 to 9000 feet can be obtained. The capacity of an axial-flow hydrogen pump is usually limited to about 5500 gpm as a minimum. This is due to the minimum practical height h v of the vanes (fig. 6-49). For heights below 0.5 inch, the tip clearance required for efficient performance becomes critical, causing manufacturing problems. A reduction in rotor diameter below certain values is not practical either, because of the high rpm required for proper blade speed. Figure 6-50 presents typical operating regions of various liquid hydrogen pump types, These include centrifugal pumps of (Ns)l = 500 per
Solution The peripheral _rN . ur:'7ff'dr= The peripheral =N Us=_ds= From equation axial forces F 3zr rolaaA speed tr7000 7"2-0 speed at diameter dr
14.8=452
ft/sec ds
STATOR VANES --_
ROTOR _ VANES
at the diameter
/TiP
= x 7000 4.8= 147 ft/sec 720 (6-77), the reduction of the
"= 4-g-6g...... _
- .....
oa aAx (204 304 - 21609)
'
_ _-5g_.2
PU_P AXIS 74 680 lb OF ROTATION
"
x 71.38 (0.25 +0.21)_ 2x0.25
6.4 DESIGN
OF
AXIAL-FLOW
PUMPS
Except when used as inducers, application of axial-flow pumps in rocket engines is essentially limited to liquid hydrogen systems in a multistage configuration. Thus, the following discussions are applicable to axial-flow hydrogen pumps only. Multistage axial-flow hydrogen pumps are applied in regions which are beyond the capability of a single-stage centrifugal pump, since their construction is comparatively simple (fig. 6-4). As can be seen in figure 6-6, the fluid in an axial-flow pump flows from one stage to the next with a minimum of connecting passages. The head rise of a typical single-stage centrifugal hydrogen pump is limited to about 65 000 ft (2000 psi). Beyond this point, a multistage
I.U k3 Z
nO I_. e_ i,i O_ =E
_! :_
.S VANE HEIGHT hv, INCH Figure 6-49.-E[fect of vane height on the formance of an axial-flow pump. per-
226
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
C[_'rmFU_,L
Operation The
of the main
Impeller
Rotor impeller kinetic tangential This rotor energy of an to
!
c E_TR_FUGAL _,u=l, ;
t_,,,,
I function is flow action and Three impeller and The at its mean of the to impart the velocity, axial-flow the fluid by of the plished vanes pump
zo_ _ i TIP U'!IED u_ 16_r_'f_C
increasing
component is accomrotor to cylindr, at the diam-
absolute by the (figs. the sections. at the hub by dh,
of airfoil-shaped 6-52). sections on several developed are
6-51 vanes
It is convenient
,i
] AXlIL FLOe PUlP i
describe drical interest: impeller
of particular
.....
I,
I,J
tip diameter mean
effective
Figure ous rocket stage mended pumps For any
6-50.-Typical pump engine types
operating for
regions
of vari-
eter
dm (inches).
effective
diameter
liquid-hydrogen-fueled
is defined
applications. dt2+dh 2 dt2(l+rd 2 2 2) (6-79) centrifugal (1 to 6 stages; use); stage region, configuration. occur which axial-flow pump. by other mounting For The and and there could per pumps not of recom-
(1 and
2 stages); per stage -=3000 operating design regions engine
dm2 -
(Ns) 1 = 1000
for rocket of (Ns)l given
axial-flow is usually be fulpump best or where For conditions to the are Pr mean rd = impeller simplicity, are effective spaced hub vane discussed ratio here diameter or dh/dt. and with The flow only din. respect vanes distance
(1 to 12 stages). However,
a best-suited overlapping filled solution such as by either then space
characteristics
a multistage centrifugal is dictated envelope, and others.
by a single-stage
equally
at a circumferential
considerations, ducting
ri_
arrangement, quirements head rises met pump value charge critical ler. This by either also has
instance,
the
re-
Pr -=Zr
(6-80)
for the region above 5500 from 30000 to 65 000 feet, a single-stage axial-flow its than 0.2 pump. inch 6-34), dimensional centrifugal The
gpm, and could be pump A disor where Pr--pitch or rotor vane
a multistage of less width, the
centrifugal impeller complicate and make impellimit 250 gpm.
spacing d m, in
at the
mean
limitations. for the would
effective z r -=number The ratio the pitch
diameter
b 2 (fig. of shrouded tip clearance
of rotor vanes of the rotor vane called rotor
chord
length Sr
Cr to
manufacture
impellers the lower pumps
Pr is
vane
solidity
of an open-faced capacity at about
establishes hydrogen
Cr
for centrifugal
s,:_
where S_-= rotor diameter The from structural chord tip vane din. to pitch diameter The most vane. the by the of the along and the ratio generally of the line important thickness line strength. to the or rotor solidity at the mean
(6-s_)
effec-
Basic
Assumptions operation that absolute all the flow stages
for Axial-Flow of an axial meridional velocity of the the flow
Pumps pump, it is
tive
During assumed of the throughout the tion, flow remain except casing stator. the
increases dh for vane (fig. can 6-52)
or axial impeller flow areas of the
component rotor and equaalso
rotor
dt to hub profile mean of the The mean action line, vane
diameter
Cm is constant
reasons. determines
be represented which properties vane varies formance effectively angle of the
To satisfy cross-sectional at right This effects and the
continuity to cm must
hydraulic of the perimpart the angle, To fluid, vane
various
passages constant. for the walls
angles
for better
assumption of frictional vanes.
is reasonable, drag at the
for structural driving mean
vane
pUmP. impeller impeller rotor, _ncl st_tor of f_n _xi_l-[loW
o',/\/
\__
228
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
is gradually ference of the section. all vane vane
increased the curvature
from two, along
fi2 to f13. any particular pump
The
dif(d,), vane
between Generally, mean
/33-/32,
is a measure designs, by a can be Cm =Cu2' tan
(AH)I 2
Um
(6-90)
in axial-flow can following
g a2' =cu3' tan aj =c 2' sin a2' (6-91)
lines The
be approximated correlations
circular arc. established:
= c 3' sin
a 3' = v 2' sin
/32' = vj
sin/33'
where /3c 2 (6-82) i ii = angle = angle the Cr=2Rr where /3c = chord /32 =vane /33 =vane Cr = chord Rr = radius Lr = axial (All eter, parameters din) An angle tween of the rotor, of the rotor relative /32', fluid. of attack inlet vane velocity Also, flow the or incidence angle of the for more an angle the /32 and flow "ii" rotor of the rotor, velocity outlet 6-52) is effective outlet relative fls'of rotor with the For diagrams vanes following AHimp (AH) 1 He angle the "i" bev2', v 3' angle angle angle length of the length of the at the at the of the rotor of the refer rotor rotor rotor rotor vane rotor vane, inlet, outlet, vane, curvature, vane, in diamCu2', deg deg deg in in c2', cj Um cm sin -sin f_c (6-83) /32', a2', /33' a3' = relative inlet =absolute inlet = meridional absolute = rotor =design the of attack, allowed outlet, flow and flow and deg for circulatory deg angles angles deg component of the ft/sec at mean ft/sec at design flow ft/sec outlet velocities outlet, and of the velocities, velocity din, flow and inlet at the deg at the rotor rotor outlet, flow at
outlet, or axial flow
peripheral absolute rotor inlet rotor
effective
diameter
to the
mean
effective
cu3' = tangential absolute velocities, : design the
components ft/sec flow and
direction the for driving Qimp Q Qe vane velocthe of
entering allowed
relative rotor inlet impeller design design
velocities outlet, rate gpm flow rate, rate, ft/sec
at
is allowed
=required rated = rated = impeller = contraction (0.85 = required stage, = rated
flow point,
at the gpm gpm passage (2 to
circulatory angle ity the design
between direction the and (fig. rotors, inlet
/33 and flow
pump of Q) factor
of the flows
leaving
leakage
loss
of impeller at the
10 percent
of vane
can be constructed correlations:
to 0.95) developed ft design developed pump head stator, stage, per losses ft per refer axial to the flow mean pump head ft stage of per head per impeller
/32 =/32' + i [93=/33' + ii

Qimp 3.12 Qimp x;(dl 2 - d h 2)
(6-84) (6-85)
axial-flow = hydraulic impeller (d,), (6-86) (All applicable =head stage parameters din) effective = Q + Qe (6-87) ing (6-88) At tip diameter .N um= _-_dm correlations are velocities diameter, various dL and Cm -
coefficient
cylindrical between established:
sections vane angles
between dh, the and
vane followflow
hub diameter
UmCuj
UmCu2
dm tan (6-89)
fi2 --dr
tan/32_ =dh tanfl2h=dxtan /32x (6-92)
AHirap
= (AH)1
+ He -
DESIGNOF TURBOPUMPPROPELLANT. FEED SYSTEMS
229
dm tan fla :d_ tan fi3t =rib tan /_3h=dx um dm ut dt Uh dh t/x dx tan /_3x (6-93)
Referring at the stator
to figure 6-52, the velocity diagrams inlet and outlet are constructed with
(6-94)
Cur__' : : ca2,__'
rlm dt dh
C u.___3 i Cu3t' _ Cu3h ,
(6-95)
(6-96)
dm
dt
dh
where = rotor hub = rotor hub = rotor and

Cu2 h'
_3t,
_3h
Ut, Uh Cu2t',
inlet vane angles at tip and diameter, deg outlet vane angles at tip and diameter, deg peripheral velocities at tip hub diameter, ft/sec
the assumption that the absolute flow velocities and angles at stator inlets and outlets are equal to the corresponding ones at the rotor outlets and inlets. This facilitates the design of multistage axial-flow pumps using uniform rotor and stator stages. To deflect the fluid effectively, the stator inlet vane angles a 3 should be greater by a few degrees than the inlet absolute flow angles aa'; i.e., an angle of attack "i" should be allowed. Also, an angle "ii" should be allowed between outlet vane angle a4 and outlet absolute flow angle a 4' for the circulatory flow (boundary condition). The following correlations can be established for the vane and flow velocity diagrams of the stator (fig. 6-52): rrdm Ps :-gs
Cs
(6-97)
:tangential components of the design absolute rotor inlet flow velocities at tip and hub diameter, ft/sec
Ss :P_-s
(6-98)
Cu3t',
Cu3h' =tangential components of the design absolute rotor outlet flow velocities at tip and hub diameter, ft/sec Cs=2R
(23 {2C--
+ 2
(24
(6-99)
Function of the Statot The purpose of the stator of an axial-flow pump is to convert a major portion of the tangential component of the absolute flow velocity leaving the rotor into static pressure. This is accomplished by "straightening" the flow as it leaves the rotor. The stator vane curvature is designed so that the fluid enters the vanes with minimum loss, and leaves the stator with a reduced tangential component of the absolute flow velocity. The cross-sectional areas of the stator flow passages normal to the axial direction are equal to those of the rotor. Thus, the axial component of the absolute flow velocity is maintained. The dimensions dt and dh of the stator can be treated as equal to the tip and hub diameters of the rotor. The chord-pitch ratio of the stator vanes generally increases from hub diameter d h to tip diameter dr. The axial length Ls of the stator vane at the mean effective diameter is usually made equal to that of the rotor, Lr.
- si-_-_ac i
+ii
s sm _---_---) aa :as'+
a 4 :a 4'
(6-100) (6-101)
(6-102)
C m
CU31
tan
_3':
CU4' tan
a 4'
= c a' sin a a' = c 4' sin a 4' (6-103) dm tan an=dr tan a3t :dh
dm
tan a 4 =dt tan a 4 t
tan aah=dx
tan a3x
(6-104)
=dh tan a4h=dx whe:e Ps zs Ss Cs

_C
tan a4x
(6-105)
: pitch or stator vane spacing, = number of stator vanes : stator = stator = stator vane solidity vane chord length, vane chord angle, in deg
in
230
a3, a4 Rs Ls i ii a3', a 4' Cm %', c,' cu3', Cu,'
:vane angles at stator inlet and outlet, deg : radius of the stator vane curvature, in = axial length of the stator vane, in : angle of attack, deg : angle allowed for circulatory flow at the outlet, deg = absolute flow angles at stator inlet and outlet, deg = axial component of the absolute flow velocities, ft/sec = design absolute flow velocities of stator inlet and outlet, ft/sec =tangential components of the design absolute velocities at stator inlet and outlet, ft/sec
A higher pump specific speed is linked with lower solidity. Typical design values for vane solidities for the rotor and stator at the mean effective diameter dm range from 1 to 1.3, and 1.5 to 1.8, respectively. 3. Number of vanes Zr, zs.-A lower pump specific speed generally results in a larger number of vanes. Design values of Zr range from 14 to 20. Design values of Zs vary between 35 and 45. Their number should have no common factor with z r. 4. Vane curvature and vane setting.-Experiments indicate that the head developed by an impeller rotor is essentially determined by the vane curvature; i.e., fis-/32Changes in vane settings, i.e., outlet vane angle /33 and inlet vane angle/32, by the same amount (/3a- f12 = const) will not affect head rise and efficiency materially. The design procedure for the impeller rotors and stators of a multistage axial-flow pump is essentially the same as that for a single-stage centrifugal pump, except for the determination of the number of pump stages. Design parameters and coefficients established experimentally with earlier successful designs should be utilized to the fullest. Special development tests are still required to verify the characteristics of the new design. The design procedure includes the following steps: 1. To meet a given set of engine system requirements such as rated design pump developed head H, flow rate Q, and rated pump (NPSH)c, the pump rot.tting speed N is deternfined first through selection of a suitable inducer of a given suction specific speed (Nss)ind. 2. With N established, selection of impeller rotor and stator of a given specific speed per stage (Ns)z, combined with the determination of the number of pump stages, can now proceed with the aid of the following correlations. (Ns) _ - N(Q)s (H)I o-Ts AH=hHind:Hee+n(hH)l where (Ns), N = specific speed per axial-flow pump stage = rated design pump rotating speed, rpm (6-106)
stator inlet vane angles at tip, hub and any intermediate diameter, deg a4t, a4h, a4x : stator outlet vane angles at tip, hub and any intermediate diameter, deg (All parameters refer to the mean effective diameter din, unless specified differently.)
ast,
ash, asx:
Design
of Impeller
Rotors
and Stators
A number of design factors directly affect the performance and characteristics of an axial flow pump. Evaluation of test information, on the basis of specific speed per stage (Ns)l, shows definitely the following correlations: I. Impeller bob ratio, rd.-The ratio of impeller hub diameter dh to tip diameter dt (fig. 6-51) has a direct bearing on the specific speed per stage (Ns)_. Higher specific speed pumps have smaller hubs or hub ratios which results in greater free flow area, and thus greater capacity, but lower head (H/Q characteristics). On the other hand, a higher hub ratio tends to yield a higher head coefficient per stage ()1. Typical values of r d in rocket engine hydrogen pump designs range from 0.76 to 0.86. Typical design values for (Ns)_ and (), range from 3000 to 5000, and from 0.25 to 0.35, respectively. 2. Vane solidities St, Ss.-The vane solidities or chord-spacing ratios of the rotor and stator are important design parameters. They are selected on the basis of previous experience.
(6-107)
DESIGN
OF
TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
231
Q = rated design pump flow rate, gpm (AH) 1 = rated design pump developed head per axial-flow pump stage, ft AH = rated design pump overall developed head, ft AHin d = inducer rated head rise, ft Hee = hydraulic head loss at the inducer stator, ft =number of axial-flow pump stages 3. For the specific speed per stage (Ns), thus obtained, various design factors and coefficients such as impeller hub ratio rd, vane solidities Sr and Ss, number of vanes zr and Zs, head coefficient per stage (_),, etc., are selected based on past designs with comparable (Ns)l values. 4. The required impeller rotor and stator diameters, velocity diagrams and vane profiles can now be derived from equations (6-79) through (6-105). Impeller rotor and stator vanes are generally machined from forgings (fig. 6-51 and 6-53) using aluminum alloys or nickel-base alloys such as K-Monel. In view of the relatively low head produced by an individual axial-flow impeller stage, reduction of skin friction and flow turbulence losses are more important than with centrifugal pumps. A high degree of vane streamlining and polishing is required for high efficiency. The axial distance da between impeller rotor vanes and stator vanes (fig. 6-51) has some bearing on performance. Typical design values of d a range from 0.02 to 0.05dr, where dr=the n
impeller tip diameter. clearances, c, between 6-49) range from 0.005
Design values for tip rotor and stator (fig. to 0.010 inch.
The vane thickness along the mean line is mainly determined by structural considerations, since experiments indicate that there is very little effect on Ferforma_Lce from variation of vane thickness. The problems with stressing pump rotor vanes are similar to those with turbine blades. The methods given in section 6-5 for turbines can be applied here also. Vane stresses include centrifugal stresses, stresses due to lift and drag loadings vanes, and vibrational stresses. bendit_g on the
Design Pumps
of Cavitating
Inducers
for Axial-Flow
The design procedures and parameters for eavitating inducers in axial-flow pumps are essentially the same as those for a centrifugal pump (fig. 6-51). Usually, the inducer has a cylindrical tip contour and the same tip diameter dt as the impeller. The contour of the inducer hub is highly tapered fl'om a relatively small diameter at the inlet to a diameter close to that of the impeller at the outlet. An inducer stator, which also serves as the front bearing support, is positioned behind the inducer rotor. It is designed to convert into pressure, a portion of the tangential component of the absolute flow velocity leaving the inducer, and to discharge the fluid at an absolute flow velocity and angle equal to that at the outlet of an impeller stator (c 2' = Cu' ). The inducer stator has the same db and dt as the impeller, and thus the same effective passage cross-sectional area normal to the axial velocity component cm. The inlet and outlet velocity diagrams for the inducer stator are shown in figure 6-52. The following correlations can be established for the design of an inducer stator: _rdm
Pis = Zis
['.."
"._I i
ROTOR
(6-i08)
Cis
Sis -- _ Figure 6-53.-Inducer, impeller rotor assembly of a typical flow pump. rotor, and turbine multi-stage axialaic= + a2 2
(6-109)
al
(6-110)
232
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
Inducer Cis=2Ris sin al =al' -sin aic range ranges +i (6-112) (6-113) have ler a2 = a2' + ii rotor from from
stator
vane
solidity the The with number
design Zis
values Zis, should of impel-
1.5 to 1.8; 15 to 20. factor zr.
of vanes number
number the
no common vanes,
Cm=Cul
'
tan
UII=Cu2 ) tan
a 2' sina 2' (6-114)
Design As section
of Casings shown which stages. radial last
for Axial-Flow 6-6 and consists the vanes rotor the axial the vanes that and that the volute velocity flow area inducer includes which stage. flow
Pumps 6-54, the casing and located In addition comalso by the sec-
=c 1' sinai'=C2' dm tan al=dt tan al_ =dh tan tan a_h:d
in figures pump houses guide 'impeller the
of an axial-flow x tan alx (6-115) impeller tion

d m tan a 2 =d t a2$
of a cylindrical stage a volute is
It also
with the
behind tan a2h=dx tan a2x (6-116) ponent
=dh where Pis = pitch ing, Zis Sis Cis

aic
to converting into
tangential
velocity section
pressure, the
serves or inducer in of inducer stator stator angle deg angles outlet, of the at inducer deg. inducer in of the inducer stator stator vane stator inlet vane vane of the stator vanes are length, stator in solidity chord inducer stator vane spacgradually volute The minimum radial (fig. usually no
to reduce increasing discharge. radial losses
component toward volute enters them the section them in a pump vanes should of impeller be determined diagram areas pump for
=number =inducer =inducer = chord vane,
guide such
of the fluid it leaves
designed
with
plane, 6-46). ranges
analogous The number from
to a centrifugal of radial guide 17 to 23. the They
I ,
a 2
= vane and = radius
have
common vanes.
factor Vane the
with angle flow
number av can
Ris Lis
rotor
curvature, =axial vane, i ii = angle = angle at the

al' , a 2'
length in
by constructing that section. The calculations sections (eqs.
velocity required flow
of the of an identical axial
at the volute hydro-
of attack, allowed outlet, flow inlet component velocity, absolute stator
deg for circulatory deg angles and at inducer deg absolute at flow
various are gal gen, range volute modate insulation surfaces. boiloff. pump
essentially
to those 6-70). For flow The
for a centrifuliquid velocities section of the thermal pump outside hydrogen
6-69
and
design from the
values 100 high should This
for volute
= absolute stator
to 150 ft/sec. circular pressures. be applied will prevent
outlet, of the ft/sec flow inlet
Cm
is generally
in shape First-class to the excessive
to accom-
= axial flow = design
CI'
, C 2'
velocities and outlet,
inducer ft/sec c i u', c2 u' = tangential absolute stator alt, a2t, alx, (All eter a_h a2h a2x parameters din, unless =inducer tip =inducer tip =vane and and
components velocities inlet stator hub stator hub to the and inlet outlet diameters, at any mean outlet,
of the at inducer ft/sec angles deg vane diameter effective
design Balancing at at Axial-Flow Balancing multistage tion, dx diamSpecial balance ance in view pistons, piston is the Axial Thrust of Multistage
vane
Pumps of the axial-flow of the are secured balancing combined pump high devices, axial thrust involved. as used. rotor automatic The balas assembly, of a func-
diameters,
angles deg
is an important such
pressures
angles refer
frequently to the
specified
differently.)
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
233
shown ing located
in figure on either (toward thus the
6-54. side the
It consists with a pair disk. of the piston, rub, seal rub. chamber of the inlet)
of a disk of seal A forward rotor reduces simultaneously As
havATa=APc--c(df where ATa Apc front counof the dt dr = variation thrust, =variation trol =diameter = diameter of the lb of the chamber, of the of the
r7
small
clearances
rubs,
-dr 2)
(6-117)
movement bly, and
assemthe
forward fluid psi front rear seal seal
hydraulic pressure rub, rub,
axial in the in con-
balance front seal rear control is
clearance increasing the and teracts rotor of the sure volume cavities pressure in forward Similarly, rotor increase pressure rear
at the
it at the in the rubs forward and assembly in the a rearward seal the
a result, effect
between
reduced.
This axial its
in
hydraulic restrains movement is control
thrust
assembly
forward (reverse
motion. thrust) by a presThe through the lowvariation as
Sample The system test stage on lar
Calculation following requirements are fuel 6-51
(6-10) design and given (liquid multistage and 6-54). data, for the based alternative pump, on engine model A-2 based (simi-
counteracted chambers.
on experimental hydrogen)
to the rear of the control in the rotor, communicates region axial of the thrust pump can inlet.
chamber, with The
results, engine
an axial-flow, to figs.
configuration
be expressed
o t "-
vo,
(:Iv,
- .....
_,:\_ _
_ :\
--4---..
--Jr --
.......
\\
---dr df
"_"_!\_4, /.L_.__\'< :_<\\
.\",",\ R.P.M. _..-_,_ ',"-," : \:',c', _ _ , ,,\', >_ Zf I
/--
.........
_
K_;,_'
_,_
I
,
_?/
/V"
I
I
........ _/
jl
_.Y/>
FRONT
SEAL
RUB'--"
X-BALANCE CONTROL
PISTON CHAMBER
Figure
6-54.-Axial-(low
pump
volute
casing
and
balance
piston
arrangement.
234
ROCKET ENGINES
Rated design = 44 800 ft Rated Rated Inducer contour; Inducer Inducer Inducer Inducer Inducer Inducer Number Specific Head Impeller Impeller Head loss = 53 400 inlet head leakage stator stator design design general
pump pump pump
developed flow rate,
head,
AH gpm
[N(q)s] _.33_ (AH), = L (--N_), J
Q = 6080 = 135 ft = cylindrical
(NPSH)c hub contour
_[27000 (60s0) 713

tip - [ 325-O ] = 5580 ft d max the Q 132.2 5580 From equation mean (6-90), effective the peripheral diameter dm speed at
configuration
tapered suction
specific flow
speed,
(Nss)in i=0.09 = 0.307
coefficient, ind rate, loss, solidity, stator loss
coefficient, head vane
impeller
Qee = 0.03 Sis--1.53 vanes,
Hee =0.08AHind Zis = 17 pump pump stage, tive stage, dinQe = 0.06 impeller Sr at the vanes, Q stator, mean 2 z_ = 16 8s at the mean The contraction impeller rotor dt--dm From diameter equation (cylindrical From equation diameter
of inducer speed coefficient hub ratio, per
axial-flow axial-flow
(6-88),
the
impeller
mean
effec-
(Ns) 1 = 3200 per
(,/,), : 0.304
rd : 0.857 loss stage rate, of the solidity = 1.05 rotor : 1.61 passage vane leakage per
720 Um_ 720 x 768 7rN 7r270_=6.52
in
(6-79), tip
the
impeller
rotor
tip
He = 0.08 (AH)I Impeller effective Number Impeller effective Stator factor, Angle Angle outlet, Calculate and vane detail rotor and rotor vane diameter of impeller stator vane diameter rotor vane at the
contour)
_ 6.52 hub
(1 +rd2 )
2 ---7 1+0.734
in
solidity
diameter
e = 0.88 of attack allowed ii : 5 and design of: and (a) stator. Seven stage are inducer basic inducer pump stator, dimensions and (b) inlet, flow i = 4 at the vane The rotor for circulatory
dh--rddt:O.S57x7=6 vane height
in
hv =_=_-_=
0.5 in
impeller
main used. head
pump From rise
stages eq.
and (6-107),
one
inducer the required
Solution (a) From speed
(refer Inducer equation can
to fig. stator
6-52)
AHind the rated pump rotating AHind
(1 - 0.08)
: AH-
n(hH),
(6-10),
be determined: o._ (N ss : (N ss)ind QO_ Use : 53 400)
_ (44 800 - 7 5580) 0.92 = 6240 ft
N:
Nss
(NPSH)c
an inducer impeller rotor
tip
diameter tip diameter.
of 7 inches, Inducer
equal head
N - 53 400 (135) Ts = 27 000 (6080) _s From head per equation stage (6-106), the
rpm
to the rise:
pump
developed
Nrrdt _ 27 000 7r 7 = 826 ut = 720 720
ft/sec
SYSTEMS
235
Substitute
this
into
equation
(6-66): 3.12 _- 230
AHind
= _'ind
ut2 _ = 0.307
(826)2 = 6500 32.----_
ft The mean effective
diameter
at the
inducer
This
is slightly more than the minimum
of 6240
outlet
feet required. The required impeller and inducer flows are (6-35) and (6-63): d_ -dt2 +d,h 2 2 = _49+ ' 37.58 _ =6.57 in
obtained from equations
Qimp
-- Q + Qe = 6080 +Qe
(1 + 0.06)
= 6450
gpm
Tile peripheral speed
at d,
Vind=Q+Qee
= 6080 We use inducer cylindrical ity and flow its result a hub diameter
(1 + 0.03
+ 0.03)
= 6450
gpm "1-
Nrrd _ _ 27 000 ,7 6.57 : 774 720 720
ft/sec
doh=2.9 that the
inches we are of the as:
at the using inducer a nent From equation inducer (6-66), design the tangential outlet compoflow
inlet. tip from
Considering contour, equation
absolute
inlet
veloc-
of the
absolute
meridional
component (6-59)
velocity, , g _ 650032.2 774
Qind Co' _- Cmo : 3.12 x-_(dt 2 -doh 2)
cu,
= AHind
: 270 ft/sec
The velocity = 64.8 8.41) coefficient: ft/sec
inducer
design
absolute
outlet
flow
3.12 Check for inducer
6450 4(49inlet flow
cl, =VfCul, 2 + Cm 2 : V/72 900+
52 900 : 354.7
ft/sec
The
inducer
design
absolute
outlet
flow
angle
_ind
Cmo ..... ut Use
64.8 826 0.0784 (< 0.09 max. specified) tan
cm
230 0.852; a 1 =4026 '
a I =--cul' :_-0=
identical of the outlet,
values absolute the
cm for the flow stators and
meridional through rotors. flow stators e=0.88). conditions cal to those the We use area an equal (i.e., inducer to that in, stator of the dh=6 with a meridional rotors in, and and the impeller in, dm=6.52
component the From inducer
velocities
equation
(6-86)
dr=7
Qimp
C/B-2
We also assume at the inducer at the stator inducer inlet
that stator
the absolute flow inlet are identiFrom at dm equation
outlet. vane angle
3.12x_(dt
- dh 2) e 6450 3.12 x4 (4936) x 0.88
(6-112),
= 230
ft/sec For outlet,
al =a,'+i=4026 a design absolute
' +4 =4426 ' flow angle at the yields stator a vane
a2' of 65 , equation at the stator outlet
(6-113)
From eter
equation inducer
(6-60), outlet
the
required
hub
diam-
angle
at the
a2 =a2'+ii=65 The lute tangential flow component velocity
+5 =70 of the stator abso-
dlh=_dt2
Qind 3.124cm
outlet
236
cm c, 2' = tan a 2' = tan 230 230
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
Nominal = 107.2 ft/sec Vane =70;
mean
effective (fig. 6-52),
diameter,
d m =6.52 a2
in
65 - 2.145
elements
al =4426'; Zis=17;
aic=5713'; =4.16 in
Sis=l.53; Cis=l.844in;
The
stator
absolute
outlet
flow
velocity
Pis=l.205in; Ris
Lis=l.55in;
c 2' = \/c u 2' 2 + cm 2 = X/11 490 + 52 900 -- ,,:'65 350 = 253.8 From ducer equation vanes (6-108), at dm the pitch of the ft/sec in(b) Impeller that rotor the and design rotor are Thus stator absolute inlets identical and flow to those condiimat the
Assume tions peller inducer Pis - rrdm _ ,76.52 Zis 17 1.205 in at the stator stator
impeller outlets outlet.
at the
stator
a2'
=a4'
=65
From inducer
equation stator Cis
(6-109), at dm = 1.53
the
chord
length
of the
c 2' cm
=c 4' =253.8 =230 ft/sec
ft/sec
= Sis Pis
x 1.205
= 1.844
in The design rotor inlets
cu2' = cu4' = 107.2
ft/sec
From inducer
equation stator
(6-110), at dm
the
chord
angle
of the
relative
flow
angle
at the
impeller
vanes
a, +a2_4426 aic 2
' +70 =57o13 2
'
tan
cm /32 ' - um-cu2
230 -1 - 768-107.2
= 0.344;
f12' = 19
From inducer Lis The ture
equation stator
(6-111), at d m
the
axial
length
of the
vanes sin
rotor
The relative inlets
flow
velocity
at the
impeller
= Cis radius
aic -- 1.844 of the inducer
sin
5713
' = 1.55 curva-
in
v2' =\/ium-Cu2')
2 +cm 2 = ,_/436 700 + 52 900 = 699.6 ft/sec
stator
vane
at dm
From angle Cis 1.844
equation
(6-84),
the
rotor
inlet
vane
at d m /32 =/32' +i=19
+4 :23
Ris=2
sin(-_)
-2xsin(1247')=4"16
in
A-2
Stage
Engine
Fuel
Pump
Inducer
Stator
From head at AHimp
equation
(6-89), rotor
the
required
developed
Design
Summary specified effective flow velocity c 1' =354.7 ft/sec velocity c 2' = 253.8 ft/sec dt = 7 in dh = 6 in hv=0.5 in tip diameter, hub vane diameter, height, diagram ft/sec; (fig. 6-52), ft/sec; otherwise, diameter diagram ft/sec; din.) (fig. 6-52), c m =230 aa' ft/sec; all data are
for the
impeller
(Unless the mean Inlet
= (AH),
+ He = 5580
(1 + 0.08) = 6026 ft per stage
=4026'; Cu,' = 270 Outlet flow
From nent impeller
equation design outlet rotor
(6-89), absolute
the
tangential flow velocity
compoat the
of the
a s' = 65; cu2' = 107.2 Nominal Nominal Nominal
Cm = 230
ghHimp Cu_ 'um _ Cu2' -
32.2
6026 768 +107.2 = 359.6 ft/sec
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
237
The velocity
impeller
rotor
design
absolute
outlet
flow Rr= 2 sinft/sec Assume that
Cr /33-/32 2
1.346 2sin533 '=6'95in
C3' = V/Cu3' 2 + Cm2 _- V/129 300+ 52 900 = 426.9
the
design stator rotor stator
absolute inlet outlet. inlet are
flow From vane
condito equation at
The angle
impeller
rotor
design
absolute
outlet
flow
tions those (6-101),
at the at the the
impeller impeller impeller
identical
angle
Cm tan a3'=Cu
230 a3'=3240'
dm a3 =a3' +i = 3240 (6-102), at dm ' +4 -=36o40 the impeller , stator
3,-359.6=0.641;
The velocity
impeller
rotor
design
relative
outlet
flow
From outlet
equation angle
vane
v 3' :V/(Um
- Cu3') 2 + cm 2 (Z 4 = X/166 800 + 52 900 : 468.7 ft/sec The axial to that length of the Ls-_ of the rotor Lr: stator vanes; 0.645 in vanes thus at d m is flow
-- a 4' +
ii : 65 + 5 -- 70
The angle
impeller
rotor
design
relative
outlet
equal
tanfl3'
cm (um-cu3')
230 408.4
-0.564;
fij=2026'
From stator
equation at dm
(6-99),
the
chord
angle
of the
vanes
From angle
equation
(6-85),
the
rotor
outlet
vane aca3+a4_3640'+70=53o20, 2 2
at d m
f13 : fi3' + ii : 29026 From equation (6-80), the
' + 5 = 34026 rotor vane
' From pitch stator equation (6-100), the chord length of the vanes at d m
rfdm Pr= -= Zr From rotor equation at dm
776.52 16 the - 1.281 in Cs:_n
Ls ac -sin-
0.645 (53o20,)=0.805 in
(6-81),
chord
length
of the
The
radius
of the stator
vane
curvatures
at dm
vanes
Cs Cr = SrPr = 1.05 x 1.281 From rotor equation at dr, (6-82), the = 1.346 chord in of the From at dm /3c /92 +/33 2 _23 +34026 2 ' = 28o43' Cs of the From vanes Lr = Cr sin The radius tic = 1.346 of the rotor sin 2843 ' = 0.645 in
Z_ Z s
0,805 = 1.41 in
Rs:
angle
vanes
equation
(6-98),
the
stator
vane
pitch
0.805
Ps-=_-;: 1-y-AT:0._ in
From rotor equation (6-83), the axial length vanes equation (6-97), the number of the stator
rrx6.a2 ru.5
=
..
ql
vane
curvature
at dm
=--:--"-x--c---.
Ps
238
A-2 St:age Engine Fuel Pump Impeller Rotor and Smtor Design Summary (Unless otherwise specified, data are all at the mean effective diameter din.) Rotor inlet flow velocity diagram (fig. 6-52), a2' =65; fi2' : 19; Um=768 ft/sec; v2' =699,6 ft/sec; c2'= 253.8 ft/sec; ca2' =107.2 cm = 230 ft/sec Rotor outlet flow velocity diagram (fig. 6-52), aj=3240'; /33':2926'; um=768; v 3' =468.7 ft/sec; cj =426.9 ft/sec; cuj=359.6 ft/sec; cm : 230 ft/sec Stator inlet flow velocity diagram (fig. 6-52), a3' =3240'; c3' =426.9 ft/sec Stator outlet flow velocity diagram (fig. 6-52), a4' = 65; c4' = 253.8 ft/sec; ca4' = 107.2 ft/sec; cm = 230 ft/see Nominal rotor and stator tip diameter, dt= 7 in Nominal rotor and stator hub diameter, dh = 6 in Nominal rotor and stator vane height, hv = 0.5 in Nominal mean rotor and stator effective diameter, dm=6.52 in Rotor vane elements (fig. 6-52), d2 =23;
fl3=34026'; /_c=2843'; Sr=l.05; zr=16; Pr=l.281in; Cr=l.346in; Lr=0.645in; Rr=6.95 in Stator vane elements (fig. 6-52), a 3 =3640'; a4=70; ac=5320'; Ss=l.61; Zs=41; Ps=0.5; Cs=0.S05in; Ls=0.645in; Rs = 1.41 in
able energy of the turbine working fluid and thus the gas spouting velocity Co is relatively low, a higher turbine velocity ratio U/C o may be achieved with a moderate turbine rotor blade speed U. As shown in figure 6-27, this suggests the use of a relatively simple single-stage single-rotor impulse turbine. We have selected this type for the A-2 stage oxidizer tnrbopump, at the same time taking advantage of its overall simplicity. In most direct-drive turbopump configurations, such as the A-1 stage engine turbopump (fig. 6-63), where turbine rotating speed N and consequently turbine velocity ratio U/C o tends to be lower than ideal, a single-stage two-rotor velocity-compounded impulse turbine (figs. 6-9 and 6-55) is selected for best results. Figure 6-27 indicates that the optimum efficiency of a velocity-compounded turbine can be achieved at a relatively low U/Co value. On the other hand, if a reduction gear train is provided between pumps and turbine, such as in the turbopump shown in figure 6-14, the turbine can be operated at a much higher rotating speed (over 25 000 rpm). A higher value of U/Co can be achieved with reasonable turbine wheel size. Then a higher performance, two-stage, two-rotor, pressure-compounded impulse turbine (fig. 6-10) may be used. 2. After the type of impulse turbine has been selected, the next step is the determination of the turbine rotor size. Once the characteristics of the turbine working-fluid (i.e., inlet temperature To, specific heat ratio y, etc.), the turbine pressure ratio R_, and the pump or turbine roSatire speed N have been set forth, a larger diameter for the turbine rotor tends to result in a higher velocity ratio U/C o , or higher efficiency. However, it also results in higher assembly weight, larger envelope, and higher working stresses. Thus, the final selection of the turbine rotorsize, and consequentlythe U/C o ratio, is often a design compromise. 3. The requiredpower output from the turbine shaft must be equal to the net input to the propellant pumps, plus the mechanical losses in the gear train (if any), plus the net power required for auxiliary drives. The required flow rate of the turbine working fluid can then be calculated by equation (6-19) after required turbine power, available energy of the working fluid (eq. 6-18), and overall turbine efficiency (estimated from
6.5 DESIGN
OF
TURBINES
For rocket engine applications, impulse turbines are preferred, for their simplicity and light weight. Our discussion will be confined to these turbines only. Figure 6-55 shows the general arrangement of a typical single-stage tworotor velocity-compounded impulse turbine,
General
Design
Procedure
The following steps are essential in the design of a rocket engine impulse turbine: 1. The first item of importance is the selection of the proper type. A single-stage singlerotor turbine (fig. 6-8) is used if the required turbine power is low, since in this case the efficiency of the turbine has less effect on overall engine systems performance. When the avail-
DESIGNOF TURBOPUMP PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
239
FLOW
TURBINE TURBINE GAS INLET SHAFT INLET FLANGE
--
MANIFOLD
ROTATING SEALS
FtRST
BLADES
ROTATION SECOND BLADES ROTOR .......
SECTION
/-'ROTOR DISC CONTINUOUS TYPE ROTOR SHROUD RING BLADE DRIVING SPL/NES
A-A
-_ Figure
dt 6-55.-Typical single-stage, two-rotor velocity compounded impulse turbine.
figure 6-27 for a given U/C o ratio and turbine type), have been established. 4. Now the dimensions of the stationary nozzles, as well as those of the rotor blades, can be calculated based on the characteristics and the flow rate of the turbine working fluid.
above that of an isentropie process. This effect is known as reheat. As a result of the above effects, turbine the actual gas spouting velocity at the nozzle exit tends to be less than the
Design
of Turbine
Nozzles
ideal velocity calculated for isentropic expansion (from stagnation state at the nozzle inlet to the static pressure at the rotor blade inlet). Furthermore, the effective flow area of a nozzle is usually less than the actual one, because of circulatory flow and boundary layer effects. The following correlations are established design calculations of turbine nozzles: for the
The nozzles of most rocket engine turbines are basically similar to those of rocket thrust chambers. They are of the conventional converging-diverging De Laval type. The main function of the nozzles of an impulse-type turbine is to convert efficiently the major portion of available energy of the working fluid into kinetic energy or high gas spouting velocity. The gasflow processes in the thrust chamber nozzles are directly applicable to turbine nozzles. However, the gas flow in an actual nozzle deviates from ideal conditions because of fluid viscosity, friction, boundary layer effects, etc. In addition, the energy consumed by friction forces and flow turbulence will cause an increase in the temperature of the gases flowing through a nozzle,
Nozzle
velocity
coefficient
kn
Actual gas spoutingvelocity at the nozzle exit,ft/sec Idealgas velocitycalculated forisentropic expansion from stagnation state at the nozzle inlet to static pressure at the rotor blade inlet, ft/sec
C1
Co
(6-118)
240
ROCKET ENGINES
Nozzle
efficiency Actual gas
_?n kinetic gas kinetic energy energy at the nozzle exit
AH0__"
= isentropic flowing expansion,
enthalpy through Btu/lb of a turbine the
drop
of the
gases due to
nozzles,
Ideal
(isentropic
The pressed is as
performance by its by
nozzle, factors,
as
exsuch
expansion) C12 2g 2g Nozzle throat Effective

Z
efficiency a number
or velocity of design
coefficient,
affected
_ka2
(6-119)
(1) (2) (3)
Exit Angles exit
velocity and
of the of the curvatures
gas
flow gases at nozzle inlet and
Properties
turbine
area area
coefficient of the
ent nozzle throat (6-120)
(4) (5)
Radial Pitch
height
and
width
at the
throat of nozzles velocity be from effival-
or spacing, values for the of a given experimentally, Design from
and number efficiency nozzle turbine
Actual
area
Design coefficients determined past ciency designs.
and
may
Actual ft/sec:
gas
spouting
velocity
at the
nozzle
exit,
or estimated values of nozzle
77_ range
0.80
to 0.96.
Design
ues of nozzle 0.89 to 0.98. C_ = k n C O = kn gJCpTo -\Po/ J (6-121) ent generally height, 0.99. The Amount of nozzle reheat: turbine with
velocity coefficient The nozzle throat will design increase values with
kn vary from area coefficient nozzle from 6-56) on radial 0.95 to
ranging (fig.
=kn_/2gJAHo-i"
cross-sectional nozzles is square, They extending (full are over
shape closely a part
of rocket a ciradmis-
or, more
frequently,
rectangular. (i - kn 2)C 2 _ (1 - _n) C 2 qnr= ka22gJ 7?n2gJ cular (6-122) sion), Most better Required total nozzle throat area, in2: and wt Antr _ntPo_ where Cp = turbine heat deg Y R = turbine =turbine weight), To fvt Po = turbine ature = turbine = turbine zle Pl = turbine blade gas gas (working fluid) pressure, specific Btu/lbat constant F gas gas specific constant ft/R total (stagnation) inlet, rate, R lb/sec at the noztemperat the gas gas inlet, gas inlet, nozzle mass total psia static R pressure at the rotor flow heat ratio (1544/molecular 2 ),+___A_l 7Y-' (6-123) from or all arc
spaced
of (partial the
admission), turbines use passing
circumference. admission for
high-power performance. the gases
full
While
are
through of flow
a nozzle is changing to one the plane turning nozzle of a effiwork of
expanding, the angle
the al
direction axial (fig. exit. angle usually
an approximately at the at the compromise. is obtained exit angle, nozzle The exit
direction 6-56) with Thus is the the
forming rotation, angle centerline design ciency nozzle
is 90 - a,.
0a of the
RT
result better
Theoretically, through since the the use rotor
of a smaller blading
is larger and the absolute rotor blade exit is smaller. nozzle deflection friction 15 to 30 . al of the gas exit angle within losses. The jet means the actual leaving Design
flow velocity However, a larger values angle
at the a smaller of flow higher from angle to be
nozzle, effective the
which
causes
of 9n range discharge tends
nozzle
pressure
greater nozzle
than shape
On, because at the exit.
of the
unsymmetrical
A sufficiently ratio, hnt/bnt,
large
nozzle
passage
aspect nozzle
is desirable
for better
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT.FEED
SYSTEMS
24l
-'-1
-.
NOZZLE t'b BLADE
Jl
II SYMMETRICAL .__"___/, ROTOR IIBLADES ..... ',_(

e
".--SHROUD _"_t
TURBINE
_,"__ "'-__ ,__ ROTOR ROTATION,,_ U \Y -7('2
-F--i-_f--'--,'_------I_ I..-P=--4 _--b.o

b b2
" ] U "'-7""-VELOCITY DIAGRAMS OF A TYPICAL SINGLE-STAGE IMPULSE TURBINE
F--"=,---I
_".._._ _X,,_",,_ l ) I I_ /'_
_.___ __ .
UNSYMMETRICAL ROTOR BLADES hb2> hbl _',,._ _'.."_ _-'X."_ "_'_
F Figure
b2 7 6-5G.-Nozzles,
_--SHROUD rotor blades,
b2 and velocity diagrams o[ a typical single-stage impulse turbine.
efficiency. For a given nozzle height, an increase in aspect ratio can be secured by decreasing the nozzle pitch, Pw However, a small pitch, and consequently a large number of nozzles, zn, w_th attendant increase in wall surface, tends to increase friction losses. The determination of nozzle pitch thus also requires a design compromise. The following correlations are established for the calculation of nozzle flow areas:
Pitch or nozzle spacing:
Pa = rr--
dm
Zn
(6-126)
Total nozzle throat area, in2: Ant = znbnthnt Total nozzle exit area, in2: 144 _i,t Ane-pICtene-Znbnehne =znhae (Pn sin 0n-tn) (6-125) (6"124)
where #/t = turbine gas mass flow rate, lb/sec pt =density of the gases at nozzle exit, lb/ft 3 C 1 =gas spouting velocity at nozzle exit, ft/sec _ne =nozzle exit area coefficient hat =radial height at nozzle throat, in hne =radial height at nozzle exit, in bnt =width normal to flow at nozzle throat, in bne=width normal to flow at nozzle exit, in zn =number of nozzles 0n =angle between nozzle exit centerline and plane of rotation, deg tn =thickness of nozzle partition at exit, in dm= mean diameter of nozzles and rotor blades, in
242
Turbine nozzle block and inlet gas manifold assembly can be made of, for instance, welded sections of forged Hastelloy C. However, the airfoil surfaces should be blended smoothly between the defined contour and the sections.
cos al +C2 cos a2)
=_(VI
cos E1 +V2 cos/_2)
(6-128)
Design
of Impulse
Turbine
Rotor Blades
U-
,TdmN 720
(6-129)
The function of the rotor blades in an impulse turbine (figs. 6-55 and 6-56) is to transform a maximum of the kinetic energy of the gases ejected from the nozzles into useful work. Theoretically, there should be no change of gas pressure, temperature, or enthalpy in the rotor blades. In actual operation however, some gas expansion, i.e., reaction, usually occurs. Furthermore, the actual gas flow through the rotor blades deviates from ideal flow conditions because of friction, eddy currents, reheating. boundary layers, and
For subsequent calculations, relation will be useful: C 1 sin al cos al-U lb/lb
the following
tan/_1-C1 Axial thrust at blades,
(6-130)
of gas flow/sec
Fa =
C 1 sin al - V2 sin f12 g
(6-131)
Blade The velocity vector diagram shown in figure 6-56 describes graphically the flow conditions at the rotor blades of a single-stage, single-rotor turbine, based on tile mean diameter din. The gases enter the rotor blades with an absolute velocity C_, and at an angle a, with the plane of rotation. The tangential or peripheral speed of the rotor blades at the mean diameter is U. V 1 and V2, the relative velocities at the blade inlet and outlet, differ, i.e., V, > V2, due to friction losses. Ideally, the gas should leave the blades at very low absolute velocity C 2 and in a direction close to axial for optimum energy conversion in the blades. The forces generated at the rotor blades are a function of the change of momentum of the flowing gases. The following correlations may be established for design calculations of the rotor blades of a single-stage, single-rotor turbine. Tangential force gas flow/sec): acting on the blades (lb/lb of
velocity
coefficient:
V2
kb:V_-,
Blade efficiency: Work transferred to blades Kinetic energy input
(6-122)
,?b :
Eb =C---5 (6-133) 2g
Ideally, 71b is a maximum for a single-rotor impulse turbine, when the turbine velocity ratio: U C1 i.e., when U=C,t where C_ t is the tangential cos al 2
component
of C_.
Max. ideal
_b =
cos22a_(1
' co--_-_-_fll)(6-134) + _b cos_
Ft=I(c,
COS a 1 + C 2 cos a2)
If there (6-127)
is some reaction
or expansion
of the
=l(v,
5
cos _, + V2 cos f12)
gas flowing through the blades, flow velocity at the rotor blade calculated as
the relative gas outlet can be
Work transferred flow/sec):
to the blades
(ft-lb/lb
of gas V 2=\/kb2Vl2 + 2gJ_?nAHi-2' (6-135)
DESIGN OF TURBOPU_P PROPELLANT-FEED SYSTEMS
243
Amount of reheat gas flow:
in the rotor
blades,
Btu/lb
of
qbr=(1
where al,
-kb
)2g j-r(1-
v?,
r]n)A/-/l-2'
(6-136)
a2 =absolute gas flow angles at the inlet and outlet of the rotor blades, dog ill, fi2 = relative gas flow angles at the inlet and outlet of the rotor blades, dog C,, C: =absolute gas flow velocities at tile inlet and outlet of the rotor blades, ft/sec V,, U dm _?n V 2 =relative gas flow velocity at the inlet and outlet of the rotor blades, ft/sec = peripheral speed of the rotor, ft/sec = mean diameter of the rotor, in = equivalent nozzle efficiency applicable to the expansion process in the blades
Design values of kb vary from 0.80 to 0.90. Design values of _b range from 0.7 to 0.92. Referring to figure 6-56, the radial height at the rotor inlet, hb, is usually slightly larger (5 to 10 percent) than the nozzle radial height hn. This height, together with the blade peripheral speed U, will determine the centrifugal stress in the blades. The mean diameter of the rotor blades is defined as dm= d_- hb, where d t is the rotor tip diameter. Pitch or blade spacing, Pb, is measured at the mean diameter dm. There is no critical relationship between blade pitch Pb and nozzle pitch Pn. There just should be a sufficient number of blades in the rotor to direct the gas flow. The number of blades zb to be employed is established by the blade aspect ratio, hb/Cb and the solidity Cb/Pb, where Cbis the chord length of the rotor blades. The magnitude of the blade aspect ratio ranges from 1.3 to 2.5. Design values of blade solidity vary from 1.4 to 2. Best results will be determined by experiment. The number of rotor blades should have no cdmmon factor with the number of nozzles or of stator blades. The blade face is concave, with radius rt. The back is convex, with a circular arc of small radius rr concentric with the face of the adjoining blade ahead. Two tangents to this arc to form the inlet and outlet blade angles 0b_ and Oh2 complete the blade back. The leading and trailing edges may have a small thickness tb. The inlet blade angle 0b_ should be slightly larger than the inlet relative flow angle fl_. If Ob_ <fl_, the gas stream will strike the backs of the blades at the inlet, exerting a retarding effect on the blades and causing losses. If Ob_ >fi_, the stream will strike the concave faces of the blades and tend to increase the impulse. The outlet blade angle Oh2 is generally made equal to the outlet relative flow angle /32. The mass flow rate _'t through the various nozzle and blade sections of a turbine is assumed constant. The required blade flow areas can be calculated by the following correlations. Note that the temperature values used in calculating the gas densities at various sections must be corrected for reheating effects from friction and turbulence. p1VlAblebl 144 _p2V2Ab2eb2 144
AH,_2,=isentropic enthalpy drop of the gases flowing through the rotor blades due to expansion or reaction, Btu/lb; AH1-2' = 0 if only impulse is exchanged All parameters refer to the mean diameter d m, unless specified otherwise, The turbine overall efficiency Ut defined by equation (6-19) can be established for a single-stage, single-rotor impulse turbine as y_: _?n_b _rn where rl_ =nozzle efficiency )7b =rotor blade efficiency fir. =machine efficiency indicating the mechanical, leakage, and disk-friction losses in the machine. Equation (6-134) shows that the blade efficiency ;?b improves when/32 becomes much smaller than I3L. Reduction of/32 without decreasing the flow area at the blade exit can be achieved through an unsymmetrical blade design (fig. 6-56), where the radial blade height increases toward the exit. In actual designs, the amount of decrease of fi2, or the increase of radial height, is limited considering incipient flow separation and centrifugal stresses. Generally, the _2 of an unsymmetrical blade will be approximately f3_-(5 to 15). Equation (6-134) also indicates that _b improves as a_ is reduced. (6-137)
Wt =
(6-138)
1L
244
Total
blade
inlet area,
in2: (6-139)
Abi =Zbbbzhbz
=Zbhbi (Pb sin Obl -tb)
Total blade exitarea,in2: Ab2=Zbbb2hb2=Zbhb2(Pb where Pb P,, P2 V z, V 2 = pitch or rotor blade spacing = rrdm/zb, in (6-140a) sin Ob2-tb) (6-140)
of various blade sections at different radii generally do not fall on a true radial line. Thus the centrifugal forces acting upon the offset centroids will produce bending stresses which also are a maximum at the root section. 2. Bending due to gas loading.-The tangential driving force and the axial thrust produced by the momentum change of the gases passing over the blades may be treated as acting at the midheight of the blade to determine the amount of bending induced. 3. Bending due to vibration loads.-The gas flow in the blade passages is not a uniform flow as assumed in theory, but varies cyclically from minimum to maximum. The resultant loads represent a dynamic force on the blades, having a corresponding cyclic variation. If the frequency of this force should become equal to the natural frequency of the blades, deflections may result which will induce bending stresses of considerable magnitude. Detail stress analyses for rotor blades can be rather complex. A basic approach is to counteract a major portion of the bending moments from gas loading with the bending moments induced by the centrifugal forces at nominal operating speeds. This can be accomplished by careful
=density outlet
of the gases at the inlet and of the rotor blades, lb/ft _
=relative gas flow velocities at the inlet and outlet of the rotor blades, ft/sec area coefficients at inlet of the rotor blades --number of blades
=
ebl, (b2 Zb
hb_, bb2
and outlet
:radial height at the inlet of the rotor blades, in

:
and outlet
bbl,
bb2
passage widths (normal to flow) at the inlet and outlet of the rotor blades, in
0b_, 062 :rotor blade angles at inlet and outlet, deg tb = thickness of blade edge at inletand outlet, in Typical constructions rocketturbinerotor of blades and disks are shown in figures6-53,6-55, 6-56,and 6-57. Usually,blades are designed with a shroud, to preventleakage over the blade tips and to reduce turbulenceand thus improve efficiency.Frequentlythe shroud forms an integral portionof the blade, the shroud sections fitting closelytogetherwhen assembled. In otherdesigns the shroud may form a continuous ring (fig. 6-55)which is attachedto the blades by means of tongues at the blade tip,by rivets, or is welded to the shrouds. The blades may be either welded to the disk, or attached to itusing "fir-tree" otherdovetailshapes. or The main loads to which a rotorblade is exposed can be dividedintothreetypes:
i-
INTEGRAL
TYPE
SHROUD
_ _ A-A
gLADE ROOT
S.HROUDED BLADES CASTING PROCESS
FABRICATED
BY PRECISION
_ BLADE
!_
1. Tension and bending due to centri[ugal [orces.-The radial component of the centrifugal forces acting on the blade body produces a centrifugal tensile stress which is a maximum at the root section. As a remedy, blades are often tapered, with the thinner section at the tip, for lower centrifugal root stresses. The centroids
JOINT
L.,_
DISK
BLADES WELDED THE DISK
TO
8LADES TO THE
ATTACHED DiSK BY
TYPICAL "FIR TYPE TANG
TREE"
"FIR TREE"TYPE TANG
Figure
6-57.-Typical
rotor blade
constructions.
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
245
blade stresses design, location later ing section
design. become while and to fulfill correlations where
Thus
the
centrifugal consideration such as are
tensile in blade centroid established The at the critical. root psi: (6-141) section followroot blade
The duced
stresses in a turbine rotor disk are inby (1) the blades, and (2) the centrifugal
a first
other root
details configuration
forces acting on the disk material itself. In addition, there will be shear stresses resulting from the torque. As seen in figure 6-55, turbine disks are generally held quite thick at the axis, but taper off to a thinner disk rim to which blades tions, both are it is radial points, applications, of the greatly large (6-144) in a uniform blade effects: attached. possible and In single-rotor to design a disk stresses neglected. difficult between be used turbine axial rotor applicaso that are uniform In multito do this length and beand stator the the
design are stresses tensile
requirements. established are stress cross most
Centrifugal of blade
at the
of uniform
section, 1pbhbdmN2 g
tangential being it is gaps may
Sc = 0.0004572
at all rotor cause
shear
increased
Centrifugal tensile stress at the root section of a tapered blade, psi: the resulting disks. Equation Sct= O.O0045721pbhbdmN 2 stresses ing rotor
to estimate disk,
stress
neglect-
(6-142)
Sd=O.OOOll41pd
dd 2N2 log ___o_
(6-144)
Bending section,
moment in-lb:
due
to gas
loading
at the
root
where Sd =centrifugal stress Pd= density tensile turbine of the of the speed, disk disk, rpm stress disk, psi material, in lb/in s of a constant
_ hbcct /F,_+Fa S-2Zb _
(6-143)
d d = diameter N =turbine
to =thickness where pb =density hb N ar at'= zb Ft =average =turbine = sectional sectional gas =number = tangential lb/lb/sec Fa = axial sec The culated vibration design rate tional the root shroud, stresses section to those acting thrust (eq. din =mean of the blade diameter speed, area area flow of blades force (eq. acting (6-131)) stresses resultant can be blade root. at the bending estimated is fitted force The root can moment. from with produces total stress these past a sepaaddiat that the about be calThe N acting (6-127)) on the blades, lb/lb/ ri on the blades, blade height, of the rpm at the at the rate, blade blade lb/sec where Sd = centrifugal disk, Wd = weight =distance disk ad =disk =turbine For good at maximum S d calculated 0.75 to 0.8 rotor Turbine high-temperature psi root, tip, in 2 in 2 material, in rotor, in lb/in 3 tr
of the disk at the axis, in
= thickness of the disk rim at d d, in Equation (6-144a) permits estimation of the
stresses in any turbine disk, neglecting effects of the rotor blades:
Sd = O.O0044251W g
dri N2 ad
(6-144a)
_i,t = turbine
tensile of the disk, axis,
stress lb
of the
turbine
of the from the
center in
of gravity area, in 2
of tile half
bending from data. the stresses
cross-sectional speed, turbine rpm design,
If the its
it is design
recommended rotating speed, be of
centrifugal at the is
allowable by equation material blades alloys
(6-144a) strength. are different disks
should made
obtained caused blades.
by adding by the
yield and of three
stresses forces
centrifugal
on the
base
246
materials: iron, nickel, and cobalt, with chromium forming one of the major alloying elements. Tensile yield strength of 30 000 psi minimum at a working temperature of 1800F is an important criterion for selection. Other required properties include low creep rate, oxidation and erosion resistance, and endurance under fluctuating loads. Haynes Stellite, Vascojet, and Inconel X are alloys frequently used. The rotor blades are fabricated either by precision casting or by precision forging methods. Rotor disks are best made of forgings for optimum strength.
blades. Angles ]3,, f12, /33, and /34 represent the flow directions of V,, V 2, V 3, and V 4. As with single-rotor turbines, the exit velocity from any row of blades (rotary or stationary) is less than the inlet velocity, because of friction losses. It can be assumed that the blade velocity coefficient any row of blades: k b has the same value for
V2 _Ca _V4 kb- v 1 C: V 3
(6-145)
Design of Single-Stage, Two-Rotor VelocityCompounded Impulse Turbines (figs. 6-9, 6-55, and 6-58) In most impulse turbines, the number of rotors is limited to two. It is assumed that in a singlestage, two-rotor, velocity-compounded impulse turbine, expansion of the gases is completed in the nozzle, and that no further pressure change occurs during gas flow through the moving blades. As mentioned earlier, the two-rotor, velocity-compounded arrangement is best suited for low-speed turbines. In this ease, the gases ejected from the first rotor blades still possess considerable kinetic energy. They are, therefore, redirected by a row of stationary blades into a second row of rotor blades, where additional work is extracted from the gases, which usually leave the second rotor blade row at a moderate velocity and in a direction close to the axial. The velocity diagrams of a single-stage, tworotor, velocity-compounded impulse turbine are shown in figure 6-58, based on the mean rotor diameter. The peripheral speed of the rotor blades at this diameter is represented by U. The gases leave the nozzles and enter the first rotor blades with an absolute velocity Cx, at an angle a_ with the plane of rotation. V_ and V2 are the relative flow velocities in ft/sec at the inlet and outlet of the first rotor blades, The gases leave the first rotor blades and enter the stationary blades at an absolute flow velocity C 2, and at an angle a2. After passing over the stationary blades, the gases depart and enter the second rotor blades at an absolute flow velocity C 3, and at an angle as. V3 and V4 are the relative inlet and outlet flow velocities at the second rotor
In a multirotor turbine, the total work transferred is the sum of that of the individual rotors:
C]
Vl _lI ROTA --_ ....
NOZZLE
FIRST
ROTOR
C2
ROT.T,ONOX
"_'_ _/,,_,= SECOND ROTOR S_a4 _4 U 4
Figure 6-58.-Velocity diagrams o{ a typical single-stage, two-rotor, velocity-compounded impulse turbine.
Total
work transferred ft-lb/lb
to the blades
of a two-
rotor turbine, U E2b=-_(Cl
of gas flow/see
cos al +C2 cos a2

+C a COS a3+C 4 C0S a4)
=g(V,
cos/31 +V2 cos/32

+V 3 cos /3a +V4 cos /34) (6-146)
247
Combined nozzle and blade efficiency a twoof rotorturbine: E2b T]nb JAH = where AH =overall isentropic enthalpydrop of the turbinegases, Btu/Ib = totalavailableenergy contentof the turbine gases (eq.6-17) Equation (6-137)can be rewritten forthe turbine overall efficiencyqt of a two-rotor turbine as
Design of Two-Stage, Compounded Impulse and 6-59)
Two-Rotor PressureTurbines (figs. 6-10,
6-14
(6-147)
An operational schematic of a typical twostage, two-rotor, pressure-compounded impulse turbine and its velocity diagrams at the mean diameter are shown in figures 6-10 and 6-59. Each stage of a pressure-compounded impulse turbine may be regarded as a single-stage impulse turbine rotating in its own individual housing. Most of the design characteristics of a single-stage turbine are applicable to the individual stages. The gas-spouting velocities Cz and C3, at flow angles a, and a3, of the firstand second-stage nozzles, are designed to be approximately the same. Vz, V 2, V 3, and V 4 represent the relative flow velocities at inlets and outlets of the rotor blades, fiz, fi2, f13, and f14 are the corresponding flow angles for Vz, V2, V 3, and V 4. The second-stage nozzles are designed to receive the gas flow discharged from the first-stage rotor blades at an absolute velocity C2, and to turn it efficiently to a desired angle a 3. Simultaneously, the gases are accelerated to a desired velocity C3, through expansion to a lower pressure. The flow at the outlet of the second rotor has an absolute velocity C4 and a flow angle a4. U is the rotor peripheral speed at the mean effective diameter din. The totalwork performedin the turbineis the sum of thatof the separate stages. These may be designed to divide the load equally (i.e., the
7It T/nb = T/m
(6-148)
Ideally, b is a maximum forthe singletin stage,two-rotor, velocity-compoundedimpulse turbinevelocityratio
cos
C,
i.e., when U= C,t. The workload forthe second rotorof a two-rotor, elocity-compounded v turbine designed at about one-fourth the is of totalwork.
The design procedures for the gas flow passages of the rotor and stationary blades of a single-stage, two-rotor turbine are exactly the same as those for a single-rotor turbine. However, velocities and angles of flow change with each row of blades. As a result, the radial height of symmetrical blades increases with each row, roughly as shown in figure 6-55. The effects of reheating (increase of gas specific volume) in the flow passages must be taken into account when calculating the gas densities at various sections. Equation (6-136) may be used to estimate the amount of reheat at each row of blades. Also see sample calculation (6-11) and figure 6-60 for additional detail. In the calculations for multirow unsymmetrical blades, the radial heights at the exit side of each row are determined first by equation (6-140). The radial heights at the blade inlets are then made slightly larger, approximately 8 percent, than those at the exit of the preceding row.
FIRST
STAGE
C1 V1 "_l 01 FIRST ROTOR NOZZLE STAGE
_ U _
_'
'= 2
SECOND NOZZLE
STAGE
V3 C3
a 3 SECOND ROTOR STAGE
Figure
6-59.-Velocity
diagrams
of a typical
two-
stage, two-rotor, turbine.
pressure-compounded
impulse
248
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
velocity Cl=C friction passed thalpy second gases not The kinetic by the energy vary tance through should The resulting quire effects drop test zles data. and
diagrams 3, C2=C losses
of each 4, al=a occurring gas the the with rc, first as
stage in the
are first
identical The is enstage energy
or
where T2t = turbine ature R T 2 P2 t = turbine = turbine stage P2 C2 = turbine stage =absolute stage C3 rc gas total (stagnation) nozzle temperinlet, at R at second-
3, a2=a stream as
4, etc.). additional energy largely
at second-stage gas gas static total
on in the and increases stage. leaving lost
available kinetic is
for the of the used turbine. and
temperature inlet, pressure
Also, the
second-stage
nozzle
stage
entirely carryover energy of the from 0.4 between the
a single-stage i.e., the ratio as to the the first The rotor as the
nozzle gas gas rotor nozzle
inlet, inlet, flow blade
psia at secondat firstft/sec psia velocity outlet,
ratio
of the inlet total stage, axial and the stages, leakages energy kinetic can dis-
static
pressure
actually gases to close the nozzle,
utilized nozzles leaving
second-stage
to unity. as well
first-stage diaphragm
=gas-spouting velocity nozzle exit, ft/sec = second-stage energy carryover
at second-stage ratio of kinetic
second-stage
sealing
between
be minimized determination in equal of reheating. may be estimated With blades the given equations to estimate equations turbines
for optimum of the work right
carryover. enthalpy stage in view may enthalpy designs and for nozcan drop re-
Cp y
= turbine pressure,
gas
specific Btu/lb-deg specific enthalpy the
heat F heat drop
at constant ratio of the gases
for each approach, Or, the from
=turbine gas flowing nozzles
a trial-and-error
of the
AH2_ 3, =isentropic
proper previous coefficients
through due total in 2 velocity throat
second-stage Btu/lb nozzle
to expansion, second-stage coefficient area coefficient
velocity by past
or concurrent and (6-136) singledesign followfor the
(Ant) 2 =required area, k_ ent : nozzle :nozzle
experiments, be used Most stage ing
(6-122) the amount
of reheating. for the in the available
established may be employed
calculations additional design
for two-stage correlations stage
turbines. are nozzles:
The
Sample
Calculation
(6-11) calculation (6-5), the following obtained for the turbine of the turbopump. mixture specific ratio, heat Btu/lb-deg heat R = 53.6 at turbine at turbine at turbine content LO2/RP-1 at constant F ratio, y= 1.124 ft/R inlet, T o : 0.408 pres-
of second
data A-1
C2 2
From sample have been stage Turbine engine gas gas
T2 t = T2 + rc _ gJCp
(6-149)
Turbine sure,
Cp=0.653 gas gas specific
Y p2( T2t_ )'-1 k_] (6-150)
Turbine Turbine
constant,
P2t:
Gas total temperature = 1860OR Gas psia total static pressure pressure
inlet,
Po = 640 pc=27 turbine
C3=kn
gJCpT2t
P3
Gas psia Total
exhaust, of the
= kn ,(_-cC22 + 2 gJAH2_
s,
(6-151)
available
energy Btu/lb rate,
gases, Turbine (Ant)2 = l / r27 Y+l _-zT (6-152) Turbine Overall
AH = 359 gas shaft turbine the flow
_i,_= 92 lb/sec N= 7000 (when _t= 58.2 design rpm using percent data are set velocity-
speed,
efficiency wheels), following
4/ ,,'LT-qj
compounded In addition, forth:
L-
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
249
Nozzle Nozzle Nozzle Nozzle Rotor Rotor kb=0.89
aspect velocity throat exit and and stator stator
ratio area area
= 9.7 kn = 0.96 ent: 0.97 coefficient,
Solution (a._) Single-stage, compounded turbine represents gram for the of this the is impulse shown the gas A representative two-rotor, turbine. velocity in figure diagram 6-58. Figure for this 6-60 diain the subscripts listed: opervelocity-
coefficient,
coefficient, blade blade velocity exit
ene = 0.95 coefficient, coefficient,
area
temperature-entropy-enthalpy processes The points involved following and processes
_b2 =0.95 Chord Cb=l.4 Partition blades, Solidity Solidity Solidity length of rotor and at the in blades blades = 1.82 = 1.67 = 1.94 stator exit blades, of nozzles and in thickness
ation denote
turbine. various
tn = tb = 0.05 of first of stator of second rotor blades rotor
0, 1, 2, 3, 4 = Points tions stator exit 1', 2', at the blades; conditions 3', nozzles;
representing first rotor second rotor blades;
inlet blades;
condiand the
second of the
rotor
blades. exit condi-
4' =Points nozzles; and
representing first second rotor rotor
(a_) Determine cipal dimensions velocity-compounded, the A-1 stage reaction of the
the velocity diagrams of the single-stage, impulse-type turbopump, and stator in rotor nozzles. diagrams pressure-
and printwo-rotor, for 6 down-
tions stator
at the blades;
blades; blades, for
turbine with about blades
engine
an ideal isentropic expansion process. 0-1', 1-2', 2-3', 3-4' =Path of an ideal isentropic zles; first rotor 2-3, nozzles; and 1-2, second 0-1, expansion rotor blades; blades. 3-4=Path first second 4'-4 lines, due in the blades, rotor rotor of actual blades; blades. along ideal and losses first rotor rotor actual and blades reblades, isenconprocesses stator process stator in the blades; nozand
percent stream
(b_) Determine the velocity alternate two-stage, two-rotor, compounded, stage stage blades engine and impulse-type turbopump, 3 percent of the
of an A-1 in each rotor stage.
turbine with equal
for the work in the of each
in the blades; 1'-1, stant tropic heating stator
about
reaction nozzles
2'-2,
3'-3,
= Differences between
downstream
pressure expansion
processes to friction nozzles, and second
processes,
a_ PO
0 To A, s I
'_k_-
CONSTANT
/_PR_LFE
UNES
Point
:2:
" O"-Nozzle inlet
Inlet total temperature = 1S60R pressure = 640 = total gases psia drop Btu/lb 2 = 0.92 Blade Inlet of the turenergy content enthalpy available = 359 = turbine inlet : turbine inlet
T O = nozzle total Po = nozzle total AH = overall bine of the T/n = nozzle Point
/"
II
_..,"_,'_.,% / p4
>_o. -r b==
temperature inlet pressure isentropic gases turbine efficiency exit= 6 percent AH is blades, total
...........
-._-_/
= kn 2 : (0.96) First of the the Rotor
"1 "-Nozzle about drop stator
ENTROPY,
Since Figure gram 6-60.-Temperature-entropy-enthalpy o[ the gas processes in a single-stage, impulse turbine downstream o[ diaenthalpy rotor drop and
overall
isentropic in the enthalpy
assumed
to occur isentropic
two-rotor, velocity-compounded with small amount of reactions the nozzles.
in the
nozzles
'AH o-1' : A H (1 - 0.06)
-- 359 x 0.94
: 337.5
Btu/lb
250
We can write:
Ideally, the efficiency r/n b of a two-rotor, velocity-compounded impulse turbine is a maximum when the turbine velocity ratio
AHo_p = CpT o I 1-(P-21U y_,] \Po] From this, zle exit the gas static pressure at the noz-
COS
C1From this, the peripheral eter of the rotor COS a I U=C1_=3940xCOS

1.124
4 speed at the mean diam-
Pl =Po
CpToJ
425 =3940 0.226 = 890 fps
=640 = 640
E1
x (0.722)
337 5 ]o.124 0.65-3x-_s60.J

9._ =
From equation diameter psia
(1-129),
the turbine
rotor mean
640 x 0.053 = 33.94 spouting
From equation (6-121), the gas velocity at the nozzle exit
dm =720 U_ 720 89___ 29.1 in 0_ 7r N 7rx7000 From equation (1-130), the relative gas flow angle/3, at the inlet to the first rotor blade can be calculated:
CI = kn V2 gJAHo_l, = 0.96 _/16.9 106 = 3940 fps From equation in the nozzles (6-122), the amount of reheat
tanfll=Cl (1 - kn 2) C12 _ 0.08 15 524 000

qnr =
C,cosal-U sinai
_ 39400.9063940x0.42390=0.622
kn22gJ
0.92 64.4 x 778
= 27 Btu/lb
/31 =31053 ' Referring to figure 6-58, the relative velocity at the first rotor blade inlet C 1 sin a1._3940 sin 25 sin fll sin 3153 ' gas flow
Referring at the nozzle pansion
to figure 6-60, the gas temperature exit, following an isentropic ex-
TI, ZTo The actual nozzle exit
AHo_,, Cp -1860 gas static
337.5 0.653-1344R temperature at the
_ 3940 x 0.423 O. 528 Point Inlet "2"-First Rotor Blade Exit= Stator
3156 fps
Blade
27 qn---sr T1 = TI' + Cp - 1344 +0.---_ The gas density at the nozzle
= 1385 R exit
Assume that the given 6 percent reaction downstream of the nozzles is equally divided between the two rotors and the stator. Then the isentropic enthalpy drop in the first rotor blade can be approximated as
P, 144 33.94x 144 Pl =-_-T x--_ -1385.4 53.6 = 0.0658
lb/ft 3
AH,_2, =P-_
x 359 = 7.18
Btu/lb
We will use an angle a_ of 25 for the spouting-gas-flow direction at the nozzle exit.
Using equation (6-135), the relative gas velocity at the exit of the first rotor blades
flow
251
V 2 = V'kb 2V l2 + 2 gJTlnAH l_2, = V/(0.89 3156) 2 + 64.4 778 0.92 7.18 = 2866 fps
V 2 sin/32 tan a 2 = V cos /32 - U a 2 =3515 The absolute blade exit '
2866sin 25 2866 cos 25 - 890 = 0.707
flow velocity
at the first
rotor
From equation (6-136), in the first rotor blades, V2

2 1
the amount
of reheat
c2-V (1 - r/n) AHI_ 2, Point Blade
2 sin /32 _ 2866 sin 252 1210 2080fps sin a 2 sin 35o15 ' =0.57---_= "3"-Stator Inlet Blade Exit : Second Rotor
qbrl =(1 - kb )_-_+
(3156)2 = [1- (0-89)2] x 64.4 x 778 _(1-099)7.18 , = 41.975 Btu/lb
The isentropic blades at the first rotor
enthalpy
drop in the stator
The static blade exit
gas pressure
AH2_ 3, = AH 1-2' = 7.18 Btu/lb Analogous to equation (6-135), the absolute flow velocity at the stator blade inlets C a = x/kb2C22 +2gJ_nAH2_ a,
F A.,
=33.94x 1
gas
= X/(0.89 2080) 2 + 64.4 778 0.92 7.18 0.6531385 = 1938 fps Reheat in the stator
, 2_ 622
= 33.94 x 0.93 = 31.6 psia
blades
The gas static temperature first rotor blade row following expansion
at the exit of the an isentropic
qbs =(l-Kb
)2--_+ (1- rln) H2_ 2 A (Analogous to eq. (6-136))
= [i- (o.89) 2] (2080)2

T 2, = T 1 - AH,_2,/C p = 1385 - 7.18/0.653= The actual static rotor blade row exit gas temperature 1374 R = 18.53 Btu/lb at the first The static exits - 1438 R gas pressure
64.4 778
+ (1 - 0.92) 7.18
at the stator
blade
qbr2 41.975 --1374-+ T2 = T2' + Cp 0.653 Gas density at the first
Y p3 =p2 [1 -CDT2 j Y-1 =31.6x _H2-21 =29.42 psia blade 7.18 _9.06 E1 0.6531438J
rotor blade
exit
144p2 144x31.6 P2 = RT 2 - _ 1--_-_-8 0.059 =
lb/ft 3 Gas static temperature at the stator exits following an isentropic expansion
We use an angle/32 of flow direction at the first symmetrical blades). The a 2 at the first rotor blade from
25 for the relative gas rotor blade exits (unabsolute flow angle exits can be calculated
T3, = T2 -AH2_2/Cp=
1438-7.18/0.653=
1427 R
Actual staticgas temperatureat the stator blade exits
252
qbs 18.53 T3 = T3'+-_--= 1427 + x-_--_. = 1456 R
}r
=v
Gas density
at the stator
blade
exit = 29.42 x lb/ft 3 = 27.46

P4
144 P3 _ 144 x 29.42 .= 0.0544 P3 = R T 3 53.6x1456
7.1s 1 - 0.653 x 1456] -1__

> 27 psia (Pc)
psia
We use an angle a3 of 35 for the absolute gas flow direction at the stator blade exit (a s Ta2). The relative flow angle t33 at the stator blade exit can be calculated from C 3 sin a s 1938x 0.574 cos a3- U=1938x0.819-890
is slightly higher sure (underexpansion), effects.
than the turbine exit presbecause of the reheating
tan/33-C3
= 1.596
The gas static rotor blade sion exits
temperature following
at the second expan-
an isentropic
f13 = 5756' The relative exit flow velocity at the stator blade
T4' --T3
7.18 - 1445 Btu/lb -AH3__,/C p = 1456--0.653 temperature at the sec-
V3 = C s sin a 3 _ 1938 0.574 - 1312 fps sin /33 0,847 Point "4"-Second Rotor Blade enthalpy Exit
The actual gas static ond rotor blade exit
T4
--
T4 '
The isentropic rotor blades
drop in the second Gas density
qbr2 1445 ' 7.73 + C--_ ---= +_= at the second
1457 R exits
rotor blade
AH___,= AHa_f -7.18 Btu/Ib The relative gas flow velocity rotor blade exit
gJ77nAHa.. 4,
at the second
144 P4 _ 144 x 27.46 = 0.0506 P4 - RT 4 53.6 x 1457
lb/ft a
= \/kb
2 V3
We use an angle/34 of 44 for the relative gas flow direction at the second rotor blade exits (unsymmetrical blades). The absolute flow angle u 4 at the second rotor blade exits can be calculated from V 4 sin /34 1306 0.695 cos /34- U=1306x0-719-890
'
= V'(0.89 1312) 2 + 64.4 x 778x 0.92 x 7.18 = 1306 fps The amount blades of reheat in the second rotor
tan a 4 =y4
-18"5
a 4 =8655
,,y 2
qbr2 = (1 - kb2)-_gj+
(1- 9n) AH_-4' (1312) 2 , ,. x 64--A x 778" Ll - 0.92) x 7.18
The absolute blade exits
flow velocity
at the second
rotor
= [1 - (0.89):] = 7.73 Btu/sec
C4 =V 4 sin/34_ sin a 4 Nozzle Dimensions
1306x0'695=908 0.9985
fps
Gas static exit
pressure
at the second
rotor blade
From equation zle throat area
(6-123),
the required
total
noz-
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
253
wt Ant = / y+l
First The
Rotor pitch
Blade
Dimensions spacing
(at
dm)
or blade
r 2 i?-_
gyL iJ
Pbrl = 92 From 0.97 x 640 ll/32.2 x 1.124(0.94) 53.6 x 1860 lTns
Blade
chord Blade
length solidity
Cb
1.4 - 1.82
= 0.769
in
equation
(6-140a),
the
number
of blades
,,dm = 13.22 in2 Zbrl height the hnt of 1.5 nozzle width inches at the atthe inlet = Pbr 1
,Tx 29.1 0.769 -119
We use nozzle throat
a radial Thus
throat.
Allow
27 ' between flow --_1 angle +27'
inlet fl_;
blade thus
angle _)b_ri
and
relative Obxrl
= 3153'
+27'
=3't
hnt bnt =Nozzle aspect ratio
1.5 - 9.7 - 0.1548 in Make exit angle bladeangle /_2 Ob2rl equal toexit relative flow
The
number
of nozzles
Ant
Z/l=
13.22
-
Ob2rl 1.5
_
=_2 radial
=25 height at the 1.77 inlet in
bnthnt
0.1548
57
We select hb,rl =hne The blade
a blade
Pitch
or nozzle
spacing
(1 x 0.08)= passage
1.64 x 1.08= at the
Pn - ,din _ _ x 29.1 = 1.604 in zn 57 We allow nozzle 2 between flow nozzle angle exit al; angle thus On and
width
inlet
bblrl spouting-gas
= Pbrl = 0.379
sin in
Oblrl
- tb = 0.769
x 0.559-
0.05
On=a1 From zle exit equation area,
-2=25-2=23 the
required total noz-
From equation blade exit area
(6-138),
the
required
total
(6-125),
144 w_
= --
144 x 92 0.059 x 2866 x 0.95 82.5 in 2
Ab2rl 144 w_ Ane plClene 144 x 92 0.065839400.95 53'75in2
p2V2Eb2
Combining obtain the
equations blade radial
(1-139) height
and at the
(1-140a), exit
we
Combining obtain radial
equations height and
(6-125) width
and at the
(6-126), nozzle
we exit: hb2rl-_dm Ab2rl sin Ob2rl-Zbtb 82.5 x 29.1 x 0.423 - 119 x 0.05 = 2.52 in
Ane
53.75 0.39157 x 0.05
hne = rrd m sin On - Zntn - rrx29.1x = 1.64 in
The
Ane
blade
passage
width
at the
exit
zn bne = hne
53.75 - 57 x 1.6_0.576 in
bb2rl
= Pbrl = 0.291
sin in
Ob2rl
- to = 0.769
x 0,443
- 0.05
254
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
The
mean
blade radial height total 1.77+2.52 2
Using equation (6-138), blade exit area
we obtain
the
required
hbr,
- 2.145 in
144 w_ Ab2 s = P3 C3eb2 0.0544
144 x 92 x 1938 x 0.95 = 132.5 in s
Assume
a tapered blade with shroud, and that the same The tensile be a Combining calculate the equations blade radial Ab2s hb2s=rtdm sin Ob2s-Zbstb 132.5 x 0.574 - 127x (6-139) height and (6-140a), exit we
it is subject to approximately uniform blade without shroud. be made of Timken
stresses from centrifugal forces, as would
at the
blades shall
alloy, with a density pb =0.3
lb/in _. Cheek
the centrifugal tensile stresses
at the root section using equation (6-141). - _x 29.1 Scr I = O.O0045721pbhbrldm N2 The 0.0004572 _-0_-X,2.145 29. i X blade passage width at the exit 0.05 -2.87 in
(7000)2
bb2 s = Pbs x sin in Blade Dimensions spacing 062 s - Ib = 0.721 x 0.5740.05 = 0.364 Second Pitch Rotor
= 13 050 psi
Stator Blade Dimensions Pitch or blade spacing
or blade
Blade Pbs -
chord length Cb solidity
1.4 - 1.94 - 0.721 in Pbr2 From blades =
Blade
chord
length solidity
Cb
1.4 1.67 0.888 of the in
Blade
Blade equation
(6-140a),
the
number
From
equation (6-140a), the number
of blades
ndm_ Zbs = Pbs
_ 29.1 0.721
- 127
vdm Zbr2 - Pbr2
_ v29.1=i09 0.838
Allowing 0b, s and inlet
2024 ' between absolute flow
inlet angle
blade a 2
angle
Allow 0blr2 and
2o4 ' between the inlet
the
inlet flow
blade angle
angle f13; thus
relative
Obls=a2
+2024 `= 3436 '+2o24 ' =37
Oblr2 =f13 +2_4' = 57_56' +24' =60o We make the exit blade angle 062r2 equal to
We hold exit.blade angle 0b2s equal to exit absolute flow angle a3:
the exit relative flow angle /94 Ob2r2 =/_4 =44 From equation (6-149), the blade radial height
8b2s=a3 From
=35
equation (6-149), blade radial height at
the inlet
at the inlet is
hb,s= The
l.082.52=2.72
in The
hbir blade
2 = 1.08 2.87= 3.10 in passage width at the inlet x 0.8660.05
blade passage
width at the inlet
bbls= Pbs =0.384
sin Ob,s-tb=O.721xO.602-O.05 in
bb 1r2 = Pbr2 sin = 0.677 in
Ob l r2 - tb = 0.838
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTF.j_,S
255
From blade exit
equation area
(6-138),
the
required
total
_:
0.582
144 #t
Ab2r2 -P4 V4eb2 -
144 92 0.0506 x 1306 x 0.95 = 211 in 2
A-1 Rotor,
Stage
Engine
Turbine
(Single-Stage, Impulse
TwoType)
Velocity-Compounded Summary velocity 6-58. diagrams
Design For see
Combining obtain the
equations blade radial
(1-139) height
and at the
(1-140a), exit
we
at mean
diameter
din,
figure U = 890: a 1=25;
fl_=3153'; a:=3515'; fps; fps; enthalpy V 3 =1312 drops:
C_=3940fps; fl_=25:; a3=35; fps;
V1 C 2=2080
Absr2 hbsr2-_d m sin Obsr2-Zbtb 211 x 0.695-
=3156fps; fps; 119 0.05 =3"66 in V 2=2866 C 3 =1938 _4=44_; Isentropic Nozzles, First rotor blades,
fl3=5756'; a4 =8655'; fps
=_x29.1
C4:908fps;
V4=1306
The
blade
exit
passage
width
AHo_ I,= 337.5 gtu/lb blades, AHI_ 2, = 7.18 Btu/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb
bbsr2
= Pbr2 = 0.533
sin in
Obsr:
- tb = 0.838
x 0.695-
0.05
Stator Second Total Working
AHs. _, = 7.18
rotor, AH3. _, = 7.18 5H = 359 Btu/lb efficiencies:
The
mean
blade
radial 3.10+
height 3.66
7/t=58.2%; ;7n=92%; _7nb=68.3%; qm=85.2% Mean diameter of nozzles and blades: in dm= 29.1 Nozzle Aspect in (at din): Pn = 1.604 in; bnt din): ratio = 9.7; z n = 57;
hbr2 -
- 3.38
dimensions
Check root section
the
centrifugal using equation
tensile (6-141)
stress
at the
0n=23; =0.1548 First rotor
hnt=l.5in; in; bne=0.576in blade
nne=l.64in; (at
dimensions Cb=l.4in;
Solidity=l.82; Scr 2 = O.O0045721pbhbrsdmN 2 Pbrl bblrl = 0.0004572 = 20 550 Turbine From bined psi x_x 3.38 29.1 x (7000): in; Stator =0.769 = l.77 bbsrl blade in; in; =0.291 = 1.94; in;
Zbr_=llg; =34; Obsri in; =25;
t)blrl hb2rl in
=2.52
bblrl=0.379
dimensions Cb = 1.4 0bls=37;
(at din): in; Zbs = 1.27; 0b28=35; bbls=0.384 (at din):
Solidity Pbs=0.721
Efficiencies equations and (6-146) blade and (6-147), the com-
hbls=2.72in; in; Second Solidity bb28=0.364 rotor blade = 1.67; in; in; =0.533 efficiency
bb:s=2.87in; in dimensions Cb = 1.4 Oblr2 hbsb2 in in;
nozzle
Zbr2 = 109; 0b2t2 in; =44;
U(C 1 cos tin -b
a 1 +C:
cos
a2 a 3 +C 4 cos a4)
Pbr2 in;
=0.838 bbsr2
=600; =3.66
C 3 cos gJAH 890 (3940 0.906 + 2080 + 1938 32.2 = 0. 683 x 0.817 x 0.819 359
hblr 2 =3.10
bblrs=0.677
(_b) Two-stage, + 908 0.055) compounded grams, From following obtained. rc = 0.91. see prior impulse fig.
two-rotor, turbine. 6-59.) trial-and-error enthalpy work a stage equal
equal-work, (For
pressurediathe in were ratio
velocity
x 778x
calculations, drops for each carryover resulting stage
isentropic We assume
(approximately) From efficiency equation (6-148), the turbine machine
256
ROCKET ENGINES
First-stage
nozzles:
Point Stage
"2"-First-Stage Nozzle Inlet
Rotor
Blade
Exit=Second-
AHo_I, = 50%; First-stage rotor
AH = 0.5 359= blades:
179.5
Btu/lb
From velocity
equation at the
(6-135), first-stage
the rotor
relative blade
gas exit
flow
V 2 : \/kb AH__ 2, = 3%; Second-stage AH : 0.03 359 = 10.75 Btu/lb
2V12 + 2 gJT?n'_H1_ 2, 778 0.92 10.75
: V_(0.89 1784) 2 + 64.4 = 1736 fps a relative first-stage angle, a2, exit
nozzles:
AH2_ 3, = 44%; Second-stage rotor
AH = 0.44 blades:
359 = 158
Btu/lb
We chose
gas rotor can
flow blades. then
angle The be calcu-
/3 2 --38 for the absolute lated as 359 = 10.75 Btu/lb V 2 sin Point " O'-First-Stage psia The stage Point Inlet "1 "-Firs$-Stage equation first-stage Nozzle (6-121), nozzle the Exit = Rotor Blade absolute rotor blade Nozzle Inlet tan a si,,2 cos ' gas
flow
AH3_4, = 3%;
AH = 0.03
f_2 /32- U
1736 1736
0.616 1308 17.25
x 0.788-
T O-- 1860oR Po = 640
a2= 86040
gas exits
flow
velocity
at the
first-
From ity at the
gas-spoutingveloc-
V 2 sinfl2 C2 : sin a2
17360.616 0.998 - 1070 fps
exit
C 1 = kn \/2 gJAHo_ = 2880 fps
f = 0.96
223.8
vJl-7-9_5. 5 Point Rotor "3"-Second-Stage Blade Inlet (6-151), velocity the second-stage nozNozzle Exit = Second
From We use flow angle peripheral a value a l. speed For of 25 for the optimum rotor at the mean spouting-gas tile diameter zle
equation
gas-spouting
efficiency,
C a = k n \/rcC22 = 0.96 V'0.91 fps
+ 2 gJAH2_ (1070)
3' 2 + 64.4 778 x 158
--
cosalC1 2
--
0.9062880 2
1308fps
: 2880 Since stage first
Using /3_ at the calculated
equation first-stage as
(6-130), rotor
the blade
relative inlet
gas can be
flow
C 3 = C_,
the
remainder is the
of the same as
secondthat of the
velocity stage, i.e.,
diagram a3:a fps;
I =25;
J33 =]31 =438'; /_4=/_2=38;
V3=Vl=1784 C, tan sin al al28800.423 U - 2880 0.906 - 1308 = 0.936 From 131 =438 ' gas flow velocity at first-stage diameter equation C 4:C 2=1070fps;
a4:a2=8640'; V 4=V_=1736fps.
/31 = C1 cos
(6-129),
the
turbine
rotor
mean
rotor
The relative blade inlet
dm=720U-720x1308 _N _r 7000
42.7
in
Yl
C1 sinai sin 131
28800.423 0.683
1784
fps and
From blade
equation efficiency
(6-147),
the
combined
nozzle
257
U(C x cos a_ +C 2 cos a 2 +C 3 cos a3+C 4 cos a4) r/nb = g JAil 1308 (2880 0.906 + 1070 x 0.058 + 2880 0.906 + 1070 0.058) 32.2 778 359 =0.78
result
of forces
which
act on the shaft
or on the
parts supported by the shaft. be divided into two classes: right angles those which loads). to the shaft act parallel
These forces may those which act at forces), and axis (thrus:
axis (radial to the shaft
sult The turbine machine efficiency is assumed be the same as that used in design (a._): qm = 0.852 From equation efficiency (6-148), the overall turbine to
r/ = rlnbr/m = 0.78 x 0.852 = 0.664 A-I Stage Engine Alternate Turbine Design Summary (Two-Stage, Two-Rotor, PressureCompounded, Impulse Type) For velocity diagrams at mean diameter din, see figure 6-59. U = 1308 fps: a1=25; _1=438 '' C1=2880fps; V 1=1784 fps; a_=8640'; _2=38; C2=1070 fps; V 2 = 1736 fps; a3 =25; f13 =438'; C3=2880 fps; Va=1784 fps; a4=8640'; _4=38; C4=1070fps; V 4=1736fps Isentropic enthalpy drops: First-stage nozzles, AH__,, = 179.5 Btu/lb First-stage rotor blades, AH,_ 2, = 10.75 Btu/lb Second-stage nozzles, AH2_2 -- 158 Btu/lb Second-stage rotor blades, AHz._4, = 10.75 Btu/lb Working efficiencies: r/t= 66.4%; r/n = 92%; rlnb= 78%; _?m= 85.2% Mean diameter of nozzles and blades: dm= 42.7 in Comment: The overall efficiency of the pressure compounded turbine is higher than of design (a). However, required (weight, size). a relatively large
Radial loads on turbopump bearings may refrom one or more of the following sources: (1) Weights of parts such as shafts, pump impellers, turbinerotors, gears (2) Centrifugal forces du_:, to unbalance of these rotating parts (3) Forces due to inertia, resulting from rapid acceleration (4) Resultant radial forces on the impeller due to nonuniform pressure distribution in the discharge volute of the pump (5) Tangential or torque forces induced by the gears on turbopump bearings may remore of the following sources: rotating parts mounted on a shaft
Thrust loads sult from one or (1) Weight of vertical
(2) Unbalanced axial thrust of the pumps (3) Resultant axial thrust on the turbine rotor blades
that dm is
6.6 DESIGN SEALS, Turbopump
OF TURBOPUMP AND GEARS Bearing Design
BEARINGS,
A turbopump shaft is supported by two or more bearings. The loads on the bearings are the
For the turbopumps of liquid rocket engines, high-speed ball and roller bearings are used almost exclusively. A typical two-bearing design is shown in figure 6-7. A ball bearing carries both radial and thrust loads. It is paired with a roller bearing which carries only radial loads, however, of a higher magnitude. A typical three-bearing arrangement is shown in figure 6-63. The shaft radial loads are carried by a single roller bearing at the turbine end and by a roller and a ball bearing on the pump side. The ball bearing also absorbs the thrust loads. As a rule, the shaft thrust loads in a turbopump are carried by a single or dual bearing located at one end of the shaft. Thus loads from thermal expansion or contraction of the shaft are avoided. Bearing design data with regard to loadcarrying capacity, operating speed, and service life are usually furnished by the manufacturers. The useful life of a bearing is dependent upon its speed and load, and may be expressed by the correlation:
lira
258
{ Rated speed, rpm Life, hours = gb \Actu-a--1o--p-er_p-_'-d,
._ rpm/
[ Rated capacity, ib ,_4 _Actual working load, lt)] (6-153) where Kb = design factor usually manufacturer. furnished by
proportionally with the increase of shaft design speed. Thus the required bearing DN value rapidly increases for high-speed turbopumps. As a result, especially for liquid hydrogen application, the turbopump rpm is often determined by the DN limits of the bearings. A most important bearing design consideration is the expected operating life of the rocket engine. The bearings must have adequate statistical probability of conforming with this requirement. A generally accepted life rating for ball and roller bearings is the "B-10 life." The term denotes the operating life (hours) of a _population" of bearings at a given load and speed, at the expiration of which statistically 10 percent of them will have failed. Of course, in actual rocket engine operation, component reliability must be much higher. Bearing life at a given load and speed varies inversely with reliability. For instance, the B-1 life (99 percent reliability) is one-tenth of the B-10 life (90 percent reliability), or one-fiftieth of the B-50 life (50 percent reliability). Therefore, turbopump bearings are generally designed for a B-10 life of at least 100 hours. This corresponds to a B-1 life of 10 hours, or a B-0.1 life (99.9 percent reliability) of 1 hour, the latter by order of magnitude being the life the bearing most likely will actually see. For critical applications, an even higher life rating may be selected. Figure 6-61 presents the centrifugal load DN limits in terms of 10, 100, and 1000 hours of B-10 life for a typical ball bearing design (extralight series). The stress-limiting DN values of roller bearings are much higher than for ball bearings; however, it is extremely difficult to control the temperature rise in a roller bearing, if the DN value is above 1.5 106, due to excessive cage slip. Generally, rocket turbopump bearings have been successfully operated at DN values up to 1.5 106. Limited test information indicates possible satisfactory operation at 2.0 x 106 DN.
If a bearing is subjected to both thrust and radial loads, the two can be combined into a single equivalent radial load: (6-154)
P = R + xA
where P = equivalent radial load used for bearing selection, lb R = actual radial load, lb A = actual thrust load, lb x = design coefficient usually furnished by manufacturer Rocket turbopump bearings quite commonly are cooled and lubricated by the propellants pumped. They are usually operated at very high "DN" values, a parameter which is the product of the bearing bore D (millimeters), and the bearing rotative speed N (rpm). Propellant lubrication has the advantage of eliminating an additional lubricant supply system, and of simplifying bearing sealing problems. The following are important design considerations for propellant-lubricated bearings: (1) Characteristics of the propellants, such as thermal stability, operating temperature, chemical inertness, viscosity. (2) Compatibility of the bearing materials with the propellants. The application of certain high-strength alloys is sometimes limited by the propellants used. The "DN" rating is convenient when selecting high-speed ball or roller bearings. As the rotatire speed of a bearing increases, contact fatigue of the outer race caused by centrifugal loads of the balls or rollers may cause failures. In addition, bearing contact speeds will result in nonrolling phenomena with attendant failures caused by overheating. Through proper selection of the bearing geometry, these problems can be minimized, and the DN rating increased. Note that for a given horsepower rating, the shaft size based on allowable stress does not decrease
Dynamic
Seal Design
The principal dynamic, i.e., rotating seal types used in liquid rocket turbopumps are the labyrinth, face-riding, and shaft-riding seals. Satisfactory seal operation depends upon good design which considers many factors, including
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT-FEED
SYSTEMS
259
_.:1
[
I
I
I I II
I [ I
=,
BEA NG C
BALL
. TRt
N IFUGAL
LOAD
1
r
LIMIT
ol
J
I
I
I
I ]
(EXTRA L,_,TSE=,ESS,ZEI !
&o i
I
i i
_.o e u_$O MRS
II
i J
It l
I
[ '
I I
../---TST'0,
J
_
IOUTE_ .58 =.cE _*FO*=,T. T--SPEC,

.55
\-T-_
_ ._ I I I I
--_-\-q---' _.3u-=_.
_.o #-------------J_/--\--4_,_.
-_ _ ---
",., .c__..c- 2:.':.

Io ZO 3o 40 50
...
60 70 8090
't,
I .....
400 =X>o
o.
_ 200 _0 BEARING BORE SIZE, D mrn Figure 6-61.-Bali bearing centrifugal load DN limits. fluid sure ties free ence alters of the As through times The fluid age tion tion Qe=CsAcV'24g where Qe Ac =leakage =seal rate, clearance in3/sec area, in 2 across the seal, seal seal the Aps/p (6-155) pressure between of the operation which these seal. shown the and function leakage and wear. seal is surges, of sealing sealing sealing vibration, components, surfaces, surfaces, expansion contact rubbing smooth sealing surfaces. cause 6-62, The the fluid is seal rather improper labyrinth tending throttled is not and and presvelocifrictionand on p Cs = density = seal of the leakage fluid lb/in 3 established contraction coefficient,
experimentally Labyrinth of pump seals two attached turbine seals are as used well as for the for the diaphragm wearing rotating between rings
of internal of the directly factors in figure seal. sealing forced sealing can
parts, Any
impellers, stages.
squareness
influoperation seal many is
to tim sealing
or indirectly
subsequently
In a face-riding-type accomplished the are through a shoulder angle 6-62, precision-lapped and at a right in figure is is welded secured The force axial
seal rubbing faces ring. to the the bellows. axis
the
sealing
is between seal faces As is in
contact of a floating The mating
a clearance-type
to pass path. to prevent leaka
washer
interface to follow
of rotation. seal seal washer The bellows, housing
a devious
shown attached turn, which casing. spring follow age.
floatin
of a labyrinth entirely, The can be but level amount
to a metal
to reduce
to a stationary and statically provides contact seal floating face, bellows
to a reasonable
at a minimum of leakage by the
of fricthrough correla-
sealed flexibility
to the and it to leak-
labyrinth
estimated
to the and
permitting without
angular a lip
movement is used washer,
Sometimes
in conjunction instead of
with a spring-loaded a bellows. The shaft-riding a seal The are held
seal
(fig.
6-62) plate, form
consists and a ring
of a several around springs.
housing, segments. shaft and
retaining segments against
Aps = pressure lb/in 2
differential
it by garter
260
ROCKET
ENGINES
-PUMP CASING WEARING RING ....,..\\_ /-- PUMP IMPELLER
HOUSING
___
_SHAFT
-_-_-
C SHAFT C LABYRINTH SEALS
,.AL
RETAINING
PLATE /-_ TURBOPUMP
_-TURBOPUMP FLOATING .\'..x>,_" SEAL WASHER_\_\_/ST
CASING
/CASING ____GARTER _HER_/SEAL SPR,NGS HOUSING
P- SE;TL HO_SING ICSE L
SHOULDER
RING_
BELLOWS ..... _ _/,/_ ..... SEGMENTS
___cu-_L_L SEAL Figure
- --
_ SHAFT SHAFTRIDING SEAL
FACE-RIDING
6-62.-Principal
turbopump
dynamic
seal
types.
Thus plished ment forced
self-adjusted between inside against diameter. a flat plate space
dynamic shaft outside Axially, surface and seal. than
sealing diameter the of the
is accomand segare segments seal seals
low-speed etry speed the with casing. held the as depend ratio, gears the The
inducer. upon and are other
Gear power and being usually
arrangement transmitted, During
and
geom-
propellants, operation, oil, or with
factors. lubricated pumped. housed as hubs are are Spur speeds
housing thus tend seals. for
cooled
by a retaining providing to occupy A wide floating Carbon seal finish. exceed are more assures such as hardened faces The 300 dynamic positive is less
a spring Shaft-riding the
washer, face-riding is available
propellant gears To thin are as hub. since loads high. high minimize
a static
in an aluminum webs are at cross often gears sections internally are thrust most on bear-
weight
further,
variety seal used
of materials and ring and face rubbing cavities installed sealing seal most frequently. lapped
possible The results. they and
washers on shoulder
ring The
segments. rubbing must should or purge two or be smooth not lines This applications
rim and used, Tooth are
splined widely ings. gears must sistance made
for best
or shaft speed vent between
minimize
or plated, seal fps.
to a very
in turbopump therefore, and gears the high are tooth reusually surfaces
very
The tooth steel, case
designer, strength with
Frequently, to the
achieve
connected
to wear. of high-alloy by either
Turbopump
seals
in series.
for critical seals.
hardened hardening.
carburizing the tooth tolerances under very by a grinding
or induction surface should process. of turboclose control
interpropellant
If possible, finished and dimensional be held must
be accurately Materials Turbopump The pumps tween also gear (fig. turbine, sometimes Gear trains 6-16) Design used afford and between in liquid speed a pump rocket turbobeand and a ity, pump during To practices gears
manufacturing. improve can gear life and load-carrying to standard Pinions are design frequently stabilmodifications be applied.
differentials drives, impeller
pumps
accessory
certain
DESIGN OF TURBOPUMP
PROPELLANT.FEED
SYSTEMS
261
made
with long addendum
and gears with short pinion tooth
considerations
in preparing
the
layout.
For
addendum
to adjust tip-sliding velocities and to Furthermore, are often increased, at the expense High pressure angles
strengthen the pinion. thicknesses
of gear tooth thickness.
as high as 22_ ,25 _j, 271/: may be applied to or reduce contact stresses on filetooth surface and to increase the width of the tooth at the base, Involute-profile modifications are often also made tips to compensate from cutting the for bending and to keep the mating part.
instance, one of the more important criteria which influences the selection or arranging of the turbopump mechanical elements is the ease of development. Standard or proven mechanical detail should be extensively adopted in the layouts.
The design following layout aging is a list of important turbopump considerations:
(1) Compatibility
and
with engine
plumbing
systems
pack-
(2) Structural
(3) Positive
integrity
interpropellant sealing
6.7
DESIGN LAYOUT ASSEMBLIES
OF
TURBOPUMP
(4) Compensation contraction
for thermal
expansion
and
Figure 6-63 presents the design layout of the A-1 stage engine turbopump assembly. Logical packaging and arranging of the basic mechanical elements of tim turbopump are among the
(5) Ease of development (6) Ease of assembly (7) Ease of manufacturing Considerable experience
in turbopump design layout
and skill are required

work for best results.
iNLET PUMP PUMP VOLUTE AND DISCHARGE FUEL PUMP VOLUTE AND DISCHARGE MANIFOLD i -TURBINE BLADES IMPELLER-_ NOZZLES ROW ROTATING i _-FUEL PUMP
OXIDIZER PUMP
ROTATION
OXIDIZER PUMP
OXIDIZER PUMP IMPELLER
ROTATING BLADES SEAL INDUCER
HYDRAULIC
3TATIONARY PUMP IMPELLER BLAOES
AUXILIARY POWER P1CKUP SHAFT
Figure
6-63.-Assembly
design
layout
of the
hypothetical
A-1
stage
engine
turbopump.
Chapter Design
7.1 CONTROL The METHODS
VII Valves
of
Controls
and
opening deviations pellant
and flow
closing from rates, of engine by insertion the
the design such
propellant mixture as from
valves. ratio fabrication are lines see
Minor or pro-
foremost design requirements for any are accuracy, stability, and relibasic control methods are avail-
control system ability. Two able: open-loop
tolerances beforehand orifices into the desired
components, of accurately flow (also drops
corrected sized to effect ch. II). systems control it is condiThe
(no feedback) and closed-loop Both have found
the
propellant
(feedback) control systems.
pressure
wide application in liquid propellant rocket proextent pulsion systems. to those systems Open-loop which control is confined to operate preflight has and tions the limited of environmental conditions. Most other applicaforms of closedmodels during operation. sequencing as is used accomplished Mechanical high valves are and relative with means reliability. of many mechanically actuator. valves positions respect requirements (electric, engines, valves and by the designs. engine, and in chapter their oxidizer of an open-loop for engine with the are instance, engines and achieved valve also be are start aid preferred the or gas control and stop for propelgenerbetween by adjusting gates or popby of interthe functions and Accurate system is usually proposed The system, can be analyzed. then locks. their lant ators fuel the pets, other interlocks For small selection of the best-suited method such tions require one of the many can be constructed with which dynamics, calibration advantage to a specific test set data. Open-loop However, for variable of simplicity. are designed of correction is determined from
at a fixed, steady-state level over a narrow range
of operating
parameters,
is unable
to compensate
loop control. For these, mathematical
such as gain factors and stability of a
is an important firststep in control systems design. system lags. It will be influenced by the required characteristics of the timeis determined, the basic system must be sebeing controlled, and by allowable Once the method for the proposed accuracy, the dynamic
linked Proper is of the to the can
operated
by a single
sequencing
elements
lected, such as type of components supply or working
of the power for
mechanical
linkage. furnished or pneumatic). between of various main
Interlock fluid (electric,hydraulic, or pneumatic), and of the operating mechanism the specific control, which specific application. and past experience development new system. all depend
hydraulic, sequencing ignition combination A typical the start were
on the
In high-thrust propellant accomplished
system
is often
Ideally, the basic theories should permit design without work. However, some interlock stage quence detail example and is the stop sein A-1 for which interlocks III.
experiment or development
work with attendant redesign will of perfecting a
described
always be required in the process
Open-Loop With preset this control
Control system, means, devices. control calibrated flows is control such is accomplished as orifices, example propellant set simply and of flow by by on-
Closed-Loop
Control control is also called automatic system usually in-
Closed-loop or feedback
control. This
off command open-loop system, The
A typical an engine to a fixed are
cludes sensing means, computing means to detect errors, and control means to correct them. An accurately sensed feedback is compared with a
of conditions.
propellant
controlled
fixed or variable reference by a computer, which 263
_mm
I=
mw
264
DESIGN
OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
then generates
signals
to correct
for any devia-
tions. The main system thus does not require precise calibration for a specific set of conditions. Unlike open-loop control, closed-loop control depends on sensing absence or presence of an error to maintain a desired condition or to bring about a correction. In general, the objective of closed-loop control is to minimize errors during operation and reduce system sensitivity to environmental changes and changes in component characteristics. It is applied to areas such as engine-thrust control and/or throttling, propellant mixture-ratio control, and thrust-vector control. For rocket engine application, closed-loop control systems usually employ one or a combination of the following modes of operation: 1. Simple "on" and "off" type.-(Example: pressure switch/valve combination for tank pressure control.) 2. Proportional type.-Employs a continuous control signal which is proportional to the error. (Example: transducer output for chamber pressure control.) 3. Derivative type.-Employs a continuous control signal which is a function of the error and its time derivative(s) (rate of change). This is principally used when systems stability is critical. (Example: thrust vector control system with phase lead.) 4. Integral type.-Employs a continuous signal which is proportional to the cumulative integral of one or more errors. (Example: two flowmeter outputs for mixture-ratio control.) Closed-loop or feedback control systems are essentially dynamic systems. Their design characteristics may be analyzed according to the basic laws of physics. Figure 7-1 shows a typical example. Its function is to maintain the controlled variable Pc equal to the desired value Pr, by manipulating the variable wg. Maintaining Pc equal to Pr is assumed to maintain the indirectly controlled quantity F. In a typical turbopump fed engine control system, Pc would be the combustion chamber pressure, maintained equal to a fixed reference pressure Pr by means of a valve controlling the gas generator propellant flow wg. F then would be engine thrust, which is indirectly maintained at a desired value. In this control system which consists of a sensor (chamber pressure transducer), a computer
Figure
7-1.-Schematic control
of a typical system.
closed-loop
(electric summing junction and amplifier), and a controller (gas generator flow control valve), the command reference input r is compared with the sensor feedback b. The controller then manipulates g in response to an error signal e from the computer. Ideally, r should be in linear proportion to Pr and b to Pc, save for constants required to convert one physical quantity into the other. However, this ideal condition is difficult to attain because of the dynamic characteristics of the pressure transducers. These characteristics are influenced by physical properties such as mass inertia, fluid compressibility and viscosity, and frictional resistance. Instead of r being directly proportional to Pr, the two parameters are actually related through a differential equation which represents the dynamic behavior of the elements involved. The same is true for the feedback b and the controlled variable Pc. It is also applicable to other systems components. Hence, the analysis of a closed-loop control system usually involves the solution of sets of often complicated differential equations. Refer again to figure 7-1, where Pc is the controlled variable, _g the manipulated variable, e the error signal, b the feedback, r the reference input, and Pr the desired value. A, B, C, and D symbolically represent the dynamic relation between input and output of the respective components. The following terms representative of the differential equations for this closed-loop control system can be written: r =Apt e =r- b Pc =C_vg (7-1) b = Dpc g = Be
The solution of these equations in combination with a systematic experimental program will suffice to analyze the dynamic performance of the system. The continuous corrective action of a closedloop control system may promote dangerously
DESIGN OF CONTROLS AND VALVES
265
unstable components significant system taining large is
operation are response one that
when employed lags. is at its oscillations
control having
elements high gain
or and control in mainInstead, The
Engine Rapid mal desirable impulse, tion. shutoff etc.); case flushes). sequence
System and
Cutoff safe as
Control shutdown, repeatable during cutoff operaof noris
An unstable effective value. set and i.e., in. desired may accuracy
engine well as and
operation
in an emergency,
no longer
a variable divergent
for minimum and The to enhance
reliable usually (gas
systems consists generator, and,
requirements ity racy The ing are often requires high corrective
for control difficult high
for stabilaccugain. durthrough as it system informain conhigh various
cutoff
sequence power
to combine. amplification; results thus instability. of compensation, leads a high (time gain
Higher in overshoot However, such derivatives), control
of subsystems shutoff of test As is damaging and main of main firings, a rule, adjusted
chamber postfiring the
power; securing
in
amplification action, of system means phase to obtain
(purges,
promoting
propellant chamber. spikes termination.
valve-closing a fuel-rich This and cutpre-
degrees appropriate
to provide
off in the vents in smooth
combustion temperature rapid thrust
"anticipatory" is possible
results
with
satisfactory
stability.
Additional be presented control.
tion on compensation will nection with thrust-vector
Engine
Main Stage Duration Control governing engine in section 2.i.
Important consideratious duration have 7.2 BASIC ENGINE Most of the following found A-4 3-9). basic LIQUID CONTROL systems systems Typical for the (figs. A-I, PROPELLANT SYSTEMS require several applications A-2, A-3, 3-3, 2-10, 3-6, or all in the are and and ROCKET been discussed
The signal for engine in-flightcutoff, unless it is the result of a malfunction, will be supplied by the vehicle and fed directly into the cutoff control system discussed graph. in a preceding paraoptimum utiliza-
engine control
summarized
paragraphs. Ill, systems
For lower stages, where
in chapter propulsion
tion of the propellants is desired, a tank lowlevel sensor is often employed. where integrating aceelerometer will signal cutoff. In final stages, precise cutoff velocity is essential, an or equivalent device
Engine The trol start
System prime
Start objective the
Control of a start-sequence system operation. of systems application turbine of the safely confrom A typical preconditioning of start spinner); propellants such engineinterlocks of engine The energy, and in the as sequences tion sors, tions ous, Engine Special stability instability, System Safety Controls devices, such as combussen-frequently condiall phases nonhazard-
is to bring signal
engine
to main-stage may (start and consist tanks, ignition chamber. for certain system. is maintained each the start chilldown);
monitoring monitors gas generator
sequence (purging, if required introduction main the start and may be gas
for detecting trips, automatic, during
combustion are
overtemperature
or turbopump to prevent system by effecting fail-safe
overspeed undesired prompt, shutdown In addition, designed supply safely. or prevent power
employed
or unsafe
combustion required generator
Secondary subsystems A reliable through step transient.
of engine control tion system sions gency
operation. systems are
most so that will
engine an interrupthe misby are
sequence by monitoring during
functional
of electrical to shutdown it may power
cause
operation
(For to switch
certain shutdown
propellant-valve effect either This is usually
opening sequence is set to an oxidizer-lead or a fuel-lead start. dictated and and and cutoff by propellant cooling present sequences. methods. typical type and
be desirable source,
to an emeroperation.) devices
chamber 2-11, system 3-5,
ignition 3-8, start
Figures engine
mec_Janical Mechanical extensively the reliability
latching, for continued and electrical interlock used in the control
3-11
system
to assure
of the
safety
control
systems.
266
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
Propellant
Various tems have
Tank Pressurization
propellant been discussed for the the tank
Control
sysV. The syspresengine
Most systems Engine The
propellant are of the
tank
pressurization type.
control
pressurization in chapter control required of these tank
closed-loop
design requirements tems must consider(1) Means sure during systems
System systems require
Control described proper
Calibration in the preceding and paraand of timing switches, values cali-
to maintain level all within phases operation,
graphs
adjustment
calibration
an allowable of vehicle including
range and steady-
for desired performance. devices, and the
engine This pressure
operating includes switches,
characteristics the The setting correct position
state
throttle periods (2) Effective relief tion (3) trols, control
engine
mainstage;
and restarts. devices to prevent of the other with as
start
vehicle such
or dynamic
coasting as pressure tanks. con-
sizing of these and
of orifices. are verified firings.
transients; between safety valves
for each bration some ance
during Of the lines Others as control 7.4;
engine orifices,
checkout
are
placed
in propellant calibration. lines ratio 7.3 and Specific
for performare used and rein
overpressurizapropellant subsystem systems.
parameter devices. and
and
rupture
pneumatic stricting for thrust cussed
or hydraulic mixture
timing will orifice
Compatibility such and
orifice
applications be disdesign
propellant-utilization-
thrust-control
in sections
Figure
7-2.-Control
ori[ice
locations
and
sizes
o[ a typical
engine
system.
267
elements Following identified, actual Control sizes
will
be presented orifices
in section must or banding, and
7.10. their
lators, and with a minimum However, employed higher such 7-2. level, Thrust as "thrust" in vehicle degree in single-stage stages are regulators regulators systems
of calibration firings. or "controllers" require a at sea system. pressure effect ratio The is same is are
sizing, sizes and
be properly
by stamping recorded calibration
which
in the engine logbook. orifice locations and are shown in figure
of precision
and repeatability, vehicles starting chamber their
of a typical
system
or in final
of a multistage actually (vacuum), since mixture pressure. starting of thrust is and
Engine To system means firing operation
Systems verify and are
Checkout
and Test readiness suitable
Controls of the control and preof the control the engine equipsystem and entire engine
regulators. identical thrust solely level, ber able
At altitude to thrust engine
regulation, of chamber
at altitude
operational its subsystems, required
for a given a function true the as high because pressure with
for postassembly These permit and actually suitable checkout leak checks proper pickups, spark plug and its critical firing
is essentially
for systems relationship
at sea to champredict-
checkouts. of the
simulation
engine
a function accuracy. vehicle control cases,
of altitude
components, system.
without Utilizing
ground-support control checks of the
Occasionally, in-flight Usually, reduction last portion are cedures thrust in such of thrust,
missions over the
will
require range. the pro-
ment (GSE), an engine should include(l) Provisions
a wider need
is for a planned during Two basic
to conduct
or "throttling," flight.
electrical-continuity engine (2) Provisions of all dc bus monitors; position flowmeters; (3) Provisions tion and devices control thrust (4) Provisions "cold" system. for verifying instrumentation voltage open, signals and operating and valves, and and
of propelled possible: reduction reduction can power systems), rate
operation such firing continuous propellant ofas
(a._) Stepwise Pc (b) Each (1) Continuous of them Turbine fed flow (2) (3) for Main Variation case Additionally, tems, systems. The trate a system power control which example effecting system relies the on stepwise by shutoff generator and
of chamber of Pc
pressure,
closed, pressure
be accomplished (in the case flow rate pressures systems). (clustered) reduction engines in section system control 7-3 shows for our propellant control can
by
control
for valves; the
transducers. proper such control as funcflow of all control
of turbopump of gas or hot gas rate
for verifying range pressure ratio subsystems,
through
regulation method).
propellant (preferred flow tank of main
regulators,
propellant
mixture to simulate
devices. signals system for start the This engine to often
(in
the
vehicle engine as such
of pressure-fed in multiple thrust
checkout
of the
engine be of the 7.1 is through the A-4 stage flow sub-
sys-
operating sequence, and cutoff. In addition ground-support permit requires control additional to tile checkout must test
effected
of one
or more chosen thrust Figure
equipment, include firings.
system of static
equipment
to illustypical for turbine' thrust engine,
a closed-loop
control
instrumentation.
variation.
7.3
ENGINE The
THRUST
LEVEL of the (sea thrust
CONTROL level of a has "_+3%." level"
proposed main
variation. operates on
significance engine
Here,
closed-loop
system
liquid been specified
rocket explained with
level 2.1.
or vacuum) It is usually
in section a tolerance; with modern this in the engine,
the principle main oxidizer propellant is determined parameter comparing
of variable fluid resistances in the and fuel feed lines to achieve modulation. sensing indicative feedback input chamber of thrust b with r. the Engine pressure, level, command error e, reaction the and by
for instance, "fixed band various without thrust with
flow-rate by most the
It is possible, engines, orifice
to guarantee calibrations of the
simple
propellant resort to regu-
subsystems
reference
pressure
Any resultant
268
7.4
PROPELLANT-MIXTURE-RATIO PROPELLANT-UTILIZATION
AND CONTROL
C_lu_m __E ,NPUT , _ o _mu T
The significance of propellant mixture ratio and its control have been discussed in section 2.1. The principal reasons for mixture-ratio control are recalled: Optimum engine performance (important) Complete propellant utilization; i.e., minimum residuals (most important) Both goals are closely interrelated and essentially inseparable.
[_
C_EC_m_
i,,_._,_
Figure
7-3.-Main-stage thrust loop Ior the ,4-4 stage
throttle engine.
control Open-Loop Mixture Ratio Control
following amplification and compensation as required, is used to drive the thrust throttle control actuator of the main propellant control valves in a direction which reduces the error. Ideally, the system operates over the entire thrust throttle range with minimal disturbances to other critical engine parameters; in particular, the propellant mixture ratio. In practice, these disturbances are not entirely avoidable, but can be minimized by maintaining a given resistance ratio between the two main propellant control valves throughout the control range. A most reliable method toward this objective would be mechanical coupling of the two propellant valves (fig. 7-4). Orifices, propellant valves, and servovalves required for thrust control will be described in subsequent chapters.
The simplest form of engine mixture ratio control is obtained by the installation of properly sized calibration orifices in the main propellant lines. Acceleration effects during flight are usually accurately predictable as a function of trajectory and flight time. Thus, simple averaging of flight mixture ratio and selection of the corresponding orifice size reduces mixture ratio deviations over the duration of flight to a level acceptable for optimum total propellant utilization in many missions. Open-loop mixture-ratio control can often be further refined by the following procedures: 1. Weighing ot the propellants loaded; i.e., accurate determination oI the tanked propellant mixture ratio.-The vehicle to be launched rests on load cells, thus permitting weighing of the propellants actually loaded. In mixed systems, the noncryogenic component is loaded and weighed first. The cryogenic component follows and is subsequently maintained at level through a topping line. The mass of both propellants is determined from on-the-spot temperature and ambient pressure readings while the tanking procedure is progressing. 2. Use o[ adjustable, rather than [ixed, ori[ices in one or both propellant lines.-As close to vehicle takeoff as possible, and as a function of tanked weight and temperature readings, a hand or remotely ground-controlled prestart-oriflee adjustment is made. This method is usually confined to noncryogenic fluids. For systems where engine operation closely follows that obtained during final calibration, remarkable accuracy of targeted mixture ratio and thus propellant utilization can be obtained
ENGINE
ST_.RT,
CUTOFF
{I TPiRUST
FROM OXIDIZER TANK
THROTTLE
CONTROL
_IITL_TO_ /
FI_:_I FUEL _'ANK
._,
N OXIDIZER T _ CO_ ROL LVE
_
MECHAN ICdI, L COOPLING
TO THRUST
NO.
TO THRUST
NO
TO THCtUST
NO.
TO THRUST
NO
CHAMBER
CH*_*M_R
CHC_MBER
CHAMBER
Figure 7-4.-Schematic of the propellant system for A-4 stage engine start, throttle and mixture ratio control.
control cutoff,
DESIGN OF CONTROLSAND VALVES
_9
with the open-loop method, closed-loop system (single In certain applications,
approaching that of a stages; first stages). however, the varia-
tion of mixture ratio as a function of increasing acceleration may exceed tolerable limits. Acceleration in most vehicle tank arrangements affects predominantly the propellant in the forward tank. Because of the long supply line, acceleration continues to act upon a relatively large fluid column, even near the end of powered flight (tank depletion). By comparison, the effect on the fluid in the rear tank is often nearly completely offset by the simultaneous decrease in fluid head (short liquid column). To offset excessive acceleration effects on the fluid from the forward tank and thus on mixture ratio, head-suppression valves are sometimes used at the pump inlet of turbopump fed systems. Here, pump inlet pressure increase is sensed as a function of acceleration. Corresponding signals are fed through a logic device to the head-suppression valve which will gradually close, thus acting as a throttling device. This valve also protects the pump structurally.
Closed-Loop
Mixture
Ratio
Control
In certain cases, such as in last stages, or in missions requiring engine restart following extensive cruising periods involving propellant boiloff, a closed-loop system may be required. In figure 7-5 we see the A-4 stage engine mixture ratio control loop which operates on the basis of continuous propellant mass flow sensing. Both fuel and oxidizer mass flow rates are monitored and integrated to establish the ratio of either the propellants consumed or the propellants remaining. The mixture ratio feedback, (MR)b, is then compared with a command reference mixture ratio input, (MR)r, in the propellant utilization control computer. The resulting error signal, (MR)e, is fed to the mixture ratio control oxidizer valve vernier position actuator, which forms a link in the mechanical coupling between the two main propellant control valves, as shown in figure 7-4. The oxidizer flow rate is thus modified to eliminate the error. In high-thrust turbopump-fed engine systems such as the A-2 stage engine, where the propellant valves are independently actuated, the system propellant mixture ratio control can be accomplished by varying the main
oxidizer flow in a similar manner. For instance, a propellant-utilization servo control valve, which regulates the pneumatic pressure to the main oxidizer valve actuator, may control the oxidizer flow by adjusting the angular position of the oxidizer valve gate during engine mainstage operation. In certain applications it may be desirable to integrate the propellant flow rates and to compare the masses consumed to one another and to those tanked for optimum propellant utilization. It is readily seen that control systems, based on propellant flow-rate measurements, are a refinement of open-loop systems using fixed orifices. They are basically still mixture-ratio controls and thus merely "assume," but do not measure directly, the amount of propellants actually remaining in the tanks and their unbalance. To accomplish this function, usually referred to as "propellant utilization" (PU), additional control elements must be employed in the form of vehicle tank-level sensors. Numerous principles are known: point sensing, sonar, acoustic, radiation sensing, differential pressure, and capacitance probes. Figure 7-6 presents the propellant utilization control system for the A-4 stage propulsion system. The residual propellant quantities in the main tanks are continuously monitored, summed, and compared with a PU control reference in the propellant utilization control computer. Any error detected is used to modify the command reference mixture ratio input, (MR)r, to tl_e mixture-ratio control computer. This method isolates the mixture ratio control from the propellant utilization control, and thus prevents interaction between them. The bandwidth of the
ilXTU_E
_*TIO
mXTU_f
_A_
[CEC_e,( _UV.C'nON _' eLecrllc
SUVltNG lm_t.,1,1Ei
Figure
7-5.-Propellant mixture ratio loop for the A-4 stage engine.
control
270
ELECT't;
AMPL=FI(R
Figure
7-6.-Propellant [or the A-4 stage
utilization propulsion
control system system.
propellant utilization control system is made narrow as compared to that of the mixture-ratio control system, because propellant residual errors may be expected to develop slowly; i.e., initial tanking errors can be corrected over the entire duration of engine operation. The sensors used in the vehicle tanks may serve additional purposes. In combination with suitable ground equipment, they may permit an automatically controlled loading, high-level limiting and topping procedure. In static firings and flight, they may serve as redundant low-level sensors to initiate engine cutoff. For such a complete system, the term "propellant management system" has come into increased usage. Apart from throttle valves placed in the main propellant lines, bypass lines have been successfully applied to vary mixture ratio. Here, a line is tapped off the pump outlet and ducted back to the pump inlet. A servo valve, possibly supported by an orifice, can be varied so that the bypass flow is adjusted from no flow to full bypass flow. The implementation of closed-loop propellantutilization control through mixture-ratio control is a major vehicle-to-engine interface area. The requirements or criteria will usually be established by the vehicle builder and/or user. Close coordination between engine and vehicle designer is essential. A closed-loop mixture-ratioand propellantutilization-control system may not only be used for accurate maintenance of a fixed mixture ratio but it also has the potential for programed mixture ratio control (PMR). Here, the mixture ratio is varied during flight, either continuously or in steps. It must be kept in mind that the average mixture ratio still must be equal to the tanked
mixture ratio to assure simultaneous propellant depletion. However, by programing a mixture ratio in favor of the heavier component during the early portion of flight, and then switching it in favor of the lighter one, the accelerated vehicle mass is reduced faster. Also, mixture ratio may be programed to provide a higher thrust level during the steeper portion of a trajectory. This provides a better thrust-to-weight ratio in the presence of gravitation, with attendant velocity increase benefits. These methods, possibly in combination, may substantially increase stage payload capacity, since the effects of mixture ratio on performance (Is) are usually small within a reasonable range (see table 7-1). Optimization can readily be made with the aid of an electronic computer program. In a number of applications, programed mixture ratio control without PU control, i.e., open loop mixture ratio control with PMR, may give best results, simultaneously reducing complexity. Valves suitable for mixture ratio control will be discussed in section 7.8.
TABLE Mixture i ratio, Thrust O/F 3hange, percent +10 -10 +11 -11
7-1 Flow rates NPSH Is OxiFuel dizer +4 -4 +14 -14
+12 -12
-1.3 +I.3
General
Design
Considerations with which a desired mixture or maintained is affected con-
The precision ratio is obtained
siderably in open-loop systems, and to some extent in closed-loop systems, by the following: (1) Instrumentation accuracies (in particular, flow and tank-level metering) (2) Machining tolerances of orifices (3) Operating tolerances of regulators (4) Temperature influences on orifices and regulators (5) Density tolerances of the propellants, as a function of temperature and of purity (composition according to specifications; contamination and dilution)
271
(6) (7) (8) (9)
(10)
Acceleration effects during flight Propellant tank pressure deviations Turbopump speed deviations Differences between fuel and oxidizer pump characteristics as a function of speed Line resistance changes as a function of temperature and for miscellaneous mechanical reasons
(11) Temperature effects in rotating machinery In the following we will discuss important steps toward maintenance of high quality, and toward further improvement in the listed areas, for highest accuracy of mixture-ratio (and propellant-utilization) control. First, continued improvement of propellant flow-metering devices is imperative. Here, turbine-type flowmeters have achieved a high degree of accuracy (conformance with truth) and precision (repeatability). The accurate calibration of these meters to most reliable standards engine inlet pressures is important. Since also affect the mixture
always a possibility and must be prevented by proper design and handling procedures. Many of these, such as cleaning procedures, will be called out in the shop drawings. Furthermore, the design, where applicable, will have to include filters, check valves, and suitable line routing in order to prevent contamination and/or contact with incompatible materials. Note that some propellants may change their properties merely as a function of time, such as hydrogenperoxide, which loses its concentration due to (very slow) decomposition (with attendant gas development), even if absolute cleanliness has been maintained. This affects design conditions in addition to contamination considerations since proper venting devices must be provided. The latter, in turn, have to be designed in such a way that no contaminants, including moisture, can enter the propellant system. Since mass flow rates delivered by pumps and/or regulated by orifices will be a function of the fluid densities, mixture ratio may be affected accordingly. The densities, in turn, aside from conformance with specifications, will be affected by temperature (noncryogenic fluids) or ambient pressure; i.e., boiling point (cryogenic fluids). To overcome these effects, it may be necessary to temperature-condition the propellants. This may be done by heating or cooling. Or, it may be accomplished by suitable storage, such as shielding against solar radiation. For cryogenic propellants, it is usually sufficient to keep the containers vented to atmosphere until immediately prior to use, since the possible changes of atmospheric pressure at a given altitude can only introduce relatively minor temperature changes. The designer, through a suitable operating sequence (engine schematic) and through provision of vent valves, recirculators, heaters, and other components, can minimize temperature effects. The actuation of mixture ratio control devices affects the nominal engine performance parameters. Depending on the type of engine, in particular its turbopump characteristics, these effects may be significant. In an actual case, the effects shown in table 7-1 were observed. It is clear that the vehicle thrust structure must be capable of absorbing the higher thrust loads. Also, the vehicle tanks and their operating pressures must be capable of meeting the
ratio, pressure measurements of the highest reliability are equally necessary. Wherever possible, the rocket engine design should include vital metering and measuring elements from the outset. Dynamic sensing devices, in particular flow meters, are drastically influenced by their installation configuration. If these end organs, following accurate calibration, remain with the engine through its entire life cycle, including flight, a maximum degree of accuracy is obtained. The design and machining of all calibration orifices should closely follow accepted standards (see section 7.10). Selection of suitable materials to eliminate or at least to reduce to a minimum, temperature influences and corrosion, is important. The design of orifice holders must prevent the possibility of incorrect (upside down) installation and of distortion of the orifices. Regulators, if any are used, must be designed for highest accuracy and precision with particular consideration of the medium to be controlled. More detail will be presented in section 7.12. The purity and composition of the better known propellants are regulated by official government specifications. The designer can expect that approved sources will deliver the propellants in conformance with these. However, subsequent contamination, dilution or alteration is
272
NPSH requirements for extreme mixture ratio excursions. Furthermore, chamber cooling may be affected. During sea-level testing, nozzles with high expansion area ratios may experience jet separation at the lower thrust levels (low Pc), resulting in vibration, destructive to engine as well as vehicle structure. Since vehicles are tanked for their nominal mixture ratio, and since engines are calibrated to this ratio, mixture-ratio valve excursions should be small for vehicles which are expended within a few minutes after takeoff. For stages, with long cruising periods prior to operation or reignition, and which use one or two cryogenic propellants, boiloff may have altered the ratio of the propellants in the tanks to such a degree that the PU system may be called upon to operate at or near its maximum excursion. It is, therefore, vital that the engine designer appraise the vehicle builder of all performance variations as a result of mixture-ratio adjustments, beyond the standard tolerances of the nominal performance values. Also, engine turbopumps must be capable of operating for extended periods with the valve in either extreme position. A propellant utilization system is a complex system. If required, it must be of the highest quality. Otherwise, it will do more harm than good. Only closest cooperation between vehicle and engine designer will assure optimum quality. Areas of particular significance to teamwork are: Selection of the mixture ratiocontrol method.For instance, should the PU system be active during the entire flight duration, or only for the last, say, 30 percent. (Both methods have been successfully used.) Selection of the mixture ratio control valve specilications.-Should it be a variable orifice, or a bypass valve? What should be the permissible pressure drops, required response rates, and accuracies? In case of sensor failure, should the valve return to the neutral position or remain in its last working position? (Self-locking.) Selection of the sensors.-Should it be one of several available continously reading types, such as capacitance gages or differential pressure (tank top to bottom) gages? Or should point sensors be employed, such as hot wires (change of heat loss as a function of being immersed in fluid or exposed); switches triggered magnetically by floats; voltage pips induced in station-
ary coils by a passing magnet, or others? (The engine designer will be involved in this selection only if the generated signals affect engine components.) Selection of the best-suimd electronic control system.-This will be largely influenced by sensors and control-valve selections. A propellant utilization system is not a malfunction prevention system. It does not add to vehicle reliability, possibly subtracts from it. Rather, it is a system required to live with a marginal preliminary vehicle design. It is a safe assumption, however, that the first flights of a new vehicle will not be for its ultimate mission. PU, therefore, will not be a vital necessity for these flights. Thus, enough time is available to thoroughly investigate, analyze, select, and develop the PU system. This time should be utilized. Both engine and vehicle builder have facilities and test programs to permit mutual exposure of their selected systems to flight and simulated-flight environment.
7.5 THRUST-VECTOR
CONTROL
To steer a vehicle over its trajectory, thrustvector control is applied. The following methods have found application: (1) Gimbaled thrust chamber or engine assembly (widely used) (2) Jet vanes (obsolescent) (3) Jetevator (4) Gimbaled thrust chamber nozzle (rare with liquid propellants) (5) Secondary injection (into the thrust chamber) (6) Auxiliary jets The first method is used most frequently, due to its inherent reliability and performance. The first four systems require actuators which may be operated by hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric means. The remaining systems are controlled by flow regulation.
Thrust
Vector
Control Systems
Using
Actuators
Figure 7-7 presents a simplified schematic for a thrust vector control system, employing hydraulic or pneumatic actuators. It may serve to explain the fundamentals of closed-loop thrust
DESIGNOF CONTROLSAND VALVES
273
V_HOJ C_OANCE CO_MANO _FE_ENC_
II
Figure 7-7.-Typical control system actuators.
=
(_ ELeCTRiC #U_N _,.ECT RIC 9,JMMPNG _PLIFJER
toward the same end. Malfunction safety circuits are included to effect engine cutoff in the event of erratic operation. A typical schematic for a thrust vector control system using electromechanical actuators is shown in figure 7-8. Here, the actuator is powered by a continuously operating, constantspeed, 28 volt de motor, fitted with dry-powder metal bidirectional clutches. The control computer consists of summing junctions and an amplifier as in the case of hydraulic actuators. The dc motor drives the actuator through the bidirectional clutches which are controlled by the error signal generated through comparing guidance command reference input with systems position feedback. To provide adequate systems damping, the actuating speed is sensed by a rate generator or through differentiation of the position signal. Apart from electrical feedback and compensation systems, mechanical feedback systems coupled with hydromechanical compensation "networks" are coming into increased usage. They are inherently simpler and thus offer higher reliability. Two basic types of hydromechanical compensating devices may be distinguished: piston-bypass devices and load-pressure-sensing devices. Piston-bypass devices utilize leakages past the actuator piston to introduce system damping and may make use of dynamic relationships to control time constants (a hole drilled through the piston is an example). Load-pressure-sensing devices, commonly called "pressure feedback" (PQ) valves or "derivative pressure feedback" (DPQ) valves, are widely used. Figure 7-9 shows a typical servovalve and actuator schematic with derivative pressure feedback (DPQ) and mechanical feedback. The only electrical signal required is the input to the "torque motor" (an electromagnetic actuator) resulting in deflection of the flapper of a differential valve, which drains to the sump. If the flapper is deflected, as indicated in figure 7-9 by the arrow, nozzle flow on side B decreases, with an attendant pressure rise. The reverse is true for side A. The resulting pressure differential forces the power-stage spool to the left, blocking the return line on side B, and opening it on side A. As a result, pressure Pb increases,
schematic o{ a thrust vector using hydraulic or pneumatic
vector control, even though the systems used in practice may differ significantly in detail. The actuators are controlled by commands, originating in the vehicle guidance system, which are a function of the vehicle's deviations from a prescribed path and of its response to corrective steering action. These signals are fed through an electronic thrust vector control logic to servo valves. In the system shown in figure 7-7, each servovalve modulates the fluid flow to its respective actuator assembly in response to an electrical error signal which is proportional to the difference between desired actuator position and its actual position. Feedback of the actual position is obtained through a transducer attached to the actuator. Additionally, tim actuating speed is sensed by a rate transducer and applied tO the control computer to stabilize the closedloop control through adequate damping. Instead of a rate transducer, electronic differentiation of the position transducer output may be applied
r.lc
_m,
lU_W,.G
Figure 7-8.-Typical schematic tor control system using actuators.
for a thrust vecelectromechanical
274
N"I
TO_OU[
MOTOe
NOZZLE D4ERJVATIV_ FEEDBACK PlES$_RE LEAF SPRING
B _TE_ _IECH FEEDBACX
DERIV&TIVE PE'E$ SURE IS, AT _0_ OL
LO_D P_STON P'_ST_ON
DIRECTNDN FEEDBACK i_OT _',J
O$"
and transfer functions by substituting the equivalent hydromechanical time constants. Table 7-2 may be found valuable by those who wish to familiarize themselves with some fundamentals in this field. Detail on the design of servovalves will be found in section 7.11. Demonstration Example
_ _WER ST_ _'OOL
I, IEc:,I
_&
FEEDB, ACI( S_4mNG
RETURN
--
m[TUml
O_IFICE
ORF_.J[ _'N.TER
Figure
7-9.-DPQ
valve
wiLh actuator.
Two basic types of electrical compensation networks exist: current output for voltage input, and voltage output for voltage input networks. Figure 7-10 shows a simple form of a current output for voltage input network. Find the analogous hydromechanical network. Solution The transfer work is function for the electrical net-
and Pa decreases, forcing the actuator piston to the left to apply the desired load force. Attached to the actuator piston rod is a tapered extension which acts upon the mechanical feedback linkage, including a roller and a spring. The mechanical feedback attaches to the torque motor. The pivot point of the valve flapper becomes the error torque summing junction. Note that the nozzle jets also have a feedback effect. The time derivative of the actuator motion, i.e., the hydromechanical compensation, is obtained through action of a derivative load pressure piston. This piston is affected by the same pressure differential that acts upon the actuator piston; i.e., by the load pressure. However, by inserting an isolation piston and permitting flow through an orifice bypassing the derivative pressure piston, the pressures affecting the latter can equalize. The degree of this effect is a function of the actuator pressure differential and its rate of change and of the bypass orifice size (shock absorber principle). As seen in figure 7-9, the derivative load pressure piston acts upon the valve flapper when displaced. Thus it provides the required time derivative of the actuator motion for compensation. As has been seen, it is possible to provide compensation in thrust-vector-control systems by either electrical or hydromechanical means, the latter now being often preferred for actuators. Conceivably, other control systems could be converted from electrical to hydromechanical networks. The analogies between the differential equations of the two network types often permit the use of existing electrical networks
i I+RCS --:-V R
Amp/volt
where i = electrical current (amps) V = voltage (volts) R : resistance (ohms) C : capacitance (farads) S : LaPlace transform operator (= j_o for sinusoidal forcing functions) From table 7-2, we obtain the equivalent hydromechanical parameters for i, V, R, and C. The new transfer function then is
A 2
Q _1+ C_xPK)S AP 1 Cx
o V
1
Figure
G 7-10.-Current output network. for voltage input
DESIGN
OF: CONTROLS
AND
VALVES
275
TABLE
Electrical quantity or component V, voltage i, current drop, volts ......... .......
7-2.-Electrical-Hydromechanical
Describing equation ' V = V A - VB dq _ =-_ q = coulomb charge
dv
Component
Describing equation AP:
Analogies
Analogy Remarks
Hydromechanical component AP, pressure in3/sec or quantity drop, psi
PA - PB
V _AP
coulombs/sec
Q, flow,
dV Q = d--t V: volume
i_Q
_I_-------
-------_
....
i=C_-
[_----
A p ----_
(Ap)2d(,_p)
= -g
-_
Ap 2 ! Massless C _ --_ sumed
piston
as-
Capacitor,
farads
--.._Q Ap : piston K :spring V _=_area, in 2 constant, lb/in
Ap
Q_Cx_,A-'_-_ _CxA P
R _
1._ CX
Parabolic linearized operation
flow curve about point
CSIIE3
Q ---...,lllb Resistor. ohms Orifice, inS/sec -V -----_ ....
,, p
t ------DQ area, mass in 2
Piston AP2 y(AP)dt Q:"Mb "Ap"
mass
not
negligible
Inductor.
henries
Ap= piston M =piston "A Method Proceedings of Synthesizing of the IEEE,
Source:
D. h. Engels, mechanisms,"
Electro-Mechanical PTGAC, October
Compensation 1964. The significance from the
Networks
for Hydraulic
Servo-
The correct hydromechanical network, which is of the piston-bypass type, is shown in figure 7-11.
of good
thrust
alinement
can
be
seen
fact that in an engine distributed maximum of close
cluster, of these to 0.5 the
at the randomly tolerances, would be
a trim deflection required from
all engines
to offset
Engine-to-Vehicle Systems
Interfaces
With
Actuator
misalinement. For larger (looser) would alinement be tolerances, the Even
trim deflection Engine For ance that alined point in Installation minimum and the engine engine with all respect three are: demands actuation thrust to planes. t0.25 inch vector the and on Alinement the systems, be vehicle Typical laterally, vehicle it properly attachment specified _*0.5 vertiguidis required preif the thrust need ered
further increased. to reduce only duration payload
trim deflections and to guidance them
seem
effective slightly, of the
capability for in the full
apply
powre-
flight
results
appreciable
ductions. It vector prior to is to customary the upper to aline of the the engine gimbal and thrust bearing dynamic
tolerances cally.
face Both
shipment
optical
276
Q
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
_C-_
/--VECHICLE
THRUST
MOUNT
CENTERLINE
//,4i7///
_7
._//
/-_..,_ cE.TE_ ,
-/- ,'.t-_.._q
EAANCDH yIA_/ Pt:CAHE ) F_ __ _ GIMBAL "ARING [
P_llel
to T_IJ_
v_14m
\ \ \
\ \
Actu_ _tCCD
L.el_gl.h A :
B * COITe_I_
AP
\.\\
"
-, \
"
),4 Cx
I,=,
Figure "o "_ x'xinstallation of attaching specifications. methods For the first of the
_--,.,UST ,,c,o,
7-12.-Engine alignment.
/l\
engine
then the 7-12 engine
simply engine
consists logbook
_L_
Figure 7-11.-Piston
S
bypass network. are used. the in the connecting plane. center hydromechanical (load cells) Tile optical or locaalinement of the the and thrust centers gimbal injector operation. this using As alined alining to the of this firing, establishes vector their geometrical shop, throat A simple may be Subsequently, may be cells in lieu experience means simply of the through dimensions at or on the vehicle axes, face a few by optical can the be distance line line through and nozzle perpenplumb used in during confirmed of gimwill of nozzle to the measurement side a rule, in this specification vertical as attach points the points, (fig. alinement eye-to-eye or as 7-12). load after manner,
it, observing Figure vehicles to specify following of a prealined
shows into type
installation the vehicle. it produced, of engine to the launch-
of a new verification
is advisable alinement ing site. Actuators, Actuators type. pneumatic investigated. Engine engine other vehicle must points ing the reserve. for each tion tant of the to note (fig.
transportation
methods cold tion exit, dicular attached support engine bal have permit alone. actuator two can index
Loads are usually of the hydraulic-piston and also been to the at the by the and
Hydraulic-rotary, turbine-driven gimbal end, 7-13). actuators and They or by the
electromechanical, types are have
finding
attached procured builder, The
at one
to the may be engine
vehicle
builder be properly at either forces engine. engine that
dynamically actuators. been meeting The
dimensioned. end must two encountered Together, if the individual with actuators they
attachment of absorbare required deflecIt is impor-
engines
be capable
an adequate permit deflection for instance, ("corner 10 . and possibly Inlet
As a rule,
documented
in all directions. maximum actuator, angle
Lateral manner mating
effected is 7 , the deflection") ducts,
by an
be marked bearing
in a suitable face. If the
combined of a pair lines,
maximum is
gimbal had
approximately bearing,
been
properly
alined
to the
vehicle
flex
gimbal
277
where ,_-_
-\
filling buildup
of the than can must be be
nozzle with eliminated
takes shorter
a longer ones. or at least for the
time Unless redesign (notifiof
ACTUATOR_
-- ..... SHORT /-" STROKE _-j_ LONG STROKE ACTUATOR
these loads AOTUA.OR ".CON,,OORAT,O --\ duced,

R ,\,.\\
during
they
considered points
actuators cation
and
attach
at both
ends
of vehicle
builder).
Crosstalk Since
and
Spring and
Rate designer are not a actuin its If it develop. engine crossits If struci.e., actuator installation, motion the to as other of the actuator
engine free may This
vehicle
OlMBAL CENTER_ I I --I [i
actuator installations.
I I
1 I
entirely situation ator plane.
regarding exist
wherein affects
in one
plane
Figure
7-13.-Engine
is referred control close
"crosstalk." may between to minimize to translate deflection. engine is "soft," engine motion A delay oscillation of this stroke gains, and per the
is excessive, other "take" limited, bers) instead components this must proper affected, gimbal must If their restriction (circular be able capability (stops gimbal to is or snubpattern Therefore, deflection. be provided
instabilities builder be able into
coordination
designer and vehicle talk is essential. The motion actuator without loop vehicle a low react for by result. is and must delay formed thrust spring promptly the The a function
of square). and force level. the duct design may The following: reactions service bearing shield line friction (if any) (if any) effects reactions of the actuators In a typical of the is determined is based case, enby
engine structure
Selection on the the gine gimbal thrust Inlet Flexible Gimbal Heat actuator
the ture,
control
by actuator, rate (lb/in), system. continued frequency
forces
required. force
be 25 percent
if it has does called may lation engine sation not
to an and
actuator
as with
considering
guidance natural
subsequent
overshoot
oscildegree
of actuator feedback
reaction loading
deflection, network 7-13
compen-
Correction Aerodynamic Vehicle
for misalinements acceleration
parameters. shows The of high mass a more low inch and low two spring typical rate engine configuration and high the larger system. in degrees is high). effective size and the Moreextra vehicle is However, requiring hydraulic actuator has stiffeffecshort-stroke
Figure installations. the ness, tive
Inertia of gimbaled mass Miscellaneous minor effects It is reduce size tion toward of stable, baled, though different ing. This During loads itself. sion (for problems. startup of the of those be generated is especially being engine, occurring by the true developed for altitude brief peak side normal chamber expanlevel such the stressed these that forces the engine design should
advantage and gimbaled and is per mass
of compactness. is high, powerful (gain, actuator
to a minimum weight of hydraulic equipment. design must
for smallest pump, Recognican do much cold gimeven be quite fir-
actuators Resolution deflection The gimbaled hydraulic spring over, analysis designer best structural rate the
and lightest and of this this need goal. as loads from
expressed stroke, actuator the
actuators,
associated and The during those careful
long-stroke system is
design
results
in low However, stiffness. and
system response prelaunch
be capable
reduces and so is Only jointly system.
well-damped
when here during may may
dimensions. is bulky
checkout, engine pose
encountered occurring situation
arrangement members. conducted will flight
requires design and
a detailed by engine
dual-load
serious
determine
which
configuration
for the
in excess can This area engines
during thrust at sea operation),
gimbaling
Hydraulic Until system actuators. is other Its
System means basic are required elements available, to power are: a hydraulic the engine
for high
nozzles designed
probably
278
Hydraulic pump Reservoir (low pressure, or "sump") Accumulator (high pressure) Servovalve Actuators Feedback (electric or mechanical) Lines, check valves, filters, connectors, instrumentation If continuous hydraulic power is required prior to engine start, such as for recirculation of the hydraulic fluid or for gimbal tests, an electrically driven auxiliary pump is also provided. In most instances, the auxiliary pump will be operated until vehicle liftoff only, and can, therefore, be ground powered. For upper stages, the accumulator will then provide, for a limited time, the hydraulic power required during staging and turbopump buildup following its unlocking. Since some of these components will be part of the engine system, while others are stage mounted, an important vehicle/engine interface exists. Through an auxiliary drive shaft, the main hydraulic pump may be driven from the engine turbopump. It is connected to the other hydraulic equipment and to the actuator through high-pressure lines, several of which must be flexible. These other elements may be mounted on the vehicle at the expense of longer lines which also must cross the gimbal plane and must therefore be flexible. Or, they may be engine mounted. This, however, increases the engine gimbaled mass and may pose space and envelope problems. To compensate for misalinements and thermal expansion and contraction, a certain amount of flexibility must be provided for the lines even in this case. It is possible to connect an electric generator to the main turbopump, and drive electrically a stage-mounted hydraulic pump. Only electrical wires will then cross the gimbal plane, with the exception of the hydraulic lines to the actuators which always must be flexible. Another possible simplification is to combine servo valve and actuator into one single unit. Figure 7-14 shows a typical hydraulic engine actuation system. Figures 7-15 and 7-16 may serve to identify the major components of this system. From the above it becomes apparent that numerous hydraulic connections will have to be made when installing the engine into the vehicle. All of them must fit, and permit adequate flexure,
Figure
7-I4.-Engine
actuation (hydraulic).
system
schematic
......
PulIP
SuCI_N
'--'=-'
...................o ....
, II OUI_-'K Lq$CONN|C_._It|$ $ SUPPI.y ;._
j ll]
: .......................
HIGH-PrESS RELIEF VALVE 13 LON-F'IF|S IIELIEF VALVE 12 14 15 I_ _10 11 OUICK D_SCONNECI-[LOW PI|SSI NITIINEN CHA|GING VALVE I_IIMAL ILEED SWITCH VALVE PIEr $$ TRA NSD_JCEJl TEIIIIp TI l N _'_DU_EEII IESEIIVOII PoJrlON TRANSDUCEI
xt 4
33
Figure
7"15.-Accumulator-reservoir
schematic.
PRESS. RETURN PUMP EXTEND RETRACT 9. 16 17 II. 19 20 FILEEI BLEED VALVE
SUPPLY
SUCTION _1
SERVO-ACTUATOR PREFILTRAIION SAMPLING DIFFERENTIAL VALVE PRESS. BYPASS VALVE INDICATOR VALVE VALVE
21 . CYLINDER 22. 23 24. 2S. 26 26 30. 31. 32. SERVO SNUBBER PISTON LOCKING MECHANICAL PRESS. [_:.W.
BYPASS
VALVE
MECHANI_d4 LOCK
TRANSDUCER TRANSDUCER TRANSDUCER
FEEDBACK
Figure
7-16.-Servoactuator
schematic.
must be long enough and of the proper pressure rating, and, above all, must have a mating part on the vehicle.
DESIGN OF CONTROLS
AND VALVES
279
Furthermore, consider system ponents ature designer ness system. of the system conditioning more and the will and
the perform. the
designer The
must
know the very Thus,
and hydraulic comtemperthe
environment hydraulic
in which fluid sensitive. are
narrow-tolerance
contamination will have
to specify and adequate engine components
extreme
cleanliof this vital
requirements
temperature systems, supplied which temperaturerecirculation of the aforemenpump auxiliary heating and
for maximum On cryogenic sensitive
reliability
of the hydraulic heaters,
is often
required.
Groin.
thermostat-controlled disconnect conditioning of the tioned is hydraulic ground at liftoff, method. fluid electrically
electric are
a favored
Continuous by means driven
another.
Secondary
Injection
(C) LIQUID INJECI'O'R
Thrust vector control through secondary injection of matter into the thrust chamber nozzle (SITVC) motors. experimental systems, for upper forces The are(l) Gas (a) (b) (c) (2) Liquid (a) (b) Other injection, Inert Thrust Gas Inert stored usinggas tapoff (fig. (fig. 7-17C), (fig. 7-17A) stage has been successfully only limited, in liquid especially in which than of secondary the with applied to solid
Figure
7-17.-Secondary
injection
systems.
It has where required
found application
predominantly propulsion promising lateral boosters. injection
factors: mentation follows:
amplification (K,). These
(K)
and
axial are
thrust defined
augas
factors
it appears engines, are smaller methods
principal
K=ISs lsp
Fs/fvs_Fs/Fp Fp/_Vp fVs/_V p
(7-1a)
lsa_AFa/ws_AFa/Fp K, =lsp 7-17B) usingwhere Is p Fs =secondary =primary =side force, flow flow rate, lb/sec Fp/_'p fVs/fV p
(7-15)
chamber generator fluid such as
injection Propellants
rate, pounds
lb/see
methods,
injection but the
of preheated proven side force end. force and is
hydrogen, have uneconomical. In a gimbaled is located
been thrust
investigated chamber, at the
Fp =undisturbed AFa = axial thrust Isp = undisturbed primary = side
axial primary thrust, increase, pounds axial chamber specific (seconds)
pounds
impulse of the = Fp/fyp Fs/_'s (secthe quanforce, on the side the sys-
approximately
injector side throat
Is s Is a
specific
impulse
(seconds)= impulse
With an located
SITVC system, the applied downstream of the nozzle
= secondary axial specific onds) = AF a/fV s the required K factor to obtain determines factors secondary system may the
approximately in an increased required side
at the point of injection, resulting moment arm which decreases the force. Evaluations of any is based type upon of secondary two performance
Essentially, tity and force. total tem of fluid the system If both effect on
determines the the are side penalty required known, injection
K_ factor
overa_A Performance The injection performance system
Is to obtain of these
of a given
a propulsion
be determined.
28O
The K factor determines the quantity of secondary injectant fluid required (for a known duty cycle); the maximum flow rate; the additional tankage, pressurization fluid, and secondary injection hardware weight; and the effect of the added inert weight on vehicle trajectory. The K 1 factor evaluates the Is penalty on the propulsion system. If K_ is equal to 1, the specific impulse of the secondary fluid is equal to that of the primary fluid and, therefore, the propulsion system suffers no specific impulse penalty due to the SITVC system. Both the amplification factor K and the thrust augmentation factor K1 are influenced by the secondary injection orientation. For each application, a tradeoff must be made between the two factors to determine the optimum injection orientation for maximum propulsion efficiency. Let the force of an external jet of comparable geometry at right angles to the primary nozzle be unity. Then amplification factors greater than 2 are obtained if secondary injection is made with the nozzles pointing upstream, rather than in a normal or downstream direction. Side forces for a given _Ps are further increased if injection is made through a series of holes arranged on a horizontal arc, rather than through a single orifice. Note that the manifolds required in this case may adversely affect response, however. Test experience suggests that overall pressure ratio and injector size appear to have little effect, while gas temperature does, optimum values being a function of propellant combination. For an oxygen/hydrogen tapoff system, the range between 3000 and 4000 F appears most favorable; however, as with turbines drives, material strength and cooling problems will dictate values substantially lower, say 1800 F. In a typical tapoff SITVC system, the gas flow rate may be 1.5 to 2.5 percent of the primary flow rate, the upper value indicating the situation of maximum force required between two injection stations (two jets operating). The tapoff system offers simplicity and good performance. However, with low-duty cycles, a continuous bleed may be necessary to maintain temperatures at the valves. The performance of a gas generator SITVC system is comparable to that of a tapoff system, probably slightly better. This is offset by higher complexity (valves, injectors, ignition, cooling).
Liquid injection systems (inert fluid or propellants) offer the simplest arrangement. This is offset by their low performance, K-factors being in the order of unity, at flow rates from 5 to 6 percent of the primary flow. However, in systems with low-duty cycles, they may still be very attractive. As a rule, four elements are required for a given system, equally spaced on the main chamber circumference, of which no more than two adjacent ones would be operating at a given time. The control of the required valves is accomplished through a logic and a servosystem analogous to that of a hydraulic gimbal actuator system.
7.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR FLOW CONTROL COMPONENTS
FLUID-
By theirvery nature,liquid propellant rocket engines use many control elements for regulating and measuring of fluid flows, such as valves, pressure regulators, and flowmeters. Some of the design considerations governing these cqmponents are discussed below.
Basic
Flow
Characteristics
of an Ideal Fluid
Fluids, by definition, include both liquids and gases. A liquid is an incompressible fluid which is characterized by a tendency to retain a fixed density or volume; but not shape. A gas is a compressible fluid which has no tendency to either a definite shape or volume. Its density or volume will vary according to the basic gas laws (eqs. 1-9, 1-12, and 1-13). In general, the same fundamental laws of force, mass, and velocity apply to matter in all forms, and thus are also applicable to the flow of fluids. The analysis of fluid-flow controls may be simplified by initially assuming ideal conditions. For the calculation of physical dimensions and functional characteristics of specific control components, the results can then be modified by additional assumptions and empirical factors, which often are the result of extensive testing. A frictionless (zero viscosity), incompressible fluid which is nonturbulent and loses no mechanical energy as heat is referred to as an ideal fluid. For steady, ideal-fluid flow in a closed conduit, Bernoulli's energy equation applies:
144pl z[ +-p
V2"I
V2
to at least 10 times its diameter for repeatable constant (%2) results. For liquid flows, this flow-measuring method is fairly accurate, if frictionlosses are compensated For gaseous sity of the (7-3) for by the velocity coefficient Cv. flows, however, fluid and must pressure and teminto account
2g
2 = z2 + __ P2 +_-= 144 p rearranging
Assuming z t =z 2, and sions, we obtain
the
expres-
perature have a significant influence on the den144 (Pl - P2)_ p In conformance flow with the v22 - v,_ 2g continuity law of
OtFFE_ENTIAL _IAPH_ C,kA
be taken
for calculations.
fluid
/
PrLOT _ALVE
# = Cvpv,A 144
1 _ Cvpv2A2 144
(7-4)
and
vl v2 where z z, z 2 =elevations P,, P2 = static tions v,, p g IP Cv v 2 =velocities 1 and = density =gravitational = weight flow ib/sec =venturi cient. sign tests. A_, A 2 =cross-sectional conduit The can flow above basic
A2 A_
(7-5)
_ENTURI
_ATE
at sections pressures 1 and of the 2, psia fluid
1 and fluid
2, ft at secFigure 7-18.-Schematic of a typical system. closed-loop,
fluid-flow control flow lb/ft 3 32.2 ft/sec 2 fluid-flow, velocity coeffidethe flow which at sections Figure closed-loop static is sensed 7-18 is the schematic control differential to control by means
of the 2, fps of the rate
fluid, constant,
of a typical system, across fluid in which a venturi flow. The gate actuator to the Its pressure 1) and characdiaphragms, the relapreslinear. permit functions. will permit calibrathis and will pressure be further
fluid-flow pressure and used
of the flow
or orifice This configuration
is regulated is positioned The is in turn (sec. 2).
of a butterfly
is a function
of the
by a fluid-powered working is fluid by pressure valve. by the inlet of the sensing and flow (p_ -P2) other is not rate analyses of these thus resulting accuracy. adjustments a pilot
and of the fluid-flow and is determined by
diaphragm. diaphragm position
characteristics,
controlled
controlled venturi
areas at sections fluid-flow or sense
of the I and
fluid-flow 2, in 2
differential throat teristics
between of the between theoretical venturi
(sec. dynamic ports,
Because
characteristics the flow sized taps p, rate reare and area in
springs, tionship sure good The design degree tions, spring accuracy. by means discussed However,
butterflies,
parts, exactly usually dynamic
be used control
to measure systems. as
w and
venturi
An accurately an orifice, nozzle, Pressure static pressure
differential approximations empirical of control including forces, The
striction, is inserted provided
such
or venturi,
in the for reading
conduit. the
factors
obtained
P2 at the inlet (sec. I) and at the minimum A 2 and the fluid density p are known, calculated with the aid of equations and (7-5). The preceded
calculations
in a reasonable Flow-bench of, increase flow for instance,
of the restriction (sec, 2). If the flow areas A I, the flow (7-3), (7-4), velocities v, and v 2, and the flow rate _ can be venturi or orifice meter should be
serve control
to further of fluid and
of orifices in subsequent
regulators sections.
by a straight length of pipe equivalent
282
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Sample
Calculation
(7-1)
A #
=area
of the surface
in consideration, lb/ft-sec
ft 2
The followingdata are given fora horizontal venturimeter,measuring liquidoxygen flow: Venturiinletdiameter,dj = 6 in Venturithroatdiameter,d2 = 3 in Venturiflow velocitycoefficient,v = 0.92 C Pressure differential between inletand throat (Pl - P2) = 22.5 psi Density of LOX, p=71.38 Determine flow rate w. lb/ft 3
=viscosity (viscosity 1 lb/ft-sec
of the fluid, conversions:
= 3@.21b-sec/ft2
- 4616.81b-see/in U
2 = 14.84
poise)
Solution From equation (7-5):
=velocity of a fluid particle at the surface in consideration, ft/sec t =distance from the point where the velocity of a fluid particle is zero, to the surface in consideration, ft U/t =rate of angular deformation of the fluid When a fluid is forced to flow through a closed conduit, its flow is laminar or nonturbulent below certain "critical" velocities. In a laminar flow, the fluid moves in layers, or laminae, one layer gliding smoothly over an adjacent layer, with only a molecular interchange of momentum. The velocity of the fluid is greatest at the center of the conduit and decreases sharply to zero at the conduit wall. As the flow velocity is increased above the "critical" point, the flow becomes turbulent. In turbulent flow an irregular random motion of the fluid exists, in directions transverse to the direction of the main flow. The turbulent flow velocity distribution is more uniform across the conduit than with laminar flow. Even in turbulent flow there is always a thin layer at the conduit wall, the boundary layer, which moves as a laminar flow. Experiments and theoretical considerations have shown that the Reynolds number, R e of a given fluid flow can be used as a criteria to indicate whether a flow is laminar or turbulent.
VZ
A2
(d2_
v2-A , \d,/ =-4

V 1 = V 2
Substitute
this
into equation
(7-3):
144 (p_- P2)_ v22_ (,_v2) 2 p 2g
V2
=_
2 32'2 i44
71._s1-
1 2i'5-55.9
fps
Substitute
this
into equation
(7-4):
77
Flow rate
Cvpv2A 2 =-144 = 180.2 lb/sec
0.92 x 71.38 55.9 -_-x 9 144
Real
Fluid
Flows
Involving
Pressure
Drops
All real fluids possess the physical property of viscosity; i.e., they offer resistance to shear stresses. The viscosity of the fluid directly affects friction. The basic correlation is given by Newton's law of viscosity (see fig. 7-19): gU r =-gt where r F = shear stress = F/A, lb/ft: = shear or friction force of the fluid tangent to the surface in consideration, lb -Figure
mA
F
ira,
/ / / / / I I I I _-veuoc_tv 7-I9.-Angular I / l / t I I
(7-6)
OF FWtO PArTtcue_s zeao deformation of a real Iluid.
283
(R e : Dvp/tz, conduit, ft;
where v=flow
D = equivalent velocity, fps;
diameter p=fluid
of the den-
ciably.
Also, there will be a slight change
in
the friction factor. Consequently, mended that equation (7-7) be used pressible fluids only where
itis recomwith com-
sity, lb/ft3; and/_=fluid For most calculations, flow 1200, than Real caused one is laminar and 1200. fluid flows
viscosity, it is assumed numbers
lb/ft-sec.) that the less than greater
the pressure drop Ap
for Reynolds
is less than 10 percent of the fluid static pressure at the outlet point. To calculate higher pressure drops of compressible methods should be used. fluids, other
turbulent
for Reynolds always of the against is a loss direction into case involve fluid the
numbers friction
by rubbing and there in the is loss thus
particles wall. i.e., flow. energy.
against Condrop This The by flow), the
If the flow is laminar (R e < 1200), the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number, and
another
conduit of the heat
sequently, in pressure energy heat the fluid,
of energy;
can be arrived at by Poiseuille's equation for laminar flow
converted extreme other
produced in one wall, be entirely in the
may be
entirely
absorbed
(adiabatic through (constantGenerally-at of liquids to be tubes, is moving
f__ 6_4_4 Re When friction number or tube flows gram' term, the relative surface flow the For size the factor but walls. may be shown "relative of the to the roughness control friction modified a curved-flow factor by also flow is upon Tile found in figure surface duct turbulent not only the friction by means 7-20. (R e > 1200), upon of the the
(7-8)
or it may conduit temperature ambient gases However, place valves velocities. The in straight zontal (7-7). (4-32),
dissipated extreme flow). flow is assumed flow orifices, is short fluid
or isothermal temperature-the
depends
the Reynolds duct of turbulent Moody diaof of
and isothermal.
roughness factors of the The (e/D), is
through in nozzles, through pressure
pipes
adiabatic
assumed
to take and at high flowing
dimensionless a measure values engine 7-3. shapes, 7-20 has projections
which drop
the
roughness" diameter. projections are passage f obtained
roughness
Ap (psi) (ducts
of a fluid
Average
conduits can
or tubes) the same
in a horias equation
e for rocket given from in table figure or for other
position This except
be estimated dimensions.
by equation
components
is essentially for the
to be which Ap:f L PV2 288 g (7-7)
an empirical of the
correction number
factor, and
is a function
Reynolds
where L = length p = density d = equivalent 4 duct of the of the conduit, fluid, of the diameter in lb/ft fluid, of the 3 fps duct area perimeter experimentally Drawn tubing with very clean surface ........ Smooth machined and clean surface .......... Machined or commercial cold-rolled surface... or also hanchanges therepoints appreis 1Moody, L. F., Friction Trans. ASME, Nov. 1944. Factors for Pipe Flows, be Rough machined surface .................... Smooth cast or forged surface ............... Commercial cast, forged and welded surface or tube, (any in IRoughness cross-sectional Wetted I : friction factor, determined shape) Surface description projection, _, ft 0.000005 .00001 00005 .0001 .0003 .0008 TABLE ness Control 7-3.-Average Projections Component Values for Rocket Designs of Surface RoughEngine Fluid-Flow
v = flow-velocity
Equation flow tubes. used dled. of any With when The
(7-7)
is valid
for laminar fluid
or turbulent
incompressible suitable compressible density as a function drop velocity
in ducts it may are being fluids
restrictions fluids of compressible
..
considerably fore, great, if the density
of pressure; between will two change
pressure and
284
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
Figure
7-20.-Moody
diagram.
of the creased can tious which
design
configuration.
Sometimes flow
the passage
in-
resistance or equivalent is arrived length
of a specific for by assigning length Le,
be accounted
to it a fictiduct of this length, for the 7-21 preof 90
of straight The (7-7) Figure sum
at empirically. and used the actual in equation flow.
equivalent calculation sents bends. typical
passage
(L e + L), is then
of turbulent resistance
characteristics
/
/
/
by as
Because
flow-control
components
such
as
valves and fittings disturb the flow pattern, they produce an additional pressure drop in a duct or
line sure stream of tubing. drop within The the loss of pressure cQnsists itself, produced of the as preswell which Figure a flow-control component
component
the pressure
ducting
drop in the upstream and downor tubing in excess of that 7-21.-Typical resistance o! 90 _ bends. characteristics
would normally occur if there were no component

in the line. With certain exceptions, the fluid
DESIGN OF CONTROLS
AND VALVES
285
flows are
through usually
rocket treated as
engine being
control turbulent. to the
components The true can flow
where Ap = pressure ponent shown p =density drop as chargeable by the 7-22, lb/ft velocity psi 3 of the to the test com-
pressure only tests. Figure are eters ated. the nents. U-tube quite pressure tained pressure rupted (a+b)=14 tions. Because control the data the able may great located be
drops evaluated 7-22
chargeable accurately shows
components actual setup
defined fluid, flow fps
method
through test and
in figure of the
a typical upstream
for taps
v= 144 _= pA*
characteristic component, = flow rate
fluid-flow-control downstream This pressure The
components. 4 diameters of the minimizes tapoff
Pressure
10 diamat compo-
of fluid lb/see flow This area this is
passing area the
through of the
the
component the flow caused of pressure weighting test the
to be evaluA*
component, = characteristic ponent. sectional the net have area The any olds For coefficient component providing type its
disturbances by the gages, tank data. produces The is ob-
comcrossof in 2. to
points and
minimum flow fully path open,
combination
in the when area
manometer, accurate drop drop straight and caused which pipe
component about as the the duct
repeatable by the from is caused
Usually
is designed
component measured
same
cross-sectional to the constant range is turbulent. K to for
by subtracting
Ap that
leading
by an unintersize flow and length same condi-
component. K is essentially over the a large flow
of the at the
same
diameters,
given a given vary flow
of Reyn-
numbers,
of the
large used
number in rocket
of fluid-flowengines it is test for desirwhich by K correand
of component size.
configuration, size the tends higher the more
components variety impossible type
may have the nearly nents lar the upon
with
A smaller In general, component, is the
of service to obtain and size of pressure
conditions, individual
a higher
K value.
virtually
resistance g.
of the of size If a series sizes in all
for every determination instead be already
of a component drop. from This test can It is data
independent of different
resistance composimi-
coefficient (constant resistance the
of flow-control were the geometrically linear
to extrapolate available.
be done coefficient
ratio
dimensions), then would depend not the be
employing when lation
a component pressure
resistance drop
coefficient number by component
K would only size. is and
calculating
using
the
Reynolds
influenced design pv 2 Ap = K288---_ (7-9) standards, strength, considerations similarity

/.--MANOMETER
However, structural None
of a component economy available of the resistance engines minimum component, considerations sufficient component for the are
influenced etc. require sizes
by design of these design. fluid-
of material, space,
necessarily various
geometric
of a given for various propellant 7-4. in table
Average flow-control rocket For control design
coefficients of liquid drop following should he characteristic presented
i-I
components pressure the
across
a flow-
flow-passage observed: flow area
CONTROL
VALVE
__
/CONTROL
VALVE
(1)-Allow
(2) (3)
Avoid Avoid sharp
abrupt abrupt turns the
changes changes in the length
of flow of wall flow of the path flow finish
area contour, and
(4) Figure 7-22.-Typical control test setup for fluid-How (5)
Minimize the Provide flow
path
within
component a smooth passages surface for the
components.
286
ROCKET ENGINES
TABLE Various Liquid
7-4.-Typical Propellant
Resistance Rocket
Coefficients Components
for of the
main stage
oxidizer engine.
valve
(butterfly
type)
of the
A-I
Fluid-Flow-Control
Engines Liquid oxygen oxygen duct duct duct flow inside actual equivalent due to flow rate, Q = 12 420 p = 71.38 diameter, length, lb/ft d=8 in gpm 3 Resistance coefficient K
Liquid Flexible Flexible
density,
Component description Butterfly-type valves (fig, 7-33): 90 open ............................. 80 open............................. 70 open ............................. 60 open ............................. 50 open ............................. 40 open ............................. 30 open ............................. 20 open ............................. Ball-type valves (fig. 7-38): 90 open ............................. 70 open ............................. 50 open ............................. 30 open ............................. 20 open ............................ 10 open ............................ Poppet-type valves (fig. 7-40): Full open Venturi-type valves (noncavitation) (fig. 7-41) ............................ Gate-type valve (fig. 7-42): Full open ............................ _Aopen .............................. open ............................. _Aopen .............................. Poppet-type cheek valve (fig. 7-60) ....... Swing-gate-type check valve (fig. 7-61) .... Standard tee ........................... Standard elbow (90 ) .................... Medium sweep elbow .................... Long sweep elbow ..................... 45 elbow ............................. Sudden enlargement: d_/d 2= ........................... d_/d2='_ ........................... dl/d2=_A ........................... Ordinary entrance ...................... Sudden contraction: d_/d I --tA ........................... d:/d 1: ........................... d2/d I : ...........................
L= 16 in considering contour flow deviarea
0.31 .41 ,77 198 5.68 15.45 44.7 124.2 0.81 1.58 3.6 18.2 63 362 2.5-3.5 0.8-I.5
Flexible resistance
length passage
ation, Le = 6 d Main oxidizer valve = 78 percent Estimate: (a_.) The The Solution (a) Oxidizer The average Q v= 3.12x _pressure pressure of duct
characteristic area
drop drop
chargeable chargeable
to the to the
duct valve
flexible duct flow velocity 12 420 d2 =3.12xTrx16
in the
flexible
duct
- 79.4
fps
0.18 120 5.6 24 2to 4 1 to 2.5 18 .90 .75 .60 .42 0.92 .56 .50 .50 0.42 .33 .19
From is 0.277 The
table 10 -_ Reynolds
6-3,
the 10 -3 number
viscosity thus/1 lb/ft-sec of the
of liquid = 0.277 (see flow eq. in the
oxygen 10-7 7-6). duet
lb-sec/in2;
x4636.8-0.1282x
Dvp
Re --_
8x
_
79"4 x 71"38 0.1282 x 10 -s =2"94x 107
/z
Use 0.00005
a surface
roughness roughness
projection
size
of
or a relative
0.00005 8 12
figure the (7-7).
0 000075
for the The orifices 7.10. characteristics will be further of fluids discussed flowing through
duct.
From Substitute equation to the + b)pv 2
7-20,
friction
factor, total length drop then is
f: 0.0112. (L e + L) into chargeable f(Le Sample The oxidizer Calculation following pump (7-2) design discharge data are given duct for the and the Ap =in section
equivalent The flexible
pressure duct
oxidizer
288 gd (6 x 8 + 16) x 71.38 x (79.4) 2 = 4.34 psi
_ 0.0112
flexible
288 x 32.2 x 8
287
(b_._) ain oxidizer g The characteristic
valve velocity
of the valve
79.4 V:o.--._18= 101.6 From table 7-4, the resistance
fps coefficient for
butterfly valves K=0.31. Substitute equation (7-9) to obtain the pressure able to the main oxidizer valve:
this into drop charge-
surfaces by the fluid stream. This is especially acute with the higher density liquids. To obtain reliable control performance characteristics with liquids at high velocities, the control components subject to impact loading must be designed to withstand the stresses involved. Also, they should be contoured so as to maintain small impingement angles with the fluid stream and to keep inpact forces to a minimum.
Pv2 0"3171'38(101'6)2 Ap = g-_8_g 288 32.2
= 24.65
psi
Fluid-Flow
Temperature
Control Fluid Pressure
Level
The working pressure level and the temperature of compressible fluid-flow-control system are important factors, since both govern the density of the fluid. Means of compensation for changes of pressure in a compressible fluid control system must always be provided. With an incompressible fluid, the pressure has relatively little influence on density. The working pressure level of the fluid determines the selection of the structural design of the components as well as of the sealing methods, especially for dynamic seals. Special provisions are often made to meet the stringent requirements in high-pressure applications. For example, the cutoff events in a high-pressure turbopump-feed engine system may be sequenced so that turbine power is cut first; thus the main propellant valves are not required to shut off against the high main-stage discharge pressures.
Temperature is an import_tnt consideration for the design of fluid-flow controls. This is especially true if the controls are for fluids at temperatures in excess of, or far below, norn_al ambient. In liquid propellant rocket engines, fluid-flow controls may have to handle hot gases at temperatures up to about 1700 F. Example: the control of a turbine working fluid. Hot liquids need not be considered, since none of the liquid propellants have sufficiently low vapor pressures to permit handling at high temperatures. Ability to operate at elevated temperatures without any form of lubrication is a prime objective in the mechanical design of fluid-flow control. This can be accomplished by using bearings of either extremely hard, wear-resistant alloys, such as stellite and sintered carbides (high loading condition), or relatively soft materials such as graphite (low loading condition). Bearings are usually subject to compression loads only and are therefore not subject to failure if the materials used are of low ductility. For structural members not subject to wear or bearing loads, conventional high-temperature alloys such as stainless steels and other nickel-base alloys may be used. For static and dynamic seals, metal gaskets and bellows, carbon or graphite face seals, and labyrinth-type seals are suitable at high temperatures. At the other end of the scale, liquid propellant rocket engine controls may see extremely low-temperature levels, such as in liquid hydrogen service (-425 F). Hero, two principal conditions must be considered: (1) The physical characteristics of the fluids which at these low temperatures may affect control performance; and (2) the physical characteristics of the materials from which the control components are made and
Fluid-Flow
Velocity
The requirements for smooth component-flowpassage contours are more critical with controls for compressible, or low-density, fluids such as hydrogen than for incompressible fluids, because their design flow velocities usually are much higher than those of the denser liquids. Also, in general the design trend for high-thrust, highpressure engine systems is toward smaller propellant duct and valve sizes, and consequently toward higher flow velocities (over 100 fps). An important consideration in the design of high velocity flow-control components is the high-impact loading imposed upon the control
288
which may affect the operation and, thus, performance characteristics of the control devices.
the
Many of the cryogenic fluids, i.e., liquefied gases, experience somewhat unpredictable phase changes (two-phase conditions) for relatively small temperature changes. No serious difficulties need to be expected, however, if the heattransfer rate from components in critical control areas is low enough to prevent vaporization of the liquid. This is particularly important in liquid hydrogen service, where insulation may pose difficult design problems. At any rate, except for viscosity changes, nearly all liquids exhibit more stable physical characteristics with large temperature variations, within the range between their freezing and boiling points, than do gases if the temperature range reaches to their liquefaction temperatures. The construction materials for fluid-control components for low-temperature applications must be especially carefully selected. Practically every metal undergoes irregular phase changes at low temperatures which may seriously affect its physical properties. While the strength of metals generally increases with a decrease in temperature, further temperature decrease beyond certain limits may result in a decrease in strength. Many metals also become brittle at very low temperatures. Most of the aluminum alloys and the 300-series stainless steels exhibit much better stability at temperatures in the cryogenic range than do others. Elastomers such as Teflon, Kel-F, and Mylar, when used for sealing purposes, exhibit satisfactory mechanical characteristics at extremely low temperatures. Teflon-coated surfaces additionally have good anti-icing characteristics. For further detail on materials, see chapter II. Fluid-flow-control components for operation at cryogenic temperatures should be designed to be free of external icing effects. In addition to insulation, moisture-preventing purges should be provided internally in critical areas such as bearing interfaces. Also, actuators and/or bearings may require heating.
limiting factors governing response rate are (1) the speed with which signals can be transmitted, and (2) the mass/force ratio or its function, the inertia/force ratio of the main control organ. In many fluid-control systems the controlled fluid is used to transmit the sensed signal, In others, part of the sensing link employs electrical or mechanical means. However, in most cases, part or all of the sensing loop utilizes an impulse generated by a pressure change. This impulse is transmitted at the speed of sound in the fluid. As a typical example, the velocity of sound in water is five times that in air; accordingly, a control signal would be transmitted five times faster in water. The actuators for most fluid-flow-control mechanisms use pistons or diaphragms, powered by fluid pressure which, in turn, is regulated by some form of pilot valve. If suitable, the controlled fluid may be used as the actuating fluid. The response and flow capacity of the pilot valve, the effective area of actuator piston or diaphragm, and the actuating fluid pressure level influence directly the response rate of the control mechanism for given mass inertia and frictional or other resistances. To satisfy attain stable certain operating conditions control it sometimes becomes and to nec-
essary to introduce simple damping devices. In most control systems, stability is inversely proportional to sensitivity or response rate. Thus, the design of a fluid-flow-control system should reflect a realistic balance between sensitivity or response rate, control accuracy, and system stability. Figure 7-23 illustrates the schematic of a typical piston-type actuator for fluid-flow-control devices. The piston when actuated moves against the spring in the direction of the arrow. The basic correlation between the response rate or acceleration of the piston, and other operational parameters, can be expressed by Map -Alp g where M :effective piston, that of nected all the mass accelerated by the actuator lb. It consists of piston mass, moving parts mechanically conto the piston, and of the mass of fluid columns in the system
1-A2p2-
Fr- Ft-
Fs-
Cx (7-10)
Rate
of Response
in Fluid-Flow
Controls considthe
Response rate is an important design eration in any control system. Basically,
289
ACTUATING SUPPLY
FLUID LINE
tons, Here, tant
shafts, too, design into
and
rods;
and
seals
for valve most can be
seats. imporclassi-
i
SPRING
temperature considerations. those
is one
of the Seals
fied
for medium-temperature low-temperature high-temperature of the seals soft used service service
service (-60 and
(-60 to 400 a F), to -425

0 FI BODY
F), The
and
(400 _ F
and the
up).
selection for these
configurations is based and type
materials on
to a large of fluid or elasThe imper-
extent involved. VSNT _-__!I!! ///, tomeric
service Generally, are
conditions
nonmetallic possible. seals part.
seals function in the
wherever of these despite mating
outstanding
advantage satisfactorily seal
is that minor
A.
Figure 7-23.-Schematic of a typical actuator. ap = acceleration A_ --area A s =area of the of the of the piston piston pressure, at the on the ap) psia. plus also the depends This vent-line on flow ap) control is the supply-line flow piston, actuating vent psia. actuating rate side, ft/sec
p,sTo; N "I
they
fections piston-type Design Services 2 in s as tile which of well Figure design O-ring the rate ambient drop a lb, sure, the into (again cations. used is drop side, in 2 This fluid
or the
of Dynamic
Seals
for Medium-Temperature
Elastomeric dynamic as seals must 7-24 and for valve
O-rings seats. table
have
been
widely proper
applied parts design success. as
for moving be observed 7-5
cylindrical to assure
p_ =actuating pressure less depends acceleration P2 =vent
However, represent
source,
techniques
pressure
recommended
(a function
practices seals Figure for a valve
for diametral-squeeze-type dynamic shows Important O-ring seals between hardness cause adjacent after the the and of seal to the (fig. 7-25), pressure O-ring pressure maximum A hard7-5). is conusually Teflon are recompresat seals In and static O-ring appliseal 7-26 seat. a typical design are
for typical
pressure,
pressure, which function Fr = resistance which
pressure
considsummarized pres-
of acceleration force of the also may
erations for dynamic as follows: 1. Design O-ring extrusion the
function, of accelerasurfaces,
correlations compound frequent gap
fluid
be a function sliding
diametral failure O-ring leaving is seal and is O-rings
tion ap Ff = friction forces etc.), Fs = initial C x =spring =distance initial lb spring rate,
clearance.-A (seals,
of diametral-squeeze-type
clearance (when Fluid because The hardness E that combination prevent the as O-ring as under
force, lb/in
lb (at by the in
x = 0) piston from its
groove reduced. design hardness. chosen clearance proper ness
pressure)
a permanent
deformation pressure it affects combination will can
traveled position,
influences choice of fluid the
of compound
Since the relations between p_, P2, Fr, and ap are not linear, equation (7-10) may become complex and solution. require a high-speed computer for
determine be tolerated
safely. and O-ring (table
of clearance O-ring nominal space guide. extrusion
may
7.7 DESIGN
OF
DYNAMIC
SEALS
FOR
general, chosen siderations be will
section and Past
diameter
FLUID-FLOW-CONTROL Apart treated seals nents: ing) from the static IX, two seals, basic
COMPONENTS which types will
large will
installation designs In addition, 7-25
permit. shown psi and
provide rings over
a useful as S00 above
in chapter are required
of dynamic compoand rotatpis-
backup mended sures pressures
in figure seals for static psi.
for fluid-flow-control (reciprocating such as actuator elements
for dynamic 1500
O-ring
at sealing O-ring
seals cylindrical
for moving
illtBl #:
29O
STATIC
SEALING\ _ \BREAK CORNERS ,
?o APPROX. D o.oos'
,-_ I'-: _b
"1 -,J
l .-f
D-GROOVE U:NGTH
"="
. _L__L._4___ a_-_--L
"-
CENTERLINE OF THE PISTON ACTUATOR
Figure 2. the O-ring
7-24.-Diametral-squeeze-type finish surfaces should requirements.-The in contact be as smooth with as
O-ring finish dynamic possible. of
seals ter
in typical
dynamic
and
static
applications. in contact O-ring seals. with
Surface seals
is recommended
for surfaces
sliding
static 3.
diametral-squeeze-type Friction of dynamic
O-ring
seals.-The O-ring seal friction. with Accurate be obtained is
They should be ground, honed, or polished to a microinch finish of 8 to 10 rms. It has been found longer ishes. honing, finish still surface and again that life a finish than within this range as yields produced best a finby surface seal. finishing, plated a hard, wear, rms and For the
breakaway usually Breakaway fluid squeeze, values
friction about and and three
of a dynamic times the frictions hardness, can
running
running O-ring
increase diametral only
either
rougher patterns,
or smoother
pressure, of O-ring
Codirectional have for any better could been type results,
decrease frictions
of temperature. design. compounds,-A compounds as Silicone and Kel-F. and its such Teflon, compound
proven after
to be the sliding an initial
of dynamic chrome The plating
experimentally 4. variety able, Buna N, Selection of O-ring with trade Butyl,
for a given of O-ring elastomer names Viton,
great is availrubber, The physical
be hard
or nickel provides
finished. surface that
slippery scratching.
resists finish
corrosion, of 60
A microinch
or bet-
selection
of an O-ring
TABLE
7-5.-Recommended
Design
Practice
for Diametral-Squeeze-Type all dimensions in inches]
O-Ring
Seals
[See fig. 7-15 for explanation O-ring nominal section diameter 1/16 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 Diametral squeeze, rain Static 0.015 .017 .022 .032 .049 pressure
of dimensions;
2 x E-
O-ring section diameter
C-glandwidth
D-
R-
Dynamic 0.010 .010 .012 .017 .029 Fluid
aDynamic 0.057 .090 .123 .188 .240
bstatic 0.052 .083 .113 .173 .220
groove length
radius, rain
diametral clearance
max
0.070 0.003 0.103 *_0.003 0.139 *_ 0.004 0.210 *_ 0.005 0.275 *_ 0.006
3/32 9/64 3/16 9,f32 3/8
1/64 1/64 1/32 3/64 1/16
0.005 .005 .006 .007 .008
O-ring compound hardness 70 Shore "A" Durometer 80 Shore "A" Durometer 90 Shore "A" Durometer
(3-1000 psi 1000-2000 psi 2000 psi and higher aTolerance bTolerance = +0.000, : +0.000, -0.001. -0.005.
291
_AOIAL C k F.A,_I* N C _ __]_
-,-x
_" _"
_PRESSU_E
__
P_ESSURE
7-27, dynamic valve
7-28, seats.
and
7-29)
are
used of seal pressures as
effectively parts been over -425 when as F. sealing has
as and applied 2000 They lowand psi,
seals
for moving This type at sealing
cylindrical
EXTRUSION UNDER
OF
(_RING
RJNGS
TO
PREVENT
PRESSURE
EXTRUSION
successfully and are also
t"igure type o[
7-25.-Extrusion O-ring backup under rings.
of the pressure
diamelraI-squeezeand the application
at temperatures reasonably
as low effective gases such
molecular-weight hydrogen.
helium
properties (furnished by the producer) is based on operating conditions such as type of fluid or propellant, pressure, temperature, and type of
seal 5. O-ring (dynamic Installation seals.-Proper or static). o[ diametral-squeeze-type installation of O-rings dur-
"' _
'Z:,;_ ...........
I 1710 t
010
.... oo,I ,
1, ...../
\ 1
ing component assembly is extremely to assure an effective seal. Generous
important
chamfers
L
/ k _IPSEALS 121 _(_QLIIRIEO _.
k t, "-/->' 1 ;
or radii corners
possibility
should be provided on all edges and in contact with O-rings to minimize the
of cutting or scratching during the
L --A_A_ "_ _ _ PIER _TE UNLESS aT_E_SE SPECJFP[I]I F_NISH SUtteES ANC} t_ SEALS OETTER. to _ _ T_E O_l i'LL ._AkS WiTH THE OR
assembly
process. can seats

absorbs Figure the
6. O-ring seals for valve seazs.-O-rings be applied effectively as seals for valve
(fig. shock system. 7-26). loads One The and resiliency seals tightly problem of the O-ring
CONTACT
TO BE 12 RM$ ALL
NICENSIOhS
_H _NC_ES
at all pressures,
7-27.-Typical valve
rotating actuator
lip-seal shalt.
design
[or
even when some dirt and grit are present

design is to prevent
in the
O-ring from being blown out of the groove. This can be prevented by providing a dovetail O-ring groove in a two-piece valve poppet (see fig. 7-26).
Design Services
of Dynamic
Seals
for Low-Temperature
For cryogenic or low-temperature services, lip-type seals made of elastomer sheets (figs.
VALVE
STEM
Figure
VALVE POPPET _ PRESSURE ' I PRESSURE VALVE OUStNG
7-28.-Typical
valve
seat valves.
lip-seal
design
[or butterfly-type
The basic
employ
,_AL RING RETAINING
design
fluid
principle surfaces.
resilience for lip
of lip seals
the
is to
contact
the
pressure
to increase
pressure
lip valve seat valves. O-ring seal
at the sealing
the
Due to their
of these seals similar
configuration, considerations
Figure
7-26.-Typical design
is maintained
Design
even at very low temperatures.

seals are
for poppet-type
292
-Acrvz.
,_
to those for O-ring seals. The design approaches can best be illustrated by examples. Figure 7-27 shows a typical valve shaft rotating lip seal arrangement, including dimensions and surface finishes, for liquid oxygen and hydrogen service. Figure 7-28 presents the valve seat lip seal of a butterfly valve for use with the same liquids. Valve seat O-ring seals (fig. 7-26) made of Kel-F have also been successfully applied in poppettype valves for liquid oxygen. The design of lip seals for piston-type actuators using lowtemperature helium gas as the actuating fluid is shown in figure 7-29. In liquid hydrogen service, metallic bellows (as shown in fig. 7-30) have been used to a great extent to achieve positive dynamic sealing. However, pressure levels and available space impose limitations on their application.
_%ulO
/' _o_ ( CLOS_N& ) }_
.-T_P,Ca_ WEL._EO .N_N_ S,{'rUJXOm I,LA'II KLLDW$ ASEhqI._
W:
_.,:
',_
../'
;b"_
_L_tE_
001NV_ _.&LIN* 5t._f_3t5 LBO_H _LVE AN0 ,_v_t ) L_PPED N 8-10
WELI)ED TYPE RIEC_PRI_C,ATING
BLLOWS USEO AS Ty_P'_ D'yINiAIMI_;
Design of Dynamic Services The metallic
Seals
for High-Temperature
Figure 7-30.-Metallic bellows used as reciprocating-type dynamic seals in a typical poppet valve for high- and low-temperature services.
bellows
(fig. 7-30) is most freelastic modulus, and of approximately the square of the thickness of the material. It is also a function of the outside-inside diameters and of the number of convolutions and their curvature. For maximum flexibility (inches of stroke/lb of load), a minimum inside diameter combined with a maximum outside diameter should be used. Also, material thickness (within stress limitations) and modulus of elasticity should be minimum.
quently used as reciprocating-type dynamic seals for high-temperature services. Two types of metallic bellows are distinguished: the hydraulicformed and the multidisk welded type. The former is made of one to three plys of sheet metal and is designed for all pressure ranges. The latter is for relatively low-pressure services and for high flexibility. A metallic bellows of any type behaves, in part, like a helical spring. The spring rate (lb/in of.movement) is a direct function of the
DOUBLE FOR
LIP ACTUATOR
SEALS PISTON
DOUBLE
LIP
SEALS
Generally, bellows design data, such as stock size, allowable working pressure, spring rate, materials and service temperature, are supplied by the manufacturers. Important design considerations are discussed in the following: 1. Applicalion of pressure.-When a bellows is subjected to a differential pressure between interior and exterior, it is preferable to apply the higher pressure to the exterior. This reduces stress, and permits higher pressures and longer life for a given design. 2. Provision of mechanical stops.-These should always be provided to prevent extension of the bellows beyond its permissible extended length and compression beyond its "bottomed" height.
VALVE
[_ __-t__
_j;!
_ i'_.>_AC T UATOR ROD
ACTUATOR
PISTON
Figure 7-29.-Lip seals for piston-type actuators. Double lip seals seal pressures both ways.
293
3. lows
Selection material
or materials.-Selecting should be governed considerations, and spring alloys and such Hastelloy is that area as
of belby fluid com-
gas fully nate ring
throttle
valve
which
was
operated from psia.
success-
at temperatures design to the to the is to attach end is shaft
ranging up
1200 to An graphite which the flexibility alterseal is shaft
patibility temperature Some steels, proven 4. when yields
or corrosion ranges, Inconel,
operating stainless B have which, length, This area
1S00 F at pressures
to 700
characteristics.
a flat-face bellows 7-31).
high-temperature Monel, suitable. EHective multiplied the actual area.-This
of a metallic (fig. compensated of valve seats
welded
Here, by the
misalinement of the bellows. The services contact, seal sealing as
by a change displaced by = 0.1963 +outside
in bellows volume.
for high-temperature by metal-to-metal 7-30 and 7-32. This
is usually shown has
achieved in figures
can he approximated Bellow effective area
design
two
basic
requirements. is required
Firstly, for the unit to
a finish diameter) welded 2 (7-11) sealing loading
of 10 nns surfaces. must
or better Secondly,
(inside
diameter
a high-enough and
be applied
to create
a compensating
5. End attachment.-Typical the end attachment figure 7-30.
joints for
deformation come
of the sealing surfaces
of bellows are illustrated in
achieve the intimate contact required to overmanufacturing tolerances, distortion of the
Silver brazing and soft soldering for low-temperature serv-
can also be employed ices.
A typical design of a rotating-type dynamic seal for high-temperature services is illustrated in figure 7-31. The dynamic sealing is achieved through the spherical mating surfaces between the graphite seal ring and the steel shaft collar. The contact force of the sealing surfaces is by the shaft thrust spring. Any misthe thrust bearing and the by the spherical seal face of the seal ring. This seal
SEAL SURFACES FINISH tO OR BETTER RMS "X ROTATE TO OPEN VALVE \ BUTTERFLY VALVE GATE O PRESSURE HOT GAS _ HOUSING VALVE
maintained
alinement between
shaft is compensated and side movement arrangement
has been applied to a turbine hot
VALVESHAFT
TYPE VALVE SEAT VALVE SEAL USED _N A BUTTERFLY
{a)
CONVOLUTED HOT GAS
R_NG SHUTOFF
_ . _
/-
_..
_1_?,_,_ _ _,,_
HOT GAS VALVE / POPPET PRESSURE SPRING DISK |
/
VALV_ ...... _, _ sto,,
VALVE
HOUSING
POSITIVE STOP
SEAL IO RMS
SURFACES OR BETTER
FINISH
_b} S(AL _s, aN
SPRING HOT GAS
DISK
TYPE
VALVE POPPET
SEAT
SEAL
USED
IN
SHUTOFF
VALVE
Figure
7-3I.-Turbine typical
hot
gas
throttle
valve seals.
with
Figure
7-32.-Valve ture
rotating-type
dynamic
seat seals services.
for
high-tempera-
_1
mi
_rx
294
valve parts due to temperature, internal stress, and mechanical loading of the mating parts. Figure 7-32(a) shows a convoluted-ring-type valve seat seal used in a hot gas shutoff butterfly valve. Depending upon the specific application, the convoluted ring may be made of hightemperature alloys such as Inconel-718. The rings effect a leakproof seal in the closed position, since the upstream fluid pressure tends to expand the convolute and produces a high contact unit force at the sealing surfaces. The curvature of the convolute ring tends to maintain a continuous contact with the valve seat. Figure 7-32(b) presents valve seat seal a metallic-spring-disk-type used in a hot gas shutoff poppet
control purposes, ability for continu,_usly variable opening position may be required. In addition to propellant compatibility and structural integrity, prime design considerations for propellant valves are: (1) No leakage of propellant through the valve when closed (2) Proper actuating time during opening and closing in accordance with the requirements of the control system (3) Minimum pressure drop A great variety of propellant valve types is available. Each design has certain characteristics which make it suitable for a specific application. Frequently used propellant valves, classified according to their design configurations, are: (1) Butterfly valves (2) Ball valves (3) Poppet valves (4) Venturi valves (5) Gate valves (6) Needle valves Butterfly-Type Propellant Valves
valve. Again, the upstream gas pressure produces a high contact unit load on the sealing surfaces. The valve seat has a curved contour which effects a continuous contact with the flat face of the seal disk.
Sealing
Specifications
The degree of sealing (or the allowable leak rate) is a very important specification which will dictate the type of seal to be selected for a specific fluid-flow-control component design. The basic reference for leak rates is Specification MIL-S-8484. It states that a Grade A seal, the highest quality seal, shall have a leakage rate not to exceed 1 standard cubic centimeter of
The butterfly valve is one of the most widely used propellant valve types in large liquid propellant rocket engines. It has established a reliable operational record in LO2/RP-1, LO2/ LH 2, storable, and other liquid propellant services. Existing butterfly valve designs range from 2 to 17 inches nominal diameter, for use at propellant pressures from 20 to over 1500 psia. With improvements in sealing and structural details, successful designs for higher capacities and propellant pressures are certain to be achieved. Fignre 7-33 presents a typical butterfly valve design. Sealing is provided by a lip seal, which engages a spherical surface on the valve gate, similar to figure 7-28. The valve gate pivots on the valve shaft, the axis of which passes through the geometric center of the spherical sealing surface. In most designs, the valve gate rotates 90 from the closed to the fully opened position. The valve is operated by a piston-type actuator, through a connecting link and shaft crank arm. Lip seals are used as dynamic seals for the rotating valve shaft (fig. 7-27). The actuating power is furnished either by noncryogenic propellant pressure, or by an inert gas supply, and
air/year/inch of seal at a pressure differential of 1 atmosphere. This corresponds to a leakage rate of 3.171 10 -s cc/sec/inch of seal. It is a design assumption that any seal leak rate below or equal to this value is considered zero leakage. For many applications, higher leak rates are permissible. For instance, a check valve may be specified with a leak rate of 5 scim's (standard cubic inches of gas per minute). This is still a relatively tight specification.
7.8 DESIGN
OF
PROPELLANT
VALVES
Propellant valves are used to initiate and terminate propellant flows to main thrust chambers and gas generators. They are usually openclosed, two-position, normally-closed valves. To meet specific sequencing requirements, other designs may provide for an intermediate opening position. For thrust-throttle or mixture-ratio-
295
plsroN
O"Rr _'_pE
_-
-_
i'
_-AT FL;LLYOP_NEO PO_ITIO"+, _ i
/
/
++
SEe:tON
--
\
A--A\
+ ...... ; .... I,o+,,,o.......... + ......,.+o ....... u_
%A z,
L_.......o X__
+,
.......
r---,_
+ I
I+.'-C
: , _ +
+,.<
i"
+-
+ "-:"+-._
//.
r --:-_ .... ---_
,......
Figure oxygen booster
7-34.-Four-inch valve engines. used on
butterfly-type Rocketdyne
main Atlas
liquid ICBM
Figure valve
7-33.-Typical design (shown
butterfly-type in the closed
propellant position). valve. smooth is valve-gate as as parts flow a throttle local turbulence A butterfly fluid-flow angular valve, with propellant valve stream it has maintains over little adverse a wide Thus, a relatively range when effects Typical K at various are listed of used toward such fluidopening in table
controlled designed is installed piston. made are 7-34 gen booster ance easy tic made shows valve Butterfly
by
a pilot on the
valve. closed closing
The side and most
valve of the which of the
shown actuator are other Figure
positions. attendant
to be normally Except of stainless for shaft steels,
by a spring pins
which
tendency
cavitation. coefficients valve
resistance
of aluminum-alloy a 4-inch, used engine. valves flow. can have They They be on the
forgings. Atlas low
butterfly-type, Rocketdyne relatively are compact, a high as
liquid
oxyICBM
positions 7-4. When the liquid as such
of a butterfly
RP-1 the
is used valve, stage actuator shown may A-1
as
the
actuating a heater the 7-33 control open RP-1 arrangement
fluid may
for be
oxygen at the The valve the
in a LO2/RP-1 engine, to keep in figure engine indicators
system from of the system or noradded; by by the and stage the
resistlight, and
to fluid to service. area which
required freezing. butterfly flexibility needs: mally closing
have
characteris-
actuator-valve
expressed
provides
for specific valve position valve
A*-_-d -4
_-Ag
(%12)
be normally be squib, Figure
closed; of the
may be
may
accomplished rather 7-35 than valve A-1 illustrates
where
(see
fig.
7-33
for dimension area of the
references) valve, seat in _ lip fully seal, open
means linkage igniter engine. attached ates to the
of a pyrotechnic pressure. between fuel During to the the
A* = characteristic ds =inside in Ag=projected position, Values duct about area nominal for A* (duct diameter, 87 percent diameter valve in _
pneumatic
of the gate from
valve area
main valve
oxidizer of the stroke, valve valve is also indication
sequence
at the
the opening main oxidizer fuel sequence
the cam shaft actuto open. attached of the to angular
range in)
65 percent size
of the d_ = valve valve,
_he igniter shaft
area
= v/4
dn 2, where area
Frequently, position
a potentiometer for continuous of the valve gate.
on a 2-inch duct
of the
on a 12-inch
296
_._tN
OXJDtZEk APPUED
VALV_
OPE*WtNG P=E_J_E
SIDE ADTIJATING. M,&pN OXIDIZ_I VALVE iN FULLY C_=ENED POSITION
AC IIJAIIN G
FWID
_CLOSlNG)
FtUIP
INLET PORT AC_UMING (C_ENI*WG) _, VALVI
FUEL PIIS_U_! E_G_NE
r_ow
CO_WIItOL
POIATE TO J O_EN VALVt VALVl SH_.= T --_ IGNiIEI FUEL SEOU_NC_ VALV_
IGNI_EI /,ND MONIIO_
C_mrDC_ VAtVt
IGNmON
Figure 7-35.-Mechanically between the main oxidizer fuel sequence valve
linked arrangement valve and the igniter stage engine.
of the A-I
BUTTERFLYVALVE GATE AXISOF VALVE / SHAFT
./ FLOW (a) DIRECTION
The amount of torque required to turn valve shaft and gate is determined by the summation of hydraulic and friction torques. Hydraulic torque is the unbalance of forces on the valve gate caused by the flow of fluid around it. If the axis of the valve shaft is located as shown in figure 7-36(a), the fluid striking the gate portion protruding farthest upstream is deflected more than that at a point near the other end of the gate. This produces an unbalanced force which tends to close the gate. Offsetting the valve gate as shown in figure 7-36(b) would further increase the closing torque, because the fluid velocity rises as it approaches the downstream side opening. Consequently, the resulting low-pressure, area tends to increase the unbalance in the closing direction. For this reason, butterfly valves are usually designed offset as shown in figure 7-36(c) (also see fig. 7-33). This produces a fluid velocity effect tending to ease opening of the gate, because of the lower net closing hydraulic torque acting on the valve gate. Nevertheless, the net hydraulic torque will still be acting in the closing direction for most angular gate positions (9-80), unless the valve gate is further offset. Friction torque always opposes rotation. For most operational valve designs To = Tt+ Th T c = Tfwhere Th (7-13) (7-14)
FARTHEST UPSTREAM PROTRUDING
FLOW (b) DIRECTION BUTTERFLY ALVE V GATE
To Tc Tf Th
= required opening torque, in-lb = required closing torque, in-lb = friction torque, in-lb = hydraulic torque, in-lb (assumed the closing direction)
to act in
AXISOF VALVESHAFT ./ (c) FLOW DIRECTION _ ____

\
The friction torque Tt varies with the pressure differential across the valve gate, and with the valve gate projected area which is a function of gate angular position. Friction torque can be estimated by T! = Ktrsfmds2hp where K[ = friction torque coefficient, which is a function of gate angular position (to be determined experimentally) (7-15)
BUTTERFLY VALVEGATE Figure ?-36.-Various axis with respect locations to butterfly of valve shaft valve gate.
297
rs
=radius tion,
of valve in
shaft
at the between
bearing shaft journal bearing
secand and and
estimated tion, ator all at the has seals. range
opening start to overcome
and of the
closing opening static the
torques. stroke, friction
In addithe actuof are forces
fm = coefficient bearing steel steel ds = inside psi Hydraulic torque
of friction (0.20 shaft; shaft)
for aluminum 0.05 for needle
Butterfly-type fast acting. from 20 to 200
propellant Opening and milliseconds.
valves closing
relatively times
diameter
of valve
seat
lip the
seal, valve
in gate, Sample The are given type) Design Calculation following for the A-1 of the Data of valve in diameter in of friction bearing, between shaft and f m =0.05 of the valve seat lip seal, shaft at bearing section, (7-3) design main stage and oxidizer engine. experimental valve data
Ap=pressure
differential
across
Th may Th = Khds
be estimated 3Ap coefficient, angular
by (7-16) which position is
(butterfly
where
Kh ---hydraulic a function (to
torque
of gate
Radius rs=0.8 Inside
be determined shows plots versus butterfly the actuator times to three gate
experimentally) of required angular valve. the opening posi-
Figure and tions design will closing
7-37
torques
ds -- 7.7 Coefficient Test needle Data
for a typical practice, provide two
In actual valve maximum
of a butterfly
REQUIRED OPENING (To=T f +T h )
TORQUE
Valve gate position, 5 .............. 15 .............. .............. ..............
angular deg
Ap,
psi
K[
Kh
1058 769 87.5 25
0.78 0.78 1.57 3.61
1.11 10 -a 2.55x 12.5010 -11.6410 10 -_ -_ -3
/FRICTION
W D 0 re" 0 I--
TORQUE
(Tf)
40 85
Determine torques T, ORQUE (Th) tions of the
the at the
required gate.
opening
and
closing posi-
5 , 15 , 40 , and
85 angular
valve
0 OPENINg"
90
Solution From equation TI= at 5: (7-15), Klrsfmds2.Ap = 1960 in-lb in-lb the friction torques
T[=O.78xO.8O.O5(7.7)2x1058 T[=0.780.80.05(7.7) T[=l.57x0.80.05(7.7) T[=3.610.Sx0.05(7.7) 2769 = 1425 287.5 -'- 326 in-lb 225 = 214 in-lb
REQUIRED
' = --
CLOSING
)
TORQUE at 15:
at 40: at85: ANGULAR POSITION _ CLOSING required gate
o
I-GATE
0=
90
From at 5:
equation
(7-16),
the
hydraulic
torques
Th = KhdsSAp Th = 1.11 x 10-3 Th;2.55x10 x (7.7)3 x 1058 = at 15: -3x(7.7) 3769 = 895 in-lb 535 in-lb closfora
Figure ing
7-37.-Typical torques versus valve.
opening
and
angular
position
butterfly
298
ROCKET ENGINES
at 40: at 85:
Th = 12.50x
10 -3 (7.7) 3 x 87.5 = 500
in-lb
Th=-11.6410-3(7.7)3x25 =-133 in-lb
J_L
opening
aCT_TOa
From torques
equation
(7-13), Th
the
required
To = TI+ at 5: at15: at 40: at 85: From torques Tc = (Ttat 5: at l5: at40: at 85:
To=1960+535 To=1425+895 To=326+500 To=214+(-133)= equation (7-14), Th) the
=2495in-lb =2320in-lb = 826in-lb 81in-lb required closing
Tc=1960-535 Tc=1425-895 Tc=326-500 Tc=214-(-133)
=1425in-lb = 530in-lb
Figure
7-38.-Typical
ball-type design.
propellant
valve
=-174in-lb = 347in-lb assembly metallic consists bellows. seal than valve acting fluid valve of a seal The diameter, the effective this sealing within is trunnion on antifriction passes spherical valve open at the 7-4. throttling. drops ball area ring and an attached the to
enclosed , is
within designed bellows.
Ball-Type The stricted tural
Propellant major fluid advantage drop, flow.
Valves of a ball it permits use also valve enhances service. and some is its unrestrucIt has storable gas main are chamcomto diamto meet Howwhere the ball valves, Many in a
effective be less During force by the Each two axis metric In most the closed as in-line,
(4ds2) area
of the
low-pressure soundness
since Its
closing, on the pressure ball axles of the the fully rotation
creates surface, the
an unbalanced as affected using The geothe bellows.
for high-pressure in cryogenic as for lower ball
a reliable propellant generators bers inal (up
record as well
mounted bearings. through sealing rotates
applications,
for high-capacity thrust valves respect larger difficult infrequently,
integral of valve center
to about
50000-1b
thrust).
Up to a nom-
surface. 90 from Typical
diameter
of 3 inches, valve and are types weight. used
designs, to the resistance
parable space eters, because flight ever, weight in all ball-type
to other envelope ball weight and sizes, valves and size are
with For only
position. fully open valves
fluid-flow valves, are as listed readily
coefficients Ball-type Flow
K for ball-type position, can such ball presented in
determined in table as
it becomes
increasingly envelope
requirements. applications critical, are
be used
flow-regulating
devices, characteristics
for ground
service are used not
for propellant
for constant valve The figure in figure 7-39.
pressure angular
of a typical are
quite valves
frequently. designed
at various activation 7-38 could gas actuator is
positions ball valves
propellant linked, by a single 7-38 Here,
mechanically operated Figure valve. cally linked, flows. The ually as
dual-valve actuator. the elements
arrangement,
of the provided
shown
by a piston-type by either The fuel reciprocating to a rotary link sequence
actuator, pressure motion motion of
illustrates the valve
design are
of such mechaniand fuel individspecific to
which or inert of the the arm two tive and
be powered pressure. is translated
controlling valves can and
both oxidizer be sized either to the or be sealing
balls valves angular the
by means can
of a connecting The opening between The valves (partial actuator are
and crank of the the has relaaxles two
shown,
according flows, The
arrangement.
volumetric have riding valve
propellant size.
designed
be adjusted arm. the
by varying the valve shown opened
a common on ball. the
of a ballvalve seals, of the valve seal surface the
positions
is accomplished
by lipspherical In our specific
or O-ring-type sealing case,
crank First, position
stages. mediate
to an interthen to the
opening),
299
*,_l_
vAtvl
oo_Lt7
tooo r_
t
I _ svtL
700_
,2"-
'
P'
I - X-_-__ .._--n-Jh_'_i_-_,,--_ ' _-\1"' ....
400---
=J
2_ 30" .t_" ._" 60" 70" gO" _+ ANGULAR POSITION
=
Figure 7-40.-Typical propellant constant valve at in the result varies various balance
\!;
valve chamber are
......
large-size design. poppet-type dimensioned so as to
OPEN
NOTE:
Zero _P2
f_ a5
from -'%" PI
0"-
S'due
to
lea1
deslgn
Figure pressure various
7-39.-Flow drops angular
characteristics ol a typical positions.
for ball-type
in the proper as a function positions is type attd mechanically of poppet high-pressure, propellant
counteracting force of the unbalanced of the valve valve. is A small to the suitable as
which force at sequence main valve.
fully each the
open stage. closing them
position The both port. are
using closing opening Dual
separate of the ports seals for all
pistons valve
for
valve This flow
attached
is effected beseals
for highwell as
by venting tween sealing
and with
pressurizing a drain
storable services
cryogenic,
provided
dynamic
to ambient. Venturi-Type Propellant 7-41 presents Valves a typical valve. size design for a instalreasons, than in the The
Poppet-Type Figure with signed mally the use 7-30
Propellant shows
Valves a typical seats. This poppet valve valve is and denorwithout nonwiping design and adsim-
Figure venturi-type lations, to use that throat smooth drop permitting, simultaneously Typical valves The cavitating equation liquid As ity given If this is gas
propellant it may
In certain for various smaller installed solution. limit Adjacent that the
be desirable, of a nominal duct. A valve
metal-to-metal
a valve main
to be pneumatically closed. All sealings of elastomers. of all suitable reactive is largely permits turning consequently drops. actuator. valves
operated are Because
of the
achieved of the seals, with this
of a venturi contours penalties it is resistance are given venturi. (eq. made (7-2)), venturi may
is a possible of the venturi psi.
pressure ducting venturi may
characteristics is particularly other vantage plicity. operation nection ment sage. ance highly This which of an requires and
dynamic for use propellants. is due the of the
to a few be used
fluorine A main
conceivable coefficients in table be Based the 7-4. designed on
for flow
measurements. K for venturi to operate as energy of a throat. velocand the a
of poppet
their to the direct, flow
relative
reciprocating in-line this conthe pasarrange-
However,
Bernoulli's pressure vapor forms throat beyond at the at the variations the
inside
minimum its the region
results Typical
in relatively fluid-flow valves are resist-
to fall
below
pressure.
high-pressure coefficients 7-4. 7-40 in table Figure large size poppet-type unbalanced size vided. of the The
a result, of sound,
a gaseous moves cannot _0 percent through downstream pressure
K for poppet
pressure differentials of upstream on upstream
presents
the valve.
design nominal To
of a typical, diameter), reduce and thus is the the pro-
disturbances Up to minimum venturi flow only. rate (say
advance
throat.
(6 to 10 inches propellant hydrodynamic actuator, effective
across pressure), pressure device, pressure the
forces,
is dependent used venturi as
a balance area and
chamber the fluid
When
a throttling smaller
pressure
cavitating
affords
drops,
3O0
ROCKET ENGINES
loaded
-- VALVE POPPET
poppet pressure in the closed
seated controlled the pilot valve
at the valve valve the throat. fills seating as When out the the
throat. open (fig. is
Propellant pilot 7-41), the in a pascavity cavity on the spring valve behind rate the and and poppet to asis enerthe than poppet presthe valve valvebody exist of valve As or closed.
line shown
by a solenoid
is used normally
,._j_ LET
to actuate
schematic
inserted poppet
sageway an opening propellant provides in the sure gized valve it can clearance
interconnecting in venturi pressure additional same direction closure. is vented propellant
Normally, poppet force valve pilot
upstream
valve poppet
the
SPRING tNLET _---SOLENOID PILOT VALVE
to open,
pressure
at a greater through
be replaced area. poppet no dynamic pierced are no dynamic
by leakage This the results valve to open. seals. seals, The enhances
in a reduced spring The Since and venturi the causes
.,,_F---
SOLENO1D
PILOT
VALVE
sure main
overcoming valve
contains
_ --------=_ FLOW
is not there
by a shaft to ambient. further
or actuator small
rod and number
no pathways reliability.
POPPET
C/_VITY
_---'E SPRING
VENTUR)
for leakage moving parts
I
CLEARANCE AREA VALVE
\
LVALV
"----VALVE OPP_ P
SCHEMATIC
Figure valve
?-41.-Typical designed and Co.
venturi-type manufactured
propellant by Fox Valve
Gate-Type Figure pellant stricted drop. between tion 7-42 gate
Propellant 7-42 shows
Valves a typical Its major resulting inlet and design O-rings design advantage in low-pressure short in the distance direcoutlet shown as the of a prois unre-
Development
valve. flow, provides valve flow. elastomer The
fluid It also the
since effect rate have
the and been
gaseous linear law. applied propellant supply
characteristics relationship rather fluid-flow The pressure,
at the between than venturi
throat flow valves and limi-
a relatively
a near
according
of the uses
in figure valve-seat
to a square
successfully services. systems which
in cryogenic require valve, flow the will and
storable tation venturi vide pressure Venturi in the the line as
In fluid-flow well as
ACTLIATrP,_G F'LUI_ INLET
a shutoff a cavitating
control
valve both, drop direction
with
diffuser the valve
proat a
INLET PORT f ACTUATOrl _OD DYP4,_,I_C O-PiNG f PISTO_ TYPE ACTUATOR
at a weight of only
of only the
venturi. a relatively between This application valves have systems. a typical and Co. venturi-type by
V_LVE G_TIE GUIOE PLATE _" SEAL _R_ \L 0 - RINI_ RET_INEA VALVE GATE GUIDE PLATE
valves nominal on
occupy of flow, diameter.
long
space of
(O_ENING)
4 to 6 times length imposes
limitations systems. inches built
size
and
in engine up to 10 successfully
ST_TtC O.R VALVE SEAT
G_,TE t _ _SEAT SPRING
However, nominal
venturi
diameter vehicle presents designed
been
IhlLE T
/_u=
OCTLET
for rocket Figure 7-41 valve valve
propellant Fox Valve shutoff divergent
manufactured of a convergent-
Development which venturi section
It is a pilot-operated Figure 7-42.-Typical gate-type design. propellant valve a simple, spring-
consists with
301
seal.
These
are services. types
suitable
only
for
mediumapplication valves are gate appliand
actuate as
other
fluid-flow-control valves, such is a great or to control as the variety
components, engine se-
such
temperature other designed psi. valves cations are seal
In cryogenic required. line relative generator Gate pressures
propellant events, There available services. two
are of their
quence fuel. valves engine into
admission of control they can propellant
of igniter pilot rocket be grouped and the pro-
for propellant limited as
up to 3000
Because such
bulkiness, control
for liquid Basically, the We confine Since used will pilot
to low for gas
propellant-flow
categories: type. type. are and
on-off the
type
ground-support
services.
portional to the pilot valves
our discussion proportional-type in closed-loop treated in are as section also
here con7.11. known as
on-off
widely be
Needle-Type A typical shown for extremely attitude-control shown linked assembly. Their electric Sealing elastomer ing with The cating valve at the metallic is by
Propellant needle-type 7-43. low flow thrust
Valves propellant This valve applications chambers. arrangement, yoke. thrust are The chamber normally valve type such The is is used as for
trol
systems,
they
regulating
devices, servo
discussed valves
in figure
Proportional-type valves. valve pressure, with other
assembly
A pilot by fluid is nection tant
may
be operated
eleetrieally conImporvalves through are: the
or
a dual-valve a mechanical part Both solenoid. at the valve of the valves is
positively valve body injector closed.
or through control
a mechanical components. for pilot fluid
an integral
design (1) (2) Fast
considerations response of control closed when
actuation
provided
by a quick-response
No leakage valve
seat
is needle.
achieved
by the sealof
(3) (4) The
Required ble with Sufficient output
actuating systems output of a pilot
power design at the valve
souree design can
compatipoint as (7-17)
tip of the actuator bellows. as
valve rods This is
Dynamic by means is propellants. for the other for very
achieved design storable a guide needle.
seal as
compatible
be defined
cryogenic pintle In chapter types, vanes motion
well provide
reciprospecial low space
W = Pd_' where W = pilot valve output at the design point, in-lb/sec Pd = valve the {/ =valve control fluid discharge pressure at the
of the as they service
valve are
XI we will flow
discuss needed
propellant engines.
in miniature-size
at
7.9 DESIGN The
OF
CONTROL
PILOT
VALVES
design point, psig volumetric flow rate in3/sec frequently used
design
point, main function of a pilot valve is to conin turn is used to control or The most trol a fluid which may be classified figurations (I)
THR_T iNJECTOR CHAMSI[R _lOOY
on-off to their
pilot
valves con-
according types types types
design
into
Two-way Three-way Four-way
\
i]___' ,;::" .><::.:
.......... .
U(L . :: "'.ACTUATOR " " .,,
iNLET
(2) (3)
4;::
Two-Way-Type The ports. term
Pilot "two-way"
Valves refers valve shutoff sequence are typical Both from to the is number of a twoto a in a shown of use valves.
?',
":r
A two-way open-close-type valve. 7-35 and pilot link,
pilot The 7-40
basically similar valves examples examples the main
__
\'\'\_
WETALLIC
BELLOWS
port,
valve,
L.
ELASTOMER T_E VALVE
TiP
OF
propellant figures propellant mechanical two-way-type
NEEDLE
Figure
7-43.-Typical valve
needle-type design.
valves. actuated
302
Solenoid or fluid pressure valves are also frequently
operated used.
two-way
pilot
Three-Way-Type
Pilot
Valves
developed by General Controls. Figure 7-45 shows a typical design of a pilot-operated solenoid, three-way pilot valve developed by Skinner. It uses a solenoid to control fluid flow to a diaphragm which opens or closes the valve. The valve may be normally closed or normally open. The selection of standard pilot valves is based on the design data furnished by their manufacturer. For specific applications, modifications can be incorporated into standard designs. A typical fhid-pressure-actuated, three-way pilot valve design is shown in figure 7-46. This valve may be used as the ignition monitor valve in the A-1 stage engine control system. The valve is held normally closed by a spring. The valve diaphragm is designed as a combined sensing and actuating diaphragm. During engine start and when satisfactory main thrust chamber ignition has been achieved, the pressure buildup sensed at the thrust chamber injector fuel manifold will cause the ignition monitor valve to open
A three-way pilot valve (fig. 7-44) has three ports: inlet or pressure port, outlet or cylinder (actuator) port, and vent or return port. If the valve is designed normally closed (N.C.), the fluid path between pressure and cylinder ports is closed, while the path between cylinder and return ports is open. Actuation of the valve effects closing of one fluid path and opening of the other. The reverse is true for a normally open (N.O.) valve; i.e., the fluid path between pressure and cylinder ports is normally open. Most of the standard pilot valves furnished by specializing manufacturers are solenoid valves, actuated by electrical energy, A direct-acting solenoid valve (fig. 7-44) is one in which opening and closing is controlled by solenoid only. A pilot-operated solenoid valve (fig. 7-45) is one in which the solenoid controls the flow of a small portion of the pressure fluid, which in turn operates the valve. This results in a smaller electrical current required to operate a smaller solenoid for a high-capacity valve. The pilotoperated solenoid valve, necessarily, requires a certain minimum actuating fluid pressure to overcome friction and spring loads before it will open or close. Figure solenoid, 7-44 presents a typical direct-acting three-way normally closed pilot valve
CYL. PRESS
VENT
CYL. PRESS
VENT
NORMALLY IN NORMAL
CLOSED POSITION
VALVE
NORMALLY IN OPEN
CLOSED POSITION
VALVE
CYL RET
VENT
CYL RET
VENT
NORMALL'f IN NORMAL
O_[N
VALVE
NC.RMALLY IN CLOSED
GREN
VALVE
POSITION
PO$fflON
CONNECTION
ELECR_CAL 5PRgNG PffS_dRE DIAPH -SOLENOID AS_E_,_LY CYUNOER RETURN Rt, GM -_.f
CLOSED
_J
OffN
ELECTRIC
POPPET
VENT
OR
OR
B
CYLINOER PEES_GRE RETURN _-ELECTRO
MAGNET ENE_GIZEbOIt $OLENO_b
Figure 7-44.-Typical direct-acting solenoid three-way normally closed pilot valve developed by General Controls.
Figure 7-45.-Typical solenoid, _hree-way Skinner.
design ol a pilo_-operalefl pilot valve developed by
303
by pressurizing the fuel ignition pressure port.
its monitor to the The
diaphragm. valve, main valve fuel spring
The in turn, valve can
opening directs actuator be the
of
Valve open Valve Required in_/sec Inlet
characteristic position, resistance K= 3.5 valve F/:141b
flow A* : 0.19 coefficient
area in2;
in the d d = 2.1 at the
fully in; open
Ps=20psig; position,
opening
calibrated area, decreasopening the fluid which The thin formed area required esti(0.01
fully
corresponding so that sensed ing valve fuel the pressure. pressure to close.
to the valve will
effective open the in turn, valve is engine
diaphragm cutoff, vents the
at a predetermined ignition actuator, monitor closing by internal O-ring the seal
volumetric
flow
rate,
_,: 200
During allows This, fuel
port
fuel the Also, open
pressure required calculate position.
:350 preload the
psig of the valve valve W
Determine spring, in the Solution From spring Sp. fully
side of the valve. The pressure has valve inch) with can mated preload by the valve
main
output
poppet on
balanced
acting same
a dynamic ds as are
diameter sheets
poppet.
diaphragm Mylar heat added. of the
is made which The valve
of multilayer, pressure diaphragm The then be
equation preload
(7-18),
the
required
valve
effective spring may
be determined
experimentally.
_r Sp:-_dd : 55.2
2 Ps _Ft=4(2.1)220_14:69.2_14 lb
-_dd where
Ps = Ft+
Sp
(7-18)
The
characteristic
flow
velocity
of the
valve
- 1052 diameter, in The Substitute The sign pressure point

7 2
in/see
= $7.6
fps
dd: effective diaphragm valve, psig
Ps : rated sensed threshold pressure to open the density this of the and drop fuel (RP-1) data the into valve is 50.451b/ft equation at the (7-9). de3. Ft= static friction of the valve poppet, ib Sp = required preload of the valve spring, Ib other through
Sample The ignition (fig.
Calculation following monitor
(7-4) design valve data of the are A-1 given stage for the engine
Ap = K_p _288g The fuel
_ 3.5 x 50.45 (87.6) 28832.2 at the valve
2 = 146.5 discharge psi
pressure
7-46): pd=350DYN_,_C _rUtJ_ rO V_Nr O-RJN_ _,LrH eOl_ SaA_ _Ue_ _tES_UmE INlay p'Olr
146.5=203.5 equation (7-17),
psig the valve
Substitute output
into
ONT_Ot ON_EC_[0
_lT
_ rO rH_US_
VAL_!
FC_r
W: Pcl_,: 203.5
v[
200 = 40 700
in-lb/s
ec
tos_D
Four-Way-Type A four-way-type three-way valves, 7-40.
Pilot
Valves pilot valve as can replace two
for control actuators, Figure 7-47 pilot side
of double-acting shown in figures the The basic ports while presents valve. is venting
*ctu*ro*
-CO_ErEo ro M_ _u_ _*LV_ *C_UMO_
(two-directional) 7-33 and
Figure itor
7-46.-Typical pilo_ in the valve .4-1 valve
[luid used stage as
pressure the ignition engine.
actuated mon-
schematic are the arranged other
of a four-way so that is pressurizing. one
three-way
304
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
RI_CKET ENGINES
PRESS
PRESS
from only ing
the
opening
port. the
The
valve
can port,
be closed and vent-
by pressurizing the opening Calculation following port.
closing
CYL.
I. RET.
CYL.2.
CYLI
RET
CYL2.
Sample
NORMAL POSITION ENERGIZED POSITRON
(7-5) data are pilot given valve for the shown selfin figure
Figure
7q7.-Basic pilot
schematic valve.
oi
{our-way
The
locking-type, 7-49. $1 spring:
four-way
Preload=35 Preload of the pressure, pressure,
lb,
rate=210 = 250
ib/in Ib/in lb
The way is shown Figure cal held
typical
design pilot 7-48.
of a pilot-operated developed This the four-way (cylinder valve schematic pilot 1 port) pressure the port. -dl the pressure valve pintle to cylinder by type
fourValvair, is used
solenoid
valve,
S 2 spring: Static Pressure Actuating l_eturn Poppet Valve Determine actuating-force Solution Calculate quired actuating port guide poppet friction
= 25 lb, rate valve
in figure pneumatic 7-49
poppet, psig Pa = 250
F{=24 psig
to control
actuators. of a typivalve. It is by springs Pa is moves 1 port, and and
port fluid
Pi = 400 = ambient d, = 0.5 = 0.05 d 2, d 3, and factor
presents closed
self-locking-type, normally S 2. the 2 port direction, after the
pressure diameter, total
in in d 4 (using of 1.5). an
S_ and applied connects cylinder
When
an actuating port, port return 77/4 (all causes
travel
to the
opening pressure to the
diameters contingency
An unbalanced in the open, to stay
self-locking opening even
force,
2) Pi, acting
diaphragm force
diameter to open the
d 2 for the valve:
re-
actuating
Pa is removed
A'_ PILOT PASSAGE i TERMINAL BOX /-COIL
LOACNL%INLGoTvYEPRE'D-_,
_L"
_/y'
P,LOT
/\
BODY
_'. Z_II_
III
_=-_i__I
// PLUNGER ASSEMBLY SPACER _/ _ /
/'
^ _
O-RING
_---_
L-SEA
SECTION
PO2T EXHAUST PO;T
A-A
SECTION B-B
INLET
Figure
7-48.-TypicaI
design
of a pilot-operated,
lout-way
solenoid
pilot
valve,
developed
by Valvair.
305
Design
of Solenoid actuators of pilot operation
Actuators are valve (figs. which usually poppets, 7-44, moves The applied to the
........ ....... '\
\ \
/ /
_, ........... // r"
r ............... / .........,_o,,:o,
Solenoid sliding stem
for on-off, 7-45, and
two-position 7-48). wire.
Solenoids When
are
electromagnets,
containing in a coil of magnitude
an armature or phmger
the coil is energized, a magnetic
force is exerted on the plunger.

_AC"UAnNO OEA_,_O_ 'S-- C"n.t_ER _ _O_t _,EAt OlUL4N
of the force is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the plunger, the number of the coil turns, It increases as the electric current applied to the coil, and the gap G between plunger and core.
Figure 7-49.-Schematic of a typical self-lockingtype, four-way pilot valve.
the gap narrows. Figure 7-50 shows

t/" 2
a typical direct-current Its magnetic
-_d2 Pa = (S _ preload + S_ preload + F/) x contingency d22_(35+25+24) rrx250 4 d_ = 0.8 in 1.5_0.64 f_tctor
solenoid actuator as frequently used in twoposition-type, pilot valve services. base, and the plunger. When
current consists of a stationary core, the case, a the coil is energized, the plunger, along with the valve stem connected to it by a bolt, is pulled toward the spring. This spring
core, against a compression pushes when Determine required tion, lost: force in the piston to lock the event diameter the valve actuating d s, based in the pressure on the open posiPa is the coil is deenergized.
the plunger back to the normal position
The following are general correlations for flat-faced, plunger-type magnets shown in figure 7-50. of the type
4 (ds _ - dt _) Pi = (spring
forces
- Ft) x contingency factor
F= B_'A C
(7-19)
(35+25+210x +250x ds_ :
0.05 0.05-24) 1.5 +(0.5) _ where
fPNI :--C-
(7-20)
-_x 400 =0.281 d s = 0,73 Calculate close the diameter valve: + 0.25=0.531 in
F : pull force on the plunger in its normal position, lb
m[sso_
_ss
SE_L
d,
for the
required
force
to
G SOtE_*_ east, i_o_ ./_
4 d,,2pa=(4(d3
_ -d,2)pi+
F.e-spring
forces) factor
x contingency 0.222 d2= x 400 + 24(35 + 25
+ 210 0"05 + 250 x 0"05)
x 1.5 = 0.22 Figure actuator 7-50.-Typical design valves. frequently direct-current used solenoid
_ 250
d 4 = 0.47 in
in two-position-
type
pilot
306
ROCKET ENGINES
B = magnetic flux density maxwells/in 2
in the air gap,
kilo-
Substitute (7-19):
this
and other
values
into equation
A = plunger cross-sectional area, in 2 C = a factor comprising constants and allowances for stray flux. A value of 72 is applicable to round, flat-faced, plungertype magnets P=a factor comprising constants and the permeability of the fluid in gap G between core and plunger; a value of 0.00319 applies if an airgap is assumed f = flux leakage factor. It is determined by analyzing the magnetic circuit N = number of coil turns I =electric current applied to the coil, amperes G = gap between core and plunger, in Solenoid actuators, particularly if energized for extended periods, must be designed with sufficient radiating surface to prevent the temperature from becoming excessive. To give the required current, the resistance of the coil should be based on its maximum temperature. Suitable protection, such as seals, should be provided to prevent the solenoid from becoming contaminated with propellants. If the plunger is designed to bottom-out against the core when energized, it is advisable to provide for a thin wafer of nonmagnetic material at its face to prevent sticking. coil
F=B2A. C' The required
27
B2x0.246 72
flux density: = 88.8 kilomaxwells/in (7-20): 2
B = V27 72/0.246 Substitute this
into equation
B=f-_;
88.8=
0"7 x 0"00319 x NI 0.05
The required
ampere-turns
for the solenoid
88.8 0.05 NI = 0.7 0.00319
= 1990 ampere-turns
Assume a current of 1.4 amperes for the solenoid; then the required number of turns
1990 I
1990_ 1.4
1425 turns
Sample
Calculation
(7-6) for the solenoid four-way pilot of stroke,
The required electric resistance noid coil, at operating temperature R E 28 _^ =_-= 1.--:_=zu ohms
of the sole-
The following data are given actuator of the A-2 stage engine control valve: Required actuating F=27 lb force
at start
Nominal electric supply: 28 volts de: 2.0 amperes maximum Valve poppet travel = Air gap between solenoid core and plunger, G=0.05 in Plunger diameter =0.56 in Assumed flux leakage factor, f= 0.7 Determine the amphere-tum requirements of the solenoid.
The wire can now be selected for the required resistance, For instance, we may choose a No. 26 AWG copper wire (0.017-inch diameter, enameled) and wind it to an average coil diameter of 1.05 inches. Resistance = 51 ohm/1000 ft, warm. Total length = 1.05 x ,-r 1425/12 = 391 ft. R =391 51/1000=20 ohms. Lay wires 22 deep, 65 high. Thickness of coil: 22 0.017 = 0.374 in. Inside diameter = 1.05- 0.374 =0.676 in. This leaves 0.676-0.56= 0.116 for insulation, sleeves, and plunger clearance. Height of coil: 65 x 0.017 = 1.1 inches. Outside diameter = 1.424 inches.
Solution Plunger area:

77
A =_-x (0.56) 2 = 0.246
in 2
307
7.10
DESIGN
OF
FIXED-AREA-TYPE DEVICES
number ments. frequently presented Orifices their prevents tracted that value (dod,). ship the tributable
and
can used
only orifices
be evaluated and and flow flow
by expericoefficients nozzles are and7-51(c). because This of the It is is which conatof
REGULATING
Typical
designs
Fixed-area-type as used tion energy compared are ness orifices, in rocket and loss nozzles, engines caused to that for control
regulating and venturis, for fluid
devices, are system Although is high,
such frequently calibrathe as orifices compact-
in figures of the VDI is more bevel wall the edge a function (Apo/Ap)
7-51(a), type are at the
7-51(b). preferred backside,
behavior erratic jet
predictable. reattachment orifice. be of the versus 7-52.
purposes. by an orifice of nozzles
to the
or venturis, of their
within
important sharp. ratio 1) relationThe
extensively and
used
because (fig. 7-2).
leading
absolutely
simplicity
of k is Tile is plotted
diameter (do/d
in figure
Orifices and Nozzles The orifices basic and correlations nozzles
for Liquid Flow for liquid (assuming flow uniform through flow
are
distribution):
_'= 0.0438
Cdo2v/_"L'_= 0.525
Cdo-_p
, AIAIAIAIAIAIAIAIAI_Ap (7-21)
_i, = 0.0438
CdoZp ,_
= 0.525 APo
Cdo 2 _
(7-22)
k: where :volumetric _i, p Ah Ap =weight = density = static fice = static nozzle, do dI C =diameter =diameter or nozzle, =flow coefficient the flow pressure or nozzle, pressure psi flow rate,
Ap
(7-23)
rate, lb/sec
fta/sec
of the
fluid, head ft drop
lb/ft drop across
a across the the orifice orior

FLOW
of the of the in
orifice duct
or nozzle leading
throat, orifice
in
to the
for orifices effects
or nozzles. jet of ap-
Considers contraction
of discharge velocity do/d
in orifices, ratio
proach, diameter and flow profile Apo = total able k = factor, ing The for gas control The of the flows, orifice value design (or permanent) to the pressure if the of flow orifice correcting
z, friction drop psi workloss the pressure across charge-
pressure or nozzle, nozzle
or orifice
to permanent are still (<10 pressure coefficients and drop percent).
correlations
reasonably
accurate Figure cients Reynolds 7-51.-Typical C of flow square designs regulating edged; C, and orifices. VDI type flow coeffiA, VDI flow
is small configurations
C is a function flow
type; B, nozzles.
3O8
Sample
Calculation
(7-7) do/d t (ORIFICE) 0.4 0.6 I Q78 0.2
The following data are given for the fuel pump discharge duct of the A-1 engine: Required fuel weight flow rate, w = 892 lb/sec Fuel pump discharge duct diameter, d 1 = 7 in Selected design value of total pressure drop for orifice or flow nozzle installed in the fuel duct, APo = 100 psi Estimate the required diameter d o, (a__) or a f VDI-type orifice, and (b_) for a VDI-type flow nozzle (figs. 7-51(a) and 7-51(c)).
1.0
0.9 l k
0.8
"l
_
I
'%1
07
<3
I!
\1
0.6 0.5
\ \
Solution 0.4 The average flow velocity in the fuel duct 0.3
V--
P4(dl)
892 _r 7 2=66.3fps 2 50-45 x_x (_2)
,\ , \
i i
Q2
0.4 )
0.6
do/d I ( NOZZLE From table 6-3, we obtain the viscosity of RP-1 =3.22 10 -7 lb-sec/in 2, or #=3.22 10 -7 4636.8= 1.494 x 10 -3 lb/ft-sec (see eq. 7-6). The Reynolds number, based on duet diameter dl
K
I-do/d
FOR
ORIFICES
[or ori-
Figure
7-52.-(Apo/Ap) fices
versus (dod1) and nozzles.
Re _ Dvp _7 x 66.3 50.45 /1 1.494 10 -3 = 1.306 From equations (7-22) and (7-23)
10 6
value of 0.32 for k is obtained from figure Substitute this into equation (a): Cdo 2 0.67 x (4.47) 2 = 23.9
7-52.
\/_w= 0.525 Cdo2_/-_ Cd 02 w = 0.525 Cdo2V_oop/k 892 0.525 x \/100 x 50.45 (a)
\/0:5:
,'_ - 0.525 \/_p
(b_) For the VDI-type flow nozzle, the same approach can be used to determine do. A value of 3.55 inches is found for do; thus do_3.55 dl 7
892 - 0.525 x 71 =23.9
- 0.506
(a_) For the VDI-type orifice, we determine by trial and error that d o , which will simultaneously satisfy equation (a), figure 7-51(a), and figure 7-52. A value of 4.47 inches is found for do. Confirm: do d1 4.47 =0.638 7
From figure 7-51(c), a value of C= 1.005 is obtained, for Re-- 1.306 i0 6. From figure 7-52, the corresponding value for k is 0.28. Substitute this into equation (a): Cdo 2 = 1.005_(3.55) 2 V"_/-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-_8 :23.9 in; for the
From figure 7-51(a), a value of C = 0.67 is derived for R e = 1.306 106. A corresponding
Thus, for the VDI orifice, do=4.47 VDI flow nozzle, d0=3.55 in.
3O9
Orifices The pressible
for Gas basic gas
Flow for an isentropie, an orifice are: com-
Values various figure
for Z applicable pressure ratios
to equation (p2/pl) are
(7-24)
for in
correlations flow through
presented
7-53.
CApIZ w: V_-(7-24)
Sample The Orifice Flow
Calculation following diameter, coefficient, gas
(7-8) data are given in psig for an orifice:
d o = 0.06 C = 0.6 = 500
If (p2/p,)<_
Critical
ratio,
i.e.,
Helium y </ [ Ill / 2 y+l \_-=-i"
pressure
=
If (P2/Pl)
-\y-1
Helium gas temperature Calculate the orifice
= 100 F flow rates for down(ambient) and P2 = 350
, z: Igy ,yr0
ratio,
(7-253 stream
psia. Solution
pressure,
P2 = 14.7
> Critical
I_
Y+'I
For (7-26) orifice a downstream pressure ratio pressure of 14.7 psia, the
where =gas A =orifice weight area, pressure pressure constant, temperature flow in 2 upstream downstream R/R upstream factor, heat and ratio a function flow Reynolds from 32.2 of design number figure ft/sec 7-51(a) For constant, 2 orifice a downstream pressure ratio pressure of 350 psia, the conof the ft aS/sec orifice, R
77 ,_
rate,
lb/sec From is derived and other figure as
P f) :500+14.7 14.7
=0.0286
Pl =gas P2 =gas R T Z y =gas = gas
of the
orifice, orifice,
psia
7-53, 4.11
the into
compressibility Substitute (7-24): equation
factor this
of the
for Y--1.66.
psia
parameters
= compressibility =gas specific coefficient,
CAp_Z %/-R-T
0.6x_(O.O6)-x(500+14.7)x4.11 x/386 x 514.7 (460+ x 4.11 100) lb/sec
C = flow
_ 0.6 x 0.00283
figuration May and g 7-51(b)
= 0.00774
V'386 x 560
be approximated
=gravitational
0.3
P{ 2'__
350 _ 514.7 0.682
0.4_ 0.6 o. _/_o' 7 _'iZ0.5 I I ! /_/I__
From factor
figure
7-53, thus
we obtain
a compressibility
Z=3.88;
3.88 w =-:-:-v_. x 0.0077 4.11
= 0.00726
lb/sec
0.9
o__
7.11
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3,5 4.0 1.5 CO_P_6$SI_ILITY FACTOR Z, F, 0'5 sec APPUCASLE TO EQUATION ;7-221
DESIGN
OF
SERVOVALVES regulating devices have
Fixed-area-type
definite limitations. For instance, an orifice factors for an isenan orifice. regulates flow and pressure only under specific conditions of flow, but does not function under
Figure tropic
7-53.-Compressibility compressible flow
through
310
other conditions. By contrast, variable-areatype devices will function under both dynamic and static conditions. Classified according to their function, the most frequently used variablearea-type for rocket pressure engines and flow regulating devices can be grouped intovalves for
(4) Minimum bleed of control fluid (5) Simplicity of construction and line connections (6) Compatibility with environmental conditions: temperature, humidity, acceleration, and vibration. The open-loop gain and phase shift versus frequency characteristics of a typical servovalve and driving amplifier combination are shown in figure 7-54. These characteristics are obtained by applying an input signal to the servoamplifier from an oscillator. The amplifier drives the valve by means of a current input to the valve transducer coil (torque motor). In turn, the valve controls the flow of working fluid to the actuator which produces the desired load force. The voltage output from a potentiometer attached to the actuator is then compared to the amplifier input. Instead of electrical feedback, mechanical feedback may be employed. (See sec. 7.5, "Engine Thrust Vector Control.') Flapper-Nozzle-Type Servovalves
(1) Throttle thrust
valves (including and PU control)
(2) Gas pressure regulators (3) Liquid flow regulators Throttle valves have been discussed
in sec-
tion 7.8. Detail on gas pressure and liquid flow regulators will be found in sections 7.12 and 7.13. Many of these devices use some form of fluid-pressure-operated actuator. The position of the actuator, and thus the area of the controlling valve opening, is effected by applying a pressure differential across the actuator piston or diaphragm, by means of various types of servo pilot valves, which will be discussed. The function of a servovalve is similar to that of an on-off pilot valve, except that it can continuously vary the pressure or flow rate of the actuating fluid to control the desired actuator position. In a pneumatic actuating system, the servovalve operates as a pressure control device. It functions as a flow control device in hydraulic systems. In rocket engine applications, where usually only low-power electrical signals or sensing pressure forces are available to operate the valves, servovalves with very high gain characteristic are required. Three basic servovalve types are most frequently used: the flapper-nozzle type (fig. 7-55), the spool type (fig. 7-56), and the poppet type (fig. 7-57). They are used independently, or jointly, to form a twostage servovalve in which the flapper-nozzle valve acts as a pilot valve for the spool valve. A typical example was presented in figure 7-9.
The flapper-nozzle-type servovalve is essentially a variable orifice or nozzle. Figure 7-55 illustrates schematically the operation of a typical double-bleed unit. Actuating fluid is supplied at a constant pressure or flow rate. _'aen an input signal is fed to the torque motor from a servoamplifier, the electric signal is converted into a mechanical force. The resultant deflection of the flapper is proportional to the input signal and causes the flow of actuating fluid to increase at one nozzle, and to decrease at the
4o
28, _
t1_,8o
,_ phose/I '-_o_ I
E"
General Design Considerations for Servovalves: (1) Type of control fluid (gas or liquid) and its conditions (pressure and temperature) (2) Systems gain: In some applications the ratio between electrical quiescent input power to the valve coils and the maximum valve output (as defined by eq. (7-17)) is as high as 1600-2000 (3) Bandwidth and frequency response; dynamic stability
"-
/I
I"/5o
::,,,!
I
0608Z0 2
Frequency
'
",>/ . \
"
I I 2oo
I
3 4 56
in cycles
, ,
8 /0
per second
-,oo
20 30-90 of a typical combination.
Figure 7-54.-System characteristics servovalve and driving amplifier
311
.r- ACTUATOR PISTON FIXED ORWICE--_ et A I / / , [ I SIGNAL /
the throatarea of the nozzle. Most designs based on the first condition. The effective shaped) flow area then is An = 7rdnX A n =effective flow area, in 2
are (ring
i.__.N_ I,
IIF,. INPUT i!
sGu_PPLy .____fl (_I _-_-[__
(7-27)
PRESSORE ---7
F;/:i-F-q
where dn =diameter of the nozzle, in X =displacement of the flapper from the nozzle, in. (Maximum value should be less than dn/5.)
FIXED ORIFICE
/ J
NOZZLES--" TRANSDUCER J
Figure
7-55.-Schematic of a typical nozzle-type pneumatic servovalve.
flapperSample Calcul'ation (7-9)
other. An increased flow reduces the fluid pressure (compressible fluid) or fluid volume (incompressible fluid) on the corresponding side of the actuator piston. Correspondingly, the fluid pressure or fluid volume on the other side of the piston increases. The resultant pressure differential across the actuator piston causes it to move in the desired direction. The flappernozzle valve is also applicable to servo systems with single-control nozzle bleed. Here, the actuator position is controlled by regulating the actuating fluid on one side of the piston or diaphragm only. This is analogous to the singlebleed pneumatic poppet servovalve (fig. 7-57). Flapper-nozzle valves are particularly suitable as pilot valves for larger servovalves (see fig. 7-9). Because the transducers or torque motors for these valves require rather low power levels, they usually consist of coil relays exerting forces of only a few ounces. The effect of the flapper spring rate is often counterbalanced by the gradient of the magnetic force developed in a properly designed transducer or by mechanical means. To prevent spreading of the jets leaving the nozzles and to ease the rate balancing between flapper spring and transducer magnetic forces, the travel of the flapper should be kept reasonable small. Equations (7-22) and (7-24), which describe the flow of liquids and gases through orifices and nozzles, are applicable to the design calculations of flapper-nozzle valves. Two conditions may exist for the flow through the nozzles of a flapper-nozzle valve: first, when the restriction is determined by the position of the flapper; and secondly, when the flapper has moved far enough from the nozzle for the flow to be restricted by
The following dimensions and data are defined for a flapper-nozzle pneumatic servovalve (schematically shown in fig. 7-55), which is used as a pilot valve of the servo PU control valve attached to the main oxidizer valve of the A-2 stage engine: Helium supply pressure, Ps = 500 psia, and temperature T = 560 R d z,A,,d 2'A 2, d 3, A 3, d 4,A 4=corresponding diameters and flow areas of fixed orifices and nozzles d, =d 2 ds =d 4 #,, 02, _i'3, w4, _i'o, VCc=flw rates through fixed orifices and nozzles, and to and from the actuator, lb/sec Z,, Z 2, Z3, Z 4 =compressibility factors of the flows through the orifices and nozzles Flow coefficient of the orifices and nozzles, C=0.7 Distance between the two nozzles, T=(d3/4)+ t t=thickness of the flapper=0.004 in At the neutral or equilibrium position servovalve:
of the
The pressures in the actuators, Pc = PD= 450 psia The bleed through nozzles, w3 = w4 =0.000778 lb/sec Determine: (a__)The dimensions zles, and of distance of fixed orifices T. and noz-
(b) The pressure differential across the actuator piston when the flapper is deflected downward 0.001431 inch from its neutral position, and the flow rates _i_ and Wc to and from the actuator o are 0.00021 lb/sec (as governed by the speed of the piston).
"
312 DESIGN OF LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES Solution (a) Since the gas flow through the nozzles discharged to ambient, it is assumed that the pressure ratio across the nozzles will always less than critical (sonic flow). From figure 7-58, Z 3 =Z 4 =4.11. From equation (7-24), the following tions are established: CAtPsZI \/RT 0.7500 -_/_ correla(b_ When the flapper is deflected downward 0.001431 inch from its neutral position, the displacement of the flapper from the upper nozzle T-t X =2 -0.753A2Z2 = 0.004756
#3 =
Since is
A 3 = _d3X = nd32/8
d3 = d4 :_ be d3 T=_-+
8 x 0.000279 =
77
\r/7
.095
10
-4
0.0266
in
t=0"0266+0.004=0.01065 4
in
#' -
. _ AIzI =O'753AIZ'
CA2PsZ2 #2V_-_CA3PoZ3 VR T CA4PcZ4 #4V_R-T -
+ 0.001431 in
= 0.003325
+ 0.001431
0.7x4.11 \/_
A3Po=O'OO62A3P
With the flapper
deflected = 0.000397 in s
-O'O062A4Pc and flapper
A 3 = ,,-rd3 = ,7 0.0266 0.004756 X
The flow areas of fixed orifices nozzles (eq. (7-27)) are:
The flow rate through the upper nozzle, #3, is now equal to the fixed orifice flow rate #x, plus the flow rate from the actuator #o; thus #3 =#I +#o 0.0062 Asp o = 0.753 A,Z 1 +0.00021 Z 1+ 0.00021
A, =-_d, ,
A 2 =-_d2 , A s = vd_X, A4 = ,'zd4 - t - X) (T position, the
0.0062 0.000397
p o =0.753 0.000427
When the valve is at neutral actuator is at rest, and #c = #o = O;
P= lb/sec;
0.753 0.000427 Z, +0.00021 0.00620.000397
= 130.6 Z 1 +85.4
#1 = #2 = #3 = #4 = 0.000778 T-t X2 ds 8
We use a trial-and-error
method
to find these
values for Po and Z,, which will satisfy the above correlations and figure 7-53. We find that Po=436.5 Z, = 2.687 Checking the results for a pressure ratio of psia
Since Pc = Po = 450 psia under these conditions,the pressure ratioacross the fixedorifices is 450/500=0.9.
From figure
7-53, Z a =Z 2 =2.418 Po 436.5 = 0.875, Ps 500 in 2 a Z_ value of 2.687 is derived from figure7-53; thus -\/5"4410-4=0"0233in Po = 130.6 2.687 + 85.4 = 436.5 psia 0.000778 0.0062x450
fi' 1 0.000778 A, = A 2 = 0.753 Z, = 0.753 x 2.418 - 0.000427
d
dr= 2=_
/o oo0427
4
#3 As =A4 =0.0062p
--
0.000279
in s
With the flapper
deflected
313
A4 = _4
(T- t - X) (0.01065 in 2 the lower flow rate We: nozzle, w4, is w2, minus the - 0.004 - 0.004756)
._ .....
_::_:_::_;_i;!!i;iiiili
iiiiiiiiiii::"_::::::::::::::':'""'"'_i
iii!i!iiii!i!ii:!;i!i!i:ii
_ _r_RN
= . 0.0266 =0.0001583
'- ==========================_
The flow rate through equal to the fixed orifice flow rate to the actuator,
0.0062 A4P c = 0.753 A 2 Z 2 - 0.00021 0.753 0.000427 Z2 - 0.00021 Pc= 0.00620.0001583

(A)
C'_LINC(R PORT SPO(O. TYPE
CYLINaER PORT
' \_ V,_LVE 8CgY
$ERV_
-VALVE
SCF_E_ATIC
=328Z
2 -214
We use again a trial-and-error method to obtain the values for Pc and Z 2 which will satisfy the above correlations and figure 7-53. We have found that Pc --464 psia Z 2 = 2.0808 Thus actuator the pressure piston P=Pcdifferential across the
,I
(8)_E3,GN UNBALANCED
CO*W_ENSaT;ON FC)RCEO
_0_
_XrALLY
Figure 7-56.-$pool-typeservovalve. Although the spool valve theoretically s i force balanced, hydrodynamic and friction forces cause relatively large loads which must be overcome. Refer to figure 7-56(a). Due to the difference in flow velocities, the static pressure at face A will be less than that at face B. Similarly, the pressure is less at face C than at face D. This results in two approximately equalaxial forces, both of which tend to move the valve spool to the right so as to close the valve. These unbalanced axial forces can be compensated by design remedies. One is to increase diameter d2 (as shown in fig. 7-56(b)). It is recommended that the maximum control port flow area rrd,X (where X= spool displacement, in) be just less than twice the annular area between spool diameters d_ and d2. As a result, the flow velocity along the spool is substantially increased and the axial forces on faces B and D are considerably The difference reduced. between minimum flow rate
Po =464-436.5=27.5
psi
Spool-Type
Servovalves
The spool-type servovalve (schematically shown in fig. 7-56) is basically a four-way valve. A cylindrical valve spool is accurately fitted into valve inserts, which in turn are shrunk into the valve body. Both inserts and spool are made of hardened alloy steels. The thickness of the inserts in the axial direction, and thus the location of the ports, is held to very close tolerances by lapping their faces. The outside diameter of the inserts is accurately ground for a tight seal with the valve body. The surfaces of their axial passages are also lapped. The diametral clearance between insert and spool is of the order of 0.0002 inch, at which the spool must still slide freely. The axial location of the spool lands must also be closely controlled. To minimize leak flow in the neutral position, the spool lands may be designed for slight overlap. As a rule, leak flows are less when the spool is displaced, due to better isolation of the drain lines. A typical gpm. leak flow rate in neutral position is 0.5
(leak flow in neutral position) and maximum flow rate (actuator in motion) is substantial. Various means of adjustment may be employed, such as simple relief bypass valves, or the pump output may be adjusted. For instance, in a piston pump operated by a wobble plate, the pitch of the plate may be adjusted as a function of pressure to give strokes varying from maximum to zero.
314
The correlation between pressure drop and flow in a spool valve is not as predictable as one might expect from a sharp-edged orifice. Experimental.data are required to verify a design. Equation (7-24) for gas flow orifices may be used to approximate the flow through a pneumatic spool valve, where orifice area A= _d,X and flow coefficient C = 0.8. For a spool valve using hydraulic oil or RP-1 as the actuating fluid, the following empirical equation applies:
To find the maximum valve output point, this expression is differentiated equal to zero
design and set
_-_=2000- 20 or
- 22.86 ,2 0 =
22.86/r2+20 P- 2000= 0 -20 + X/202 - 4 22.86 (-2000) 2 22.86 -20 + V400 +183 000 = 8.95 in3/sec 45.72 Ap= 108.95+7.62 (8.95) 2 = 89.5+610= 699.5 psi hp
Ap = I_ + (I + ___21/z2 ] p2 where Ap X = valve = valve = spool in pressure drop, psi volumetric flow rate, in3/sec displacement, or valve
(7-28)
opening,
W = (2000-699.5)8.95=11
620 in-lb/sec=l.764
p = density of the liquid, lb/ft 3 a, b, c = empirical constants depending design
on the
Itshould be noted thatstabilized flow conditions rarelyexist,because of mass inertias limitingacceleration and deceleration, and feedback effects.
Sample
Calculation
(7-1 O)
ACTUATED BY REGULATOR CONTROLLER
The following design data are given for a spool-type hydraulic servovalve (shown schematically in fig. 7-56): RP-1 is supplied at pressure Ps=2000 psia Valve pressure drop and flow characteristics may be obtained from equation (7-28), for the following design constants: a =254 b = 1270 c=1.79 10 -7 Maximum spool displacement, X = 0.009 in Determine the flow rate _,, pressure drop Ap, and output W of the valve at maximum displacement.
VALVE
STEM--,_w BLEED PORT /_____,VALVE POPPET OUTPUT
GAS
SUPPLY
___
CONTROL _ TO VALVE
PRESSURE REGULATOR
PRESSURE
_._____% _ED ORIFICE l /-BALANCE
ACTUATOR
PISTON
Io)
ACTU,_TEO BY REGULATOR CONTROLLER
VALVE
ST EM---__
Solution
DYNAMIC SEAL PRESSURE Pc TO
Substitute (7-28)
a, b, c, X, and p into equation

GAS
BLEED
PORTI
REGULATORCONTROL OUTPUT VALVE SUPPLY -.,-..._] '_ h'-_ ,_ ACTUATOR
Ap=[_-_+(12_+ Ap= 10_,+7.62_ From equation "2
1"7910-7''2]]v (0._9-_
] (50.45)
PRESSURE
P=----_"_VALVE
POPPET BALANCE PISTON (b}
(7-17),
the valve
output
W = pdi' =(Ps - Ap)/_:
2000/_ - 10 _2 _ 7.62/_3
Figure 7-57.-Schematics o[ typical single-bleed, poppet-type, pneumatic servovalves used in gas pressure regulators.
315
Single-Bleed, The operates nozzle ically,
Poppet-Type
Servovalves servovalve like the flapperschematof typical servovalves services. The pressure port the flow port bleed first Pc
between called mechanical servovalve.
actual the error
and
desired can or control 7-58
pressure. be directly pressure the
Its output
output, to a
single-bleed, as valve. the a variable Figure principle
poppet-type orifice 7-57 of
signal,
applied schematic
force, Figure gas pressure
presents regulator regulated which pressure
presents,
of a typical Here, uated, the
pressure being
controller. is sensed evacwhile for refpresbellows spring conreguin turn the The vacuum
operation pneumatic regulating are in use. of bleed 7-57(b)), regulated
single-bleed, as Two (fig. area. area the is The application. balance poppet. equal diameter, piston The to the less used basic 7-57(a)) In the fixed. gas selection supply in gas
poppet-type, pressure effects through second Here, flow configurations output variation (fig. Pc is rate.
externally establishes a vented erence sure deflects load, nected (the
by a bellows or vented an bellows ("gage sensing against absolute uses pressure"). pressure) the
is internally reference, pressure the regulated
to atmosphere.
control
regulation
ambient As
changes, internal
by varying depends forces, to the piston poppet is on a valve made seat
calibrated positioning 7-57), output. consists If only small
simultaneously servovalve a control A regulator and (fig. pressure valve or very if the signal the
a directly which
of configuration minimize is usually of the of the unbalance attached balance of the valve
To area
lates valve is the
of the limited
control accuracy are involved, develops force to
an actuator. regulator directly
projected that
area
stem.
required, error
capacities controller as
it suffices
a mechanical Such is
7.12
DESIGN
OF
GAS
PRESSURE
position
regulator pressure in figure
valve. regulator 7-59(a).
a directly represented
REGULATORS Basically, variable-area-type Their pressure region, may vary with namic gas sion while inlet should the effects prime even function though gas pressure is the regulators are valves. constant at their inlet
spring-loaded schematically pressure-reducing to maintain pressure pressure under For for the is designed tank pressure to 245 by a tank continue closed, heating.
METALLIC INTERNALLY BELLOWS
Where lator valve pressure regulator Since pressure sure then a will
greater actuator from the
accuracy a servovalve
is required, connected amplifies the
the
regu-
is positioned
by controlled to the regulated pres-
at their (decrease).
outlet,
or in a downstream Gas regulators either stage dythe propul-
controller. servovalve small large This following pressure regulator, errors, cause output. in the Control pressure sure errors changes control the ways: Pc is used as shown as the loading presin regulated in its pressure regulator control Pc can valve
may be operated pressure or static pressure system main the varies the as (fig. helium from tank
independently, relief regulator 3-9) gas 4500 pressure devices,
or in conjunction
conditions.
example,
pressure position (1)
A-4
be applied
to control
to maintain regulator Additional valve, with to rise because
constant
oxidizer
pressure at the psia. relief
of 165 psia,
for a simple
dome-loaded schematically
protection
is provided
regulator
completely aerodynamic
of such
j_// _
/--
SCREW
ADJUSTMENT
FOR
SPRING _
CALIBRATION SPRING
CALIBRATING
EVA C b___
Elements Most elements: lator valve flow valve.
of Gas pressure the The
Pressure regulators
Regulators include controller controls the two and basic the the regugas Figure
SENSING PRESSURE _'_ "_
regulator former which
regulator
SENSING INPUT
opening, through the unit
in turn
regulates
regulator. essentially measures the is a sensingdifference 7-58.-Schematic regulator of a typical controller. gas pressure which
A regulator computing
controller

316
.
DESIGN OF
--LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET
.i:,
ENGINES
CONTROL PRESSUFE Pc FROM A SINGLE- BLEED TYPE SERVO - VALVE ATTACHED TO THE REGULATOR CONTROLLER.
ou . T
LO O . .soo O
DOME
////---
REFERENCE SPRING LOAD
_,_11_.\\\\_
---T----_OuTLET
Pr
(A ) DIRECT SPRING - LOADED
(B) DOME - LOADED
CONTROL PRESSURE PC FROM A SIGNAL-BLEED TYPE SERVO-VALVE ATTACHED TO THE REGULATOR CONTROLLER ._-\\_ VENT TO _ ATMO. pa-.F-DIA PH RAG M CALIBRATING SPRING DYNAM,C SEAL
F- CONNECTIONS TO A FOUR-WAY _ ATTACHED TO THE REGULATOR ! _ _-i ._>.\_-_/j_--[ I _
SERVO-VALVE CONTROLLER ACT UAT OR PIST ON DYNAMIC SEAL
_'_----_OUTLET
Pr
_----_"__--OUTLET
Pr
,NLET
_-----__ REGULATOR _,C] CONTROL PRESSURE OPERATED
,NLET pi ___.__ VALVE (O) FOUR-WAY SERVO-VALVE
REGULATOR
VALVE
OPERATED
Figure
7-59.-Schematics
oi various
gas pressure
regulator
designs.
in figure 7-59(b). A large-capacity, dome-loaded pressure regulator can also be loaded by a separate, small-capacity precision pressure regulator (precision loader). (2) Control pressure Pc is used as the input to a mechanism that positions the regulator valve as a linear function of control pressure. In its simplest form, this mechanism consistsof a spring and a diaphragm (fig. 7-59(e)). In some designs,a four-way servovalve (as in figs.7-55 and 7-56)operates the double-acting piston-type actuatorof the regulator controller o t controlthe positionof the regulator valve (fig. 7-59(d)).This design is known as an integratingtype pressureregulator. When a single-bleed servovalve is used with the regulator controller, the supply pressure Ps to the control servo circuit must be isolated from the inlet pressure Pi to the main regulator valve, because of the steady-state error that would be
introducedby the oftenextreme variation Pi. of A simple,directlyspring-loaded, ow-capacity l regulator similarto figure7-59(a)is requiredto reduce Pi to a reasonably constant supply pressure Ps for the control servo circuit. This regulator is commonly known as the bleed regulator and can be a part of the main regulator controller.
Design ConsiderationsforGas Pressure Regulators The followingare basic considerationsforthe design of gas pressure regulators. 1. The principal causes of error in a pressure regulator area. Variation in inlet pressure b. Variation in flow demand c. d. e. f. Variation in temperature Mechanical hysteresis and friction Creep of stress members Variation in effective length of members because of angular displacement
317
g. Variation in vehicle acceleration h. Vibration i. The fact that pressures are not sensed control of pres. ci
GAS
INLET 3O00
PRESSURE PSIA
GAS
INLET 12(_3
PRESSURE PS;A
at the point at which
c_t_
............
sure is desired (influence of pressure drops caused The by flow through downwet. o TIME, SEC 2 TIME, SEC
stream systems) basic test of a good regulator design is been held within (inFigure whether these errors have allowable complexity 2. Where
7-60.-Dynamic pneumatic
response pressure
characteristics regulator.
tolerances, without mechanisms and size. feasible, proven concepts
o[ a typical
cluding diaphragms
and springs) of unreasonable relief tanks lant 6. sure valves vapors. Other regulators a. b. Type Gas range c. Regulated with tolerance and d. e. f. lend g. Figure characteristics regulator lator 400 was psia. upon set The of operation as a range gas outlet pressure level its respect to ambient or vacuum, of regulation, design areof regulated inlet-pressure gas and temperature considerations for gas presare provided possible for the intermixing main propellant of propel-
and con-
trol mechanisms
of previous designs should be
to prevent
utilized. This is especially important for dynamic characteristics, stability and transient and for mechanical details such as and springs.
response,
poppets, seals, diaphragms, 3. Balance
of the regulator valve poppet the forces im-
should be provided to minimize may be achieved
parted to the valve by inlet pressure Pi. This by attaching a balance piston, (fig. type of
or accuracy of adjustment maximum response flow time
similar to that of the poppet servovalves 7-57). However, dynamic this will require some are known seal, which
Required Required overshoot Type
capacity and allowable
trouble sources.
In certain applications, therefore, an unbalanced valve may be preferred. 4. In most cases, the regulator must itself to the alternate mode 5. The shown
of line
connections conditions humidity, the etc.) dynamic pneumatic of a demand. outlet (helium) is response pressure The discharged reguof (temperature,
Environmental vibration, 7-60 presents
shutoff valve, until a start pilot valve is opened. various gas pressure regulator designs
of a typical initiation at a regulated gas used of approximately
in figure 7-59 regulate pressure by adon the
mitting additional gas, as required to the regulated pressure region. If the flow demand regulator is reduced to zero (dead-end conditions), the regulator valve shuts off. However, the pressure in the regulated region may above valve closed, due toa. A timelag in closing, following reduction of demand to zero b. Inevitable regulator valve leakage c. Thermodynamic effects, such as inincrease the design point, even with the regulator
pressure
into a system volume.
60-cubic-inch
Sizing of the Gas The
Pressure
Regulator
required flow area across the regulator fully open. i.e.,the characteristic be calcu-
valve when
flow area of a pressure regulator, may
lated for required flow capacity and regulated outlet pressure, at minimum pressure. The following correlation derived from equation (7-24) for gas flow orifices is applicable to gas pressure regulator design: w,]'R-T A* CpiZ (7-29) allowable gas inlet
crease in temperature of the gas in the regulated pressure region, or from vaporization of a liquid. This condition is known poses problems. Lockup as a lockup, and often can be eliminated by of the
incorporating a relief valve downstream
regulator valve as part of the regulator assembly. In the A-4 stage propulsion system, individual
318
where A* :characteristic area of the pressure regulator, in 2 : design weight flow rate of the pressure regulator, lb/sec R =gas constant, ft/R T :gas inlet temperature at minimum inlet pressure condition, R Z :compressibility factor, fto's/sec, a function of pressure ratio pr/Pi and specific heat ratio (fig. 7-53) C : flow coefficient, a function of design configuration. Design values range from 0.6 to 0.7 Pi :minimum Pr =required Sample allowable regulated (7-11) gas inlet pressure, psia outlet pressure, psia
Calculation
The following design data are given for the helium gas pressure regulator of the A-4 stage propulsion system: Design weight flow rate, w: 0.048 lb/sec Minimum allowable gas inlet pressure, pi=245 psia Gas inlet temperature at minimum inlet pressure condition, T= 1030 R Required regulated outlet pressure, Pr: 168 psia Regulator flow coefficient, C =0.65 Determine the characteristic area A* of the pressure regulator. Solution At minimum inlet pressure conditions, pressure ratio across the regulator Pr_ 168 - 0.685 Pi 245 From figure 7-53, the compressibility factor Z is 3.9 for helium. Substitute this and other data into equation (7-29). The characteristic area the
employs a metallic diaphragm for low friction. The dome pressure Pc, which determines the force to the actuator diaphragm, and thus regulates valve position and outlet pressure, can be regulated either internally by a pressure controller, or externally by a low-capacity pressure regulator or loader. There are many variations of dome-loaded regulators. Design approaches may best be illustrated by typical examples. Fig-ure 7-61 presents the schematic of a typical dome-loaded gas pressure regulator which has an alternate mode of operation as a shutoff valve. The prime purpose of the regulator is to maintain a regulated outlet pressure at a preselected value called the set point. The regulator is composed of four elements: the start pilot valve, the bleed regulator, the sensingcontrol unit, and the main regulator valve. The combination of bleed regulator and sensingcontrol unit forms the function of main regulator controller. The start pilot valve is a solenoid-actuated poppet valve which is normally held closed by a spring. In the closed position, it locks up the outlet pressure of the bleed regulator. Thelatter is a normally closed, directly spring-loadedtype, pressure-reducing valve and supplies an approximately constant preset pressure Ps to the sensing-control unit. This pressure is greater than the main regulator outlet pressure Pr. It is the sensing-control unit. then, which establishes the main regulator outlet pressure. It detects small deviations from the set point and magnifies the error signals by means of a single-bleed, flapper-nozzle servovalve linked to a sensor
A* = _'Vr/_'_- 0.048 \/386 x 1030 : 0.0487 CpiZ 0.65 x 245x 3.9
in s
Dome-Loaded
Pressure
Regulators (fig. 7-57(b)) is one of the The main actuator usually
This regulator type most frequently used.
Figure 7-61.-Schematic of a typical dome-loaded, negative-gain-type gas regulator with an alternate mode o[ operation as a shutoff valve.
319
diaphragm trol pressure phragm
by increasing Pc which main closed, the enters entering by the of the flows of the
or decreasing operates the valve.
the actuator This pressure
condiavalve re-
spring tions, lator by the The
preload.
Under
these
steady-state from the at a rate to the outlet has
condibleed regudetermined manifold what is in in conof the a deopening.
regulator
gas continues to flow through the servovalve restrictions and out
is a normally ducing valve. In operation, occurs. located vented pressure Upon Gas at the from dome opening gas reduced through control
dome-loaded following the the regulator inlet main closed latter through port, start
regulator
controller gain.
circuitry A sensed attendant opening.
sequence through but pilot regulator
of events a filter is precontrol valve. its regulator by then into main the which
called pressure trol main crease The
a negative Pr causes pressure regulator
increase decrease decrease
an amplified
regulator
Pc, with valve
Similarly, of valve as
in Pr causes controller
an increase gain can
by energizing the Ps, bleed as and
be defined
solenoid, and the flows the is
to pressure spring This against Pc is a fixed
determined The gas the spring. passes
Ape
preset
reference dome. valve
force.
G= - Ap---_where G =controller gain in control in sensed design shown pressure, pressure, parameters in figure psi psi of the 7-61
(7-30)
restrictor tends the
to open actuator
regulator Dome flow bleeds outlet let area the
pressure of the
controlled
by varying servovalve the main
Ape = change Apt The = change principal
flapper-nozzle gas When the into the
loading
regulator outare in
gas
manifold.
sensed
regulated force
pressure
Pr and
sensor
spring
pressure in table Fig-ure typical regulator. sists fixed-area
regulator 7-6. 7-62 The bleed
are listed
equilibrium, a sufficient maintains This termined
the servovalve flapper distance off the nozzle a steady-state is always main by the control greater regulator
is positioned seat and Pc. de-
presents main
the regulator bleed
design
layout gas
of a pressure conand a
dome-loaded, of a spring-loaded
zero-gain-type
pressure than valve
controller regulator gives
pressure
Pr, as actuator
orifice,
which
a constant
TABLE
7-6.-Principal
Design
Parameters Pressure
of
Typical (Fig.
Dome-Loaded, 7-61) Design data
Negative-Gain-Type
Gas
Regulator
Parameter Regulated gas ................. Inlet gas pressure, Pi ........... Inlet gas temperature, T ........ Regulated outlet pressure, Pr .... Flow demand .................. Modes of operation ............. Helium 4500 psia nominal. 110 to 360 R 400 psig t 25 psi a. Maximum: b. Minimum: 0.1 lb/sec zero
5800 psia maximum, 500 psia minimum
at 500 psia inlet pressure deenergized: regulator
and 160 R inlet remains
temperature Outlet pres-
a. Start pilot valve solenoid sure : 0
shut off. normally
Controller Main Main Start Bleed Bleed Bleed
bleed
...............
regulator valve ............ regulator valve actuator pilot valve ............... regulator valve ........... regulator sensor .......... flow restrictor ...........
b. Start pilot valve solenoid energized: regulator functions a. None when start pilot valve solenoid deenergized b. 0.0002 lb/sec at 530 _ R when solenoid energized Seating diameter, 0.205 in; characteristic area, 0.0281 in 2 ....
Effective area, 7.55 in-_; bias spring preload, 75.5 lb; rate, 500 lb/m Seating diameter, 0.025 in; characteristic area, 0.000437 in 2 Seating diameter, 0.028 in; characteristic area, 0.000301 in 2 Effective Diameter, area, 0.185 in2; reference 0.0116 in; area, 0.000105 spring preload, in 2 93.5 lb; rate, 1500 lb/in
Main regulator Flapper-nozzle
controller sensor.. servovalve ......
Effective area, 0.315 in2: reference spring preload, 126 lb; rate, 702 lb/in Seating diameter, 0.043 in (2 holes); maximum stroke, 0.011 in; maximum flow area, 0.003 in_; bias spring preload, 1.0 lb; rate, 5.0 lb/in
320
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
REGULATOR SENSO_
CONTROLLER ASSEMBLY
SENSOR
OUTEB
BELLOWS
ORb=ICED ___ SENSOR
_ARTITION &AMRER $ERVOVALVE VENT /
\
SENSED FROM TANK PRESSURE OXIDIZER INLET
\ %
&
r--
r SEmvO-ALVE V
SPOOL
TYRE
FOUR-WAY
SENSOR BELLOWS DYNAMIC
INNER
'
REGULATOR ACTUATOR
VALVE
SE_L _ -..._,
OXIDIZER
TANK
OX+D,ZER _r
lANK
'
BALANCE
TYPE
REGLJLATOR Pi
INLET,
Figure regulator Figure type 2-62.-Typical gas pressure dome-loaded, regulator loaded zero-gainby a bleed
7-63.-integrating-type, with spool-type, lout-way
gas
pressure servovalve.
tank pressure is to be sensed
through a rela-
regulator.
tively short external line. Fuel tank pressure is maintained at I0 psi below the oxidizer tank A spoolpressure by different pressure settings of line
bleed from the control dome let. The control dome is known
to the regulator out-
check
valves and tank relief valves.
pressure Pc is maintained
type, four-way servovalve, which
is directly con-
at a constant level by the bleed regulator. This as a zero-gain-type control circuit. Here, too, control pressure Pc is higher than the regulated outlet pressure Pr by an amount preload. The regulator shown is designed deterto
nected to the sensor of the regulator controller, controls the regulator valve actuator. Supply pressure Ps of the servovalve is taken from the regulator outlet pressure Pr; i.e.,Ps = Pr. The sensor contains two bellows with an oil-filled damper in between. The damper consists of a to the propellant
mined by the main regulator valve actuator spring maintain an outlet pressure Pr of 2S2 psig + 5 psi, at inlet pressures ranging from 5000 to 375 psig. The 440C actuator diaphragms are made of a 0.0025inch 17-7 PH high-strength stainless-steel sheet.
partition having a properly sized orifice. The outer bellows, which is exposed vapors, is hydroformed from thin 321 stainless-
stainless steel is used for all sliding memRegu-
steel tubing, because the pressure differential across it is small and because it contains fluid. The inner bellows must withstand a pressure differentialequal to fulltank pressure, since the interior of this bellows is vented directly to atmosphere. machined For this reason, the bellows is stainless-steel stock. from 17-4 PH
bers, such as regulator valve poppets and guides, to eliminate the surface galling problem. lator main body and housing are made of aluminumalloy forgings. Integrating-Type Figure integrating-type to regulate pressurized the A-4 stage the gas 7-63 Pressure presents gas the pressure tank feed system. Regulators design of a typical designed of a such oxidizer as
This regulator is called an integrating type because a constant tank pressure error will produce forces). This, in turn, gives a cona constant actuator piston velocity (neglecting extraneous
regulator, pressures system Main
propellant propellant propulsion
stant regulator valve opening (or closing) velocity and a constantly increasing (or decreasing)
321
gas type
flow
rate.
Tank error regulator
pressure versus provides valve pressures, flow
is time.
then The the area
the
integral
of tank
pressure
integratingconstantly required for error
pressure
increasing decreasing
regulator supply
with
minimum
in tank pressure, but of the servovalve-actuator high. mined namic A suitable by computer characteristics. gain
may be unstable combination value should of the
if the gain is too be deter-
studies
regulator
dy-
7.13
DESIGN PRESSURE Liquid
OF
LIQUID
FLOW
AND Figure 7-64.-Schematic piston-type liquid of flow a typical regulator. sliding-
REGULATORS and flow pressure regulator the regulators pressure-reducing maintains maximum like a conrate a gas fluid condiflow and of that across As back increase is pressure the piston, simultaneously a constant the the orifice fluid also. pressure disk. inlet pressure the the i.e., tlle increases, flow rate attendant pressure the reference flow or the tends increase force restriction. inlet in port. are estabpreson to drop is maintained basic-
flow
ally valves. stant
are rate
variable-area-type, A liquid of flow, A liquid regulator, at its Design outlet or limits pressure maintains under
a flow. pressure pressure tions. pressure regulators.
regulator,
a constant variable flow
pressure
decreases, However,
considerations are similar
for liquid to those
regulators
for gas
differential, moves it against increasing is absorbed across flow the
springs,
Design Liquid venturi. tional fluid control thus circuit, matically Figure type rocket the the ferential
of Liquid flow The to tile and thus
Flow control
Regulators can of the be obtained throat (incompressible) The inlet pressure can valve, is shown difto be used and with is propora
A new sure pressure The lished
equilibrium increase drop following for this
is achieved piston
as the throttle
by an increase
pressure velocity the flow throat
at the
design
correlations
regulator:
rate. and
between the position rate,
Fs =(Api
+Ap2)Ap Ap
(7-31)
of a butterfly by means of this 7-18. the principle type
flow
of a servocontrol sche-
A regulator in figure 7-64
K s = -_
Ap
(7-32)
presents which systems,
of another used in and simplicity.
where Fs Ap_ =regulator a given =pressure disk reference flow drop at that drop piston reference of pressure throttle regulated spring rate, across flow across flow area, spring Ib the rate, the in 2 spring drop ports flow per rate rate, across inch is ib/in the of made a by fixed psi piston psi throtrate, orifice preload, for
flow
regulator of two of variable
is frequently because of its one This a constant and thus consists and around
engine
It consists other
restrictors, area.
of fixed combination pressure
automatically across flow. the The
maintains fixed fixed restrictor, restrictor
drop
AP2
= pressure tle ports = effective =regulator = change piston
a constant of a disk mounted by piston tim Adjustment adjusting graduated the the across in a Ap Ks (Ap/A})
at that
containing piston. variable periphery. fixed the ports orifices regulator and The
a number variable ports throttle The
of orifices restrictor located
is formed
pressure causes the spring
differential piston rate
movement of the reference
of piston,
lb/in_-in force, using
to move Piston are designed
against throttle so
reference reference
springs.
vernier
mechanism.
'
? " 322 DESIGNOF LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES
_RING
MYLAR
GASKI[TS
[N_ DIIP_N I_
A ASSEMSLV
BUNA-N
PACKING
a'NEUMATIC PRESSURE
REFEPENEE INLET_ qSEE
calibrated reference spring. The valve opens as the pressure force acts against the spring force. In the second, the main relief valve actuator is controlled by a pilot valve which is calibrated for the desired relief pressure setting. The direct-operated relief valves are used for largetolerance, low-capacity services. For large flow requirements, pilot-operated relief valves are used for quick response and to avoid excessive size.
4_ DIAPHRAGM A) INSET
.... .,
Figure 7-65.-Typical liquid pressure regulator design [or liquid oxygen service.
Most pressure relief valves are used in gas pressures systems. Important design considerations are(1) Type of gas and its conditions (2) Pressure relief level, its tolerance and range of adjustment (3) Required response time, dead band (differential between actuation or opening, and deactuation or closing pressure), and other dynamic characteristics (4) Required maximum flow capacity (5) Simplicity of construction and line connections (6) Environmental conditions, such as temperature, vibration humidity, acceleration, and
Design
of Liquid
Pressure
Regulators
Figure 7-65 presents a liquid pressure regulator design frequently used in rocket engine systems. The actuator diaphragm of the regulator valve (plunger) can be loaded either by a pneumatic reference pressure (as shown), or by a reference spring. Regulated outlet pressure is sensed directly. An increase in outlet pressure tends to reduce the flow area of the regulator valve until an equilibrium is reached between outlet pressure and reference pressure. The actuator diaphragm is made of Mylar laminations which are compatible with cryogenic propellants such as liquid oxygen.
The required flow area for a gas pressure relief valve at its maximum opening position, i.e., its characteristic flow area, can be calculated from equation (7-24) for gas flow orifices.
Direct-OperatedGas Pressure Relief Valves Figure 7-66(a)shows the design of a typical low-capacity, direct-operated as pressurerelief g valve. The valve poppet is loaded directly a by coilspring. This is one of the simplestdesigns. Itmay, however, become dynamically unstable under externally introducedvibration. Figure 7-66(b)is the schematic of an improved design of a direct-operatedelief r valve. Itassures a predictable dead band and eliminates chatterunder vibration.This design employs coned-disk-type(Belleville) springs,operating between positivestops,in the negative rateportionof the force-deflection curve of the spring. As shown in figures7-66(b) and 7-67, the springremains againstpretravel stop C, untilthe appliedforce (valveinletpressure Pi valve poppet seat area nd2/4) reaches a level A. The springthen snaps from C to the
7.14 DESIGN VALVES
OF
PRESSURE
RELIEF
The prime functionof pressurerelief valves is to protectfluidsystems and pressurevessels from being overpressurized.There are two basic types of pressure relief valves; the directoperated and the pilotoperated. In the first, the valve poppet is loaded directly a properly by
323
CAP
SETTI SPRING NG __ _L-------_-_23_ _ /--8ODY OSEAL RING
APPLIED (VALVE VALVE
FORCE, INLET POPPET
LB. PRESSURE SEAT X
AREA)
SPRING
(o)
__
LOCK
NUT
pOPPET_
RELIEF
A -ACT'UATION FO_
B 'DE-ACTUATION/-" -I-_ I----at_
SOFT
o- ,NOo,
DISC INLET POST-TRAVEL C D
(b)
_ _ __
ADJUSTMENT PRE-TRAVEL ADJUSTMENT
SPRING
DEFLECTIC,
N,
IN.
Figure
IN SERIES OR
";
I
r/Z_.--_',.,%-_./r_
_',._ _('_/JL_'%('T/_"_ ]/'/J /
_
."
STACK OFCONEO-O_SC
SPRINGS
7-G7.-Coned-disk-spring, Curve.
force-deflection
c t
JRELIEF_ . d
PRE,SU E
_'_ CC_N RO(_ ORIFICE T do, % P[STONflNG SE_-L"_ \
VALVE SEAT ---/
Zl
m
Figure 7-66.-Low-capacity, direct-operated gas pressure relief valves. (a) Coil-spring-loaded, direct-operated relief valve; (b) Snap-action, coned-disk, relief valve. spring-loaded, direct-operated
PILOT VALVE CONTROLLEF
posttravel stop D, with no further increase in applied force. Reduction of the applied force to B will cause the spring to snap back from D to C. The positions of the pre- and posttravel stops can be adjusted for constant actuation and deactuation forces, independent of spring manufacturing tolerances. The coned-disk spring washers are usually made of beryllium copper or 17-7 PH stainless steel. This type of relief valve is suitable for high-pressure helium storage bottle services, such as in the A-4 stage propulsion system.
VENT e_
Ldp,_'!=
Figure 7-68.-Schematic ity, pilot-operated valve.
o[ a typical high-capactank gas pressure relief
Pilot-Operated
Gas Pressure
Relief
Valves
Figure 7-68 presents the schematic of a typical high-capacity, pilot-operated tank gus pressure relief valve. Normally, both main and pilot valves, are held closed by valve spring forces Fsm, Fs3, and pressure Pc. The pilot valve
controller also senses the tank pressure p:. When the latter reaches or exceeds the preset level, the pilot valve is actuated to crack. This vents the main relief valve actuator control pressure Pc and, in turn, permits opening of the main valve. Main valve poppet position is a function of the control pressure, which in turn is controlled by the position of the pilot valve poppet
324
and by the tank pressure. This correlation best be illustrated by the following sample culation.
can cal-
Force balance equations of the main relief valve poppet at various conditions: (1) Basic equation: Fsm+pcA2Pt(As-A1)at cracking: Ptc (A2 - A1)paA3 = 0 paA3 = Fseat
Sample
Calculation
(7-12) (2) Condition
The following design data are given for the A-4 stage propulsion system main oxidizer tank relief valve (schematically shown in fig. 7-68): Tank pressurant temperature, T--700 R (helium gas) Relief pressure set point, Pt= 165 psia Required maximum flow capacity, w = 3 lb/sec Main valve flow coefficient, C = 0.75 Estimated leakage past the main valve actuator piston seal, _i's = 0.003 lb/sec Control orifice diameter, d o =0.080 in Flow coefficient for control orifice and pilot valve, Co=0.6 d, A = Diameters and areas of various elements, in; in s Pc = Control pressure, psia Pa = Ambient pressure (14.7 psia maximum) Determine: (a) Dimensions of the main relief valve and force balance equations for various conditions (_b) Dimensions actuator, of pilot valve poppet and and force balance equations
Fsm+ PccA2-
(3) Condition tion:
at any intermediate
valve
posi-
Fs m + K s mXm + Pc A 2 - Pt (A 2 - A 1) - Pa A 3 = 0 (4) Fully open condition: PcoA2 - Pro(As -A,)- PaAa =0 at start to reseat: Ptr (A2A1)paA3 =0
Fsm + KsmXmo+ (5) Condition
Fsm+KsmXmo+PcrA2(6) Fully reseated:
Fsm + PcrA2 - Ptr(A2-A1)-PaA3 where Fseat Fsm, Ksm
=0
Solution (a__)Main relief valve.-The valve is sized for an isentropic compressible flow through an orifice. From equation (7-24), the main relief valve port area A3Since Pa/Pt= 14.7/165 7-53) CptZ = 0.089, Z = 4.11 (from
= main valve seating force, lb : preload and rate of main valve spring, lb; lb/in = main valve poppet travel inXm, Xmo termediate and fully open position Pcc, Pco, and Pcr:Control pressures at cracking, full open, and reseat of the main valve, psia Ptc, Pto, and P_r =tank pressures at cracking, full open and reseat of the main valve, psia
fig.
3 V;386 x 700 A3 =0.75 165 4.11=3'07 d 3 : 1.98 in'_2 in
in 2
(b_.) Pilot valve.-The pilot valve flow ity must be larger than the combined flow control orifice and leakage past the main actuator piston seal for adequate venting From equation (7-24), the flow rate of the orifice valve to CozrdoSPt z _i,o = 4 _/-R-T lb/sec 0.6x 0.00503x
capacrate of valve of Pc. control
Required minimum travel the fully opened position A3 3.07 Xmo =-----= -rzd3=---_=
of the main
1654.11
V386 x 70-----'-O
0.487
in_0.5
in
= 0.00394
325
The total flow into the control cavity, = 0.00394 + 0.003 = 0.00694 Ib/sec. Setting the flow capacity of the pilot percent higher, its flow capacity results _i,p= I. 5 0.00694 It is desirable that this = 0.0104
_i,0 + Ws valve as 50
7.15 DESIGN Check Valves
OF
MISCELLANEOUS
VALVES
Ib/sec
flow be maintained
freely at all points, independent of back pressures. This is achieved by maintaining sonic velocity, i.e., critical or supercritical pressure ratios, at the restrictions. Thus, tile maximmn allowable control pressure
The prime function of check valves is to allow fluid flow in only one direction. Tilere are two basic check valve types: the poppet alid the swing-gate type. The selection depends to a great extent on application. General design considerations for check valves areType of fluid and its pressure and temperature (2) Required flow capacity (3) Allowable pressure drop (4) Allowable rate of leakback (including zero leakage) (5) Space envelope and line connection (6) Simplicity of construction Figure 7-69 presents the design of a typical poppet-type check valve. A light, compression return spring normally holds the poppet in the closing position. This prevents any possibility of fluid leaking back. When fluid pressure is introduced upstream, the poppet will open against the return spring. Because of tlleir relatively high-pressure drop, check valves of this type are used only in low-capacity services. Either elastomer O-rings or metal to metal seals are used. Figure 7-70 presents a swing-gate-type check valve. The valve consists of two elements: the inlet and the outlet body. The swing gate is secured to the inlet body. A torsional-type return spring holds the gate in the closing position. Swing-gate check valves minimize pressure drop. However, positive sealing against backflow is more difficult. In some applications, (l)
_/
1.67
ky----r (. 2 = t oT/
= 80.6 psia
Based on this pressure, and using equation (7-24), the required minimum pilot valve port area results as A wp RV_--T 0.0104 _, /'3_ 700 3 P= C--_cZ = ff-.6_8O.-.-.6x4.11 = 0.0272 in_0.2 in of the pilot valve to the fully
in 2
dp=0.186
Required travel open position
Xp o
Ap - _dp-
0.0272 _x 0.2 =0.0433
in
Force balance equations poppet and actuator: (1) Poppet:
of the pilot
valve
S_
CLOSURE
PLUG
(Pc - Pa) Ap + Fs3 = Fp

__ _ UPSTREAM
(2) Actuator:
_PET
(Pt- pa)Abwhere Fp Fa Fb
Fb-
Fsl - Fs 2 = Fa
FLOW SLEEVE
--
RETURN SPR_NG
O-RiNGS
= pilot valve force, lb
poppet
seating lb
OPEN CLOSED
=pilot valve actuating force, = sensor bellows force, lb
Fsl, Fs2, Fs3 =forces of the various springs When F a > Fp, pilot valve starts to open.
Figure
7-69.-Typical
poppet-type
check
valve.
" ii.... .
326
WING-GATE
UPSTREAM BURST FLUID P_RESSURE
HINGE DOWNSTREAM _ UPSTREAM V-GROOVE A NORSESHOE COINED IN
PATTERN
OUTLET
BOD_I
__
R_
_ R_T
S_
Figure
7-70.-Typical
swing-gate-type valve.
check
(A}
FLAT
DISC
BURST
DIAPHRAGM
orifice holes are drilled in poppets or swing gates to allow a controlled backflow for specific control purpose.
O_'EN
CLOSE
I:- ELASTOI/R
I _
_,L_E =,L
Burst Diaphragms When positive, hermetic sealing is essential, in fluid-flow systems burst diaphragms are used. They are especially useful in storable liquid propellant engine system applications; they also serve as safety valves to prevent excessive pressures, or to initiate flow at a predetermined pressure. Burst diaphragms can be ruptured either by the upstream fluid pressure or mechanical means. General design considerations for burst diaphragms are(l) Type of fluid and its corrosive istics character-
pROPELLANT
MACHINED
GROOVE
_VALVE (S) BURST
BODY _IAPHRAGM VALVE ATTACHED POPPET TO
_'-_l,
BURS
D_APHR_GM
PROPELLANT
Figure
7-71.-Typical
burst
diaphragm
designs.
(2) Duration of storage (especially with corrosive storable liquid propellants) (3) Method of diaphragm installation in duct or valve body (4) Method of rupture (upstream fluid pressure or other means) (5) Burst pressure level (if upstream fluid pressure is used) and its tolerance; environmental temperature effects (6) Retention of the diaphragm after rupture (no metal particles must be ejected) (7) Allowable pressure drop across the burst diaphragm Figure 7-71(a) presents a typical flat-disk type burst diaphragm. A V-groove has been coined into it in a horseshoe pattern. The depth of the groove will determine the burst pressure. The uncoined section serves as a hinge during rupture and as a retainer. The diaphragm can be
jointed to the duct by welding, brazing, or bolting. This design has been satisfactory for many applications. Figure 7-71(b) presents a poppet-type, storable propellant valve with built-in burst diaphragm. The latter assures a positive, hermetic seal of zero leakage during long storage periods; it also protects the elastomer seal of the valve seat. Rupture of the diaphragm occurs during valve opening, either from valve actuation or from upstream propellant pressure. When closing, satisfactory valve sealing is provided by the elastomer seal only. Burst diaphragms are made from a wide variety of metals. Annealed aluminum alloys such as 1100-0 and 6061-0 are among the most easily controlled. Burst diaphragms rupture in a combination of shearing, bending, and tearing. The exact burst pressure of a specific diaphragm design can only be evaluated experimentally. Variations of material ultimate strength have a pronounced effect. Consistency of the desired diaphragm burst pressure level will be greatly
327
enhanced by the following precautions in manufacturing and quality control: (1) Grinding of raw sheet or diaphragm to insure uniform and accurate thickness (2) Close control of groove depth, by precision coining or machining, and by stress relieving before and after coining (3) Continuous testing of the diaphragm material for hardness (4) Close control of the clamping pressure with bolted diaphragms (5) Close control of the welding or brazing processes to minimize heat effects (6) Proper dimensioning of diaphragm thickness and groove depth to allow for corrosive effects of the propellant during storage It is possible to hold burst pressure variations of a specific diaphragm design to within _+2percent for diaphragms of over 1 inch diameter and design burst pressures greater than 300 psi. For diaphragms of smaller size and lower burst pressure, this tolerance may increase up to 5 percent.
--'A
_ EXPLOSIVE --=B RAM
CHARGE
"C _ METAL
I"O _4ETAL SE_L
b,,d_t
,-'_" _,,o _L_,O _ _
Oo_", _
INLET
{o) BEFORE FIRli'qG
(b) AFTER FIRING
Figure
7-72.-Typical
explosive-actuated valve.
pilot
Explosive-Actuated
Valves
In certain applications, a valve may only be required to operate once (to either open or close). In these cases, explosive-actuated valves provide the smallest possible size and weight. Since the power of the explosive actuation is virtually unlimited, a rigid, hermetic zeroleakage-type seal can be used with this type of valve. Figure 7-72 presents a typical explosiveactuated pilot valve developed and produced by the Conax Corp. The actuator of this normally closed valve consists of an explosive charge "A," and a ram "B" including a shearing head
"D." The seal of the valve is provided by a solid metal diaphragm "E," machined as an integral part of the valve body. Upon an electrical signal the explosive charge detonates and drives the ram forward to cut out the seal diaphragm as a single piece of metal and hold it firmly against the end plug "F." Ram "B" has a tapered head, which rams into the guide-hole edge and causes a perfect metal-to-metal seal at point "C." This prevents contamination of the working fluid with gases from the explosive charge. The input current required for this valve is about 0.5 ampere; actuation of the valve takes about 0.002 second. Explosive cartridges may also be used to actuate valves of larger size, such as the main propellant valves. In the form of threaded plugs, they can be attached to the valve actuator ports in lieu of pneumatic lines. For maximum reliability, two separate cartridges are often installed. The pressures produced by the cartridges range from approximately 2000 to 10 000 psi. Tile valve designer will have to determine the required pressure and volume of the gases at the end of the actuator stroke, which then serve as the specification to tile cartridge supplier.
Chapter Design of Propellant
VIII Tanks
Liquid propellant rocket engines and the tanks feeding them, together with certain auxiliary systems such as pressurization, form the propulsion system. For reasons set forth in section 1.5, a discussion of tank design is included here. The need for close coordination betweeri engit_e and tank designer is reemphasized, particularly if they are members of different contractors.
8.1 BASIC DESIGN PROPELLANT
CONFIGURATIONS TANKS
OF
The configuration propelhmt tanks deof pends largely on vehiclemission and size. In most modern designs, the tanks form an integral part of the vehicle structure. Propellant tanks can be categorized, according to vehicle application, as follows: (1) Prepackaged storable liquid systems (2) Booster stage systems (3) Upper stage systems
dynamic loads. In some designs the tanks are further stabilized by the internal pressure against buckling; i.e., the wails are always kept under tension loads by a specified pressure level mainrained during storage and handling. In smaller units, the wails are usually capable of taking external loads without being pressurized in_ernally. Operational tank pressures for these range from 4OO to 2000 psia. Prepackaged storable liquid systems are usually employed to relatively short-duration, lowthrust applications. Since the tanks form an integral part of the propulsion system, they are designed and furnished by the engine builder. In one design, the thrust chamber is located inside the aft tank and welded directly to the tank bulkhead. Propellant Tanks fur Booster Stage Systems
Propellant Tanks Liquid Systems
for Prepackaged
Storable
Figure 8-1 presents the configuration of a typical prepackaged storable liquid propulsion system. The tanks are arranged in tandem, with a common bulkhead between. This system is designed for long storage periods, perhaps 5 to 10 years. A main characteristic of these systems is that the propellants are factory loaded and are hermetically sealed in the tanks by burst diaphragms. Both tank and diaphragm construction materials must be compatible with the propellants for the storage duration. In the example, the propellants are expelled by pressurized gases produced by a solid propellant gas generator. The tank walls form an integral part of the vehicle structure and are designed to withstand the internal pressure loads as well as the vehicle
Figure 8-2 presents the propellant tank design configuration of a typical propulsion system as used in the booster stages of a large launch vehicle such as the Saturn V. The system shown can be used for either storable or cryogenic propellants. The tanks are arranged in tandem; their wails form an integral part of the vehicle structure. For booster application, overall vehicle systems optimization usually dictates use of a turbopump-fed engine system. This permits relatively low operational tank pressures, ranging from 30 to 100 psia. Since the tanks represent a large percentage of the vehicle structural (inert) weight, advantage is taken of the low-pressure levels by constructing the tanks with extremely thin-wall thicknesses. However, the often huge tank structures thus become sensitive to external buckling loads. To stabilize the tank structures of large booster stage systems, two basic design avenues are open: pressure-stabilization and self-supporting structures. In the pressurestabilized systems, such as the Atlas ICBM, the 329
330
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
STRUCTURAL
CONNECTION
TO
PAYLOAD
(INTERFACE GRAIN
OR
FWD
SKIRT)
DIAPHRAGM fUEL COOLING BURST REMOVABLE IGNITER BURST MAIN DIAPHRAGM TYPE OXIDIZER VALVE DIAPHRAGM TYPE MAIN FUEL VALVE TANK
THRUST ASSEMBLLES
CHAMBER
PRESSURE RELIEF REGULATOR
TYPE
VENT
SOLID
PROPELLANT
GAS
GENERATOR
Figure
8-1.-Propellant
tank
design
configuration system.
of
a typical
prepackaged
storable
liquid
propulsion
_-6.0
TYP-_
--_
_---I.25
TYP
,.',--TYPICAL
SKIN-STRINGER
SECTION
,,
,,
i!
___
__
'_/'_
iT
_'_
IZ_TNTER-STAGE
_MAIN
TANK
WALL
LN"'
_ /FUEL
IOXIDI_Z_T_--THRUST
S STEM
D_;TwR T URET } UC
FUEL L__
ER __2111E22D
I_IC_2_ON
D UCT
DUCT
SKIRT
MOUNTS
! M'PEFE
(INS. OPTIONAL Figure 8-2.-Propellant tank
FOR
CRYOGENIC configuration
PROPELLANTS) of a typical booster stage propulsion system.
design
DESIGN OF PROPELLANT
TANKS
331
tank above trols. wall
pressures a specified This tank
must
be constantly basically special
maintained conis a thinthe the as
are load.
contained which The
within thrust and shell boost
an outer is
cylindrical to the The to withstand loads.
shell, payall propelunits. and the The two
minimum structure requiring are
by elaborate
through anticipated lant The main welded spheres,
transmitted flight
is designed
monocoque, tanks being patterns.
handling systems, types, stringers such
procedures. propellant tank (fig. waffle walls 8-2), grid
In most
booster-stage self-supporting by skin structural
tankage consists of two individual main fuel tank is located forward, oxidizer tank near the tanks conical discharge. structure chamber aft end. are
reinforced
or by other
means,
aluminum-alloy faired into
modified at the tanks their is are support bot-
sections The around assembly
When insulation tory air
cryogenic may
propellants be required.
are
used,
tank is mandaambient transfer and safety
tom, bolted ring.
for propellant to the The shell
Insulation to prevent high heat rates,
in liquid liquefaction
hydrogen which
system causes high boiloff
thrust
located oxidizer shell }5oth for cryoa pressurpressystem gas for
rates with hazards.
attendant
just below, and closely coupled to, tile tank. Thrust is transmitted to the outer through tanks genic the aft half of the oxidizer tank.
Propellant Figure sign upper stage
Tanks
for Upper the
Stage propellant
Systems tank the detanks
may be insulated propellant service. upper-stage feed propulsion from 8-3 uses
independently, employ psia. The helium
Many ized sures shown gas
vehicles system. stored 100 to 400
8-3 presents propulsion
Tank
configuration
of a typical system.
pressure-fed, Here,
range
in figure
HIGH
PRESSURE 8OTTLES MAiN
HELL{UM MAiN FUEL DUCT OXIDIZER VALVE
STORAGE
MAIN
FUEL
VALVE
TO PYLOAO
FUEL
TANK
SUPPORT LN2VEN OXID*ZER VENT TANK T
SECTION
A-A
Figure
8-3.-Propellant
tank
design
coMiguration
o[ a typical
upper
stage
propulsion
system.
332
pressurization. The
ROCKET ENGINES
gas is stored at an initial
vessel since It also internal lightest
for a given it has has the the
volume smallest
is
a spherical
shell, ratio.
pressure level from 4500 to 5500 psia at -300 F in two liquid-nitrogen-jacketed, high-pressure spherical bottles located between propellant tanks. It is for upper stage propulsion systems that the engine designer may most likely also design the tankage. The following discussions, therefore, will confine themselves to these systems. the two main
surface shell the
to volume
smallest While vessel, into the for most volume preclude and vehicle will For 8-2),
stress
for a given may be the of would a wall struc-
pressure. pressure spheres typical a sizable would
a sphere
combination cylindrical vehicles
several envelope cause sphere as ture weight Thus pressure pellant envelopes, For
generally rocket penalty. the use of the resulting
Furthermore, of the tank vehicle in further and shape tank of prolarge space are tanks 8-3). either used. may The spheri-
By contrast, the design of booster tanks will probably always be made group. However, many by an independent of the design principles of
a load-carrying (figs. and 8-1 both level tanks. volume
member penaIties.
presented here are equally applicable to booster tanks and may thus further the understanding their design problems.
configuration determine vehicles ratios and shaped pressures spherical (fig. have basic can The the
of relatively of limited tanks
length-to-diameter 8.2 GENERAL FOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS TANKS relatively space high
cylindrically tank conditions,
PROPELLANT
and less
stringent The tank design is greatly influenced by systems design. optimization within the overall vehicle A principal design objective is for the be empIoyed ends cal tank
to best
advantage tanks
of cylindrical or ellipsoidal with spherical ends. interstage In some are faired assemblies into
shapes. ends However, ended tank
cylindrical one weight when is conaft tank with of
vehicle to yield the highest payload and/or velocity increment with maximum bility. Design details depend of propellants, vehicle mission configuration, propulsion system techniques. Some possible relialargely upon type requirement and design, and
is lighter the may the
than be less
ellipsoidal an ellipsoidally the ends shapes engine shorter sidered.
overall required
structure designs conical the well as
propellant
available construction materials and fabrication of the most important considerations follow.
or other thrust as
special loads from trapped
to accommodate
to minimize
propellants. Propellant Properties tank Propellants affect tank design mainly by their physical and chemical characteristics. The boilVt:V+ where Vt = propellant tank design volume, ft3 V = usable propellant volume include senting shift T =trapped tion includes ducts, etc., Shape and Size of Propellant Tanks Propellant tanks are pressure vessels. DisB =boiled-off only U =tank ft 3 propellant to cryogenic ullage volume, volume propellants), ft 3 (applicable ft 3 a "usable design effects, propellant of system propellants thrust chamber calculated from term mixture repreratio propulsion system requirements, ft$ (may residual" reserves, etc.) volume. design trapped cooling This is a funcand T+B+U (8-1) ing point or storage temperature of a propellant determines the operating temperature range of the tank assembly. tank design problems Cryogenic propellants cause other The is required the sum volume size or volume of a propellant volume and
of usable
propellant
requirements:
from thermal gradients,
from the need for insulation and from the need for construction materials capable of remaining ductile density drogen, The other tank at very of some requires propellants materials. low temperatures. such The as very liquid low hy-
propellants, tanks
of considerable and reactive limit the
volume. of of selection configuration in tank, jacket,
highly
corrosive
properties
severely
regarding other factors, the lightest pressure
TANKS
333
The
calculation of propellant volume
is based
The
required
usable
fuel
volume
on the propellant density at specific temperatures. A standard temperature of 68 F is used for storable propellants. Boiling point condiVi= tions at ambient pressure are used for the cryogenic propellants. culations changes The tank ullage-volume calThe fuel tank ullage volume should allow for propellant volume of the tanked presFrom ume equation (8-i), the required design volof the fuel tank Ut= (Vi + Ti) 0.02,5= 140 0.025 = 3.5 ft3 10.65 2 x 410_ 63.17 13S.2 ft3
due to temperature change
propellant, and for tank deformation when surized. packaged excessive is exposed
This is especially important for prestorable liquid systems to prevent the system
tank ullage pressures when Adequate
to a specified upper temperature limit ullage volume is also
Vii = VI+ TI+ U[= 13S.2 + 1.8 +3.5=
143.5 ft3
during storage. when
required to maintain tank pressure at starting the relative ullage volume tax the response increase is large Propellant Tank Arrangement the propellant tanks are Figure 8-4 and may system. of the pressurization
In most vehicle systems, are arranged in tandem.
Other arrangements
used for specific design reasons. Sample The propulsion Oxidizer Oxidizer engine
(ol TANDEM PROPELLANT TANKS WtTH COMMON
Calculation following system, (N204) weight
(8-i) data are given two 90.12 12.78 for the engines: Ib/ft 3 ,,L -_DRYC.G./( Ib/sec/ )_ A-4 stage
including density, flow rates,
BULKHEAD
Fuel Fuel
(N2H4) weight
density, flow rate, firing
63.17 10.65 duration
Ib/ft
s at full ft 3 thrust,
AND SEPA.R-STE HEUUM TANKAGE WEIGHT, IOO
BOTTLES PERCENT
Ib/sec/engine
Nominal engine 410 sec Trapped Trapped oxidizer fuel
volume, Tt=
T o = 0.9 1.8 ft 3
volume, volume, volume
....
, _
DRY
CG.
/II I_
Tank ullage volume Determine the
U = 2.5% of the
of propellant
[b)
I TANDEM HELIUM TANKAGE PROPELLANT TANKS WITH BOTTLE IN THE MIDDLE WEIGHT, 93 PERCENT INTEGRATED
propellant
tanks.
Solution The required usable oxidizer volume
oo o4aO_,5
f 0,o86 o iso J
.Tp, CG\ Y
Vo = 12.78x 2 410_ 90.12 116.2 ft3
(c) CONCENTRIC PROPELLANT TANKS HELIUM BOTTLE AT AFT ENDTANKAGE WEIGHT, He PERCENT WITH INTEGRATED
The oxidizer tank ullage volume i-o Uo=(Vo + To) x 0.025= 117.I 0.025=2.9 ft3
I _'--0.130
3TB
o,o2s--_
DRY CG.-_O.tBB-, E- O, OBO i _ TANKS WEIGHT, 0.020-_ _
F_
_/_'_ J
.E ....
....
to. I-.,,;
._ AND HELIUM 16; _ P_RCENT
FUEL OXI'OIZ E R
"_'-'_ I"_ BOTTLE
From equation (8-i), the required design volume of the oxidizer tank
(d)
MULTIPLE PROPELLANT IN CLUSTERTANKAGE
Figure Vto=Vo+To+Uo=l16.2+0.9+2.9=120 ft3
8-4.-Various merits of a typical
propellant vehicle
tank syste_n.
arrange-
334
presents various propellant tank configurations for a typical vehicle system using helium for tank pressurization. A design analysis will determine the best solution for a given propellant storagevolume and vehiclespace envelope. General considerationsare: (I) Minimum overallweight (2) Maximum storagevolume in a given envelope (3) Least possibility propellantmixing of (4) Clean aerodynamic vehicleshape (5) Ease of installationf ducts and lines o (6) Ease of insulation (7) Ease of fabrication and handling (S) Minimum trapped(unusable)propellants Arrangement (a)is taken as standard. Arrangement (b),combining tandem propellant tanks with an integrated helium bottlein between, resultsin lowest weight; however, it poses design problems in the routing pneuof matic lines and controls.Arrangement (c)with concentrictanks eases the installation proof pellantducts,but has the possibility simulof taneous punctureof both tanks (by bulletsor from other causes),and subsequent mixing of the propellants.Arrangement (d)with multipletanks has the highest weight, but is easier to fabricate and handle especially for very large vehicles. Working Loads The propellant tanks are structural members which must be designed to withstand a combination of the following probable working loads: (1) Internal pressure loads and their dynamic effects (2) Axial thrust effects loads and their dynamic
Safety
Factors
for Propellant
Tank
Designs
The recommended criteria for working loads presented in chapter II (eqs. 2-8 through 2-11) are generally applicable to propellant tank designs. However, when calculating allowable working stresses from tank internal pressure, the following correlations are recommended for various situations: (1) No hazard to personnel Sw = Fy or
Eli
or vital
equipment: (8-2)
Sw - 1.25
(8-3)
(2) Special safety devices are provided for personnel (example: the booster for a manned upper stage which has an ejection device with an exceptionally high degree of reliability): Fy Sw =]-_or F. Sw = _ .35 (3) ttazard to personnel or vital equipment: (S-5)
(8-4)
f-'y Sw = 1.33 or
Vtt
(8-6)
Sw = 1.65 where
(8-7)
(3) Bending moments due to vehicle transverse accelerations, wind loads, and shifting of the center of gravity Aerodynamic forces Thrust vector control forces Vibration loads Loads produced by mounting arrangement Loads caused by thermal transients and gradients (9) Loads produced during ground handling In most vehicle systems, internal tank pressure loads and axial thrust loads are the principal ones. Other loads require careful evaluation, including model tests or full-size experiments. (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Sw =maximum allowable working stress, psi; i.e., the stress due to maximum tank working pressure under normal transient and steady operating conditions Fy = yield strength, tion material, conditions psi, of the tank construcat operating temperature
F u = ultimate strength, psi, of the tank construction material under operating temperature conditions Sw is calculated for both Fy and F,. The lower value should then be used. All propellant tanks are subjected to hydrostatic pressure tests prior to acceptance. For case (1), the proof test pressure equals maximum tank working pressure.
TANKS
335
For
case
(2) and For
(3),
the
proof
test
pressures tank workgas, long-
or Sw=IF._5 45000 = 1.-']-_--5-o: 33 360 psi
should be II0 percent of the maximum ing pressure. duration tions are storage high-pressure the inert following
bottles, to personnel:
correla-
The maximum
allowable working
sttess for
recommended:
mainstage = 31 S00 psi. (b._) Tank During Fy Sw - 1.33 (8-8) Sw= Fy _ 50 000_ 1.33 1.33 37 600 psi start made transient of aluminum alloy 6066-T6.-
No hazard
Hazard
to personnel:
or Fu _57000 1.65 34 560 psi
Sw - 1.67
Fy
(S-9)
Sw-1.33
The maximum Sample The liquid missile level from Calculation start transient system not is (8-2) of a prepackaged for an to reach storable start transient During propulsion aircrafblaunched main-stage distance working if they are The alloy psi 6066-T6, Fy = 50 000 psi, psi alloy 6061-T6, Fy = 35 000 psi, Fu = 45 000 (b) Aluminum Fu = 57 000 maximum or
allowable = 34 560
working psi.
stress
during
mainstage
operation
is programed until the missile the aircraft. the for the ofAluminum
45 400 s., _FY = 50000 -i i.---/-:
psi
at a specific allowable tanks,
Calculate stresses made (a)
maximum propellant
Fu Sw=-f_
57 000 - 1.35 - 42200
psi
allowable psi.
working
stress
during
mainstage Material Propellant
= 42 200 and
Fabrication Design
Considerations
in
Tank
Solution (a) Tank made of aluminum alloy 6061-T6.-
In addition compatibility selection tanks at a given is based
to considerations and on operational their
of propellant temperature ranges, ratio
of construction temperature and
materials on their
for propellant ductility.
Since the system involves personnel safety during start transient, equations applied. Fy Sw-1.33 or Fu Sw=1.6545 000 1.65 =27260 psi 35 000 1.33 =26300 (8-6) and (8-7) will be
strength-to-density
For a given working pressure, structure will be the one made psi with terials (1) the highest Most Aluminum 6066-T6, ature stress ratio frequently tanks alloys, and of ultimate used are: such 2014-T6.
the lightest tank of the material strength construction as 6061-T6, Room temperp Fu (for and 3, properlb/in up to ma-
density.
for propellant
properties: lb/in 3. Fy up psi, steels, Mo.
Average to 60000 Fu/p=70 such tanks Room density as only),
density psi, 347 PH 104 AISI 17-7
Thus, during
the start
maximum transient mainstage safe and
allowable = 26 300 operation, equations
working psi. personnel (8-4)
=0.1 (2) Stainless
to 70000 are (8-5)can and low-pressure PH ties: 15-7
During considered be used:
temperature p =0.285
Average
Fy _ 35 000 = 31 S00 psi Sw=l.l I.i
Fyupto200000psi. psi. Fu/p=77.2lO 4
Fu up to 220000
336
ROCKET ENGINES
(3) Fiber glass, filament wound aluminum-alloy liner. Room
with an temperature GORE SEGMENTS_
properties (fiber glass only): Average density p= 0.0S Ib/in 3, Fu = 120000 Fu/p Aluminum = 150 x 104 alloys are compatible with most be psi. CIRCUMFERENTIAL
storable and cryogenic propellants, and may used for working temperatures up to 350 F.
Stainless steels are suitable for storable (limited duration) and cryogenic propellants, and are suitable for higher temperatures mum). (800 F maxitemLONGITUDINAL ...... .............
4...
WELDS_..: .......................
Fiber glass is limited to moderate
perature conditions (-60 to 160 F). Fabrication methods depend Most for propellant tanks largely upon the type of material used. for tank fabricacontrol, heat treating, and wall-stock alloys.
important considerations
tion are dimension welding. The
lowest recommended
size for propellant tanks is about 0.010 inch for stainless steels and 0.020 for aluminum While tank stress calculations must lower limit of wall-thickness consider the Figure 8-5.-Typical welded construcLion. propellant tank
variation, the upper The
limit is used for tank-weight calculation.
strength of a metal may fall into a band, too, the width process. minimum welding joint thickness stresses. 95 percent to 65 percent penalties, welds weld (fig. of which Stress expected process may require as depends calculation strength. or the extra calculated on the heat-treating be based quality on the of the The subject tion tional from cooling Also is the the (50 weight with (1) the tanks, may to aerodynamic be at a very problems of one tank other. the designer's problems responsibility associated within tank heating, low the filled porwill
temperature. arise side
Addispace,
thermal solar of the partly solution such
may tank
in outer and
efficiency stock from weld added other
of a welded to the working of 85 to for steels wall
heating
radiation
An assumed is a reasonable
efficiency value
of certain as: dispersion
management
of the
propellants of the entering
for aluminum). build-up 8-9) lands Figure may for an equivalent
To minimize be used 100
at the percent the conthe
Uniform pressurant
efficiency.
8-5 presents tank. typical
(2) (3) (4) (5)
Sensing Prevention Expulsion verse Fill,
of propellant of propellant of the conditions vent tanks
quantities sloshing
(PU) under relief adof the
struction segmented size tanks.
of a welded tank end
propellant which is
Note for large-
propellants and pressure
drain,
Other
Propellant other
Tank design
Design and
Problems problems before a sucThe it loads tanks internal the wall pared As is be produced. shells loads. way make The will 8.3
propellant
Many have cessful relatively difficult must may lems. be create
analysis can
STRUCTURAL TANKS a rule, first pressure thickness to the the
DESIGN
OF
PROPELLANT
to be carefully propellant thin, to attach spread
considered tankage
highly
stressed
wall
thickness from and
of propellant caused by Then If the is (t/r< small com-
concentrated out in a suitable
calculated loads
stresses
to prevent probmay be
discontinuities. loads. vessel
localized
overstresses. thermal the While empty
Cryogenic transient portion and
propellants gradient
design
is checked
for other
of a pressure radii of wall
of a tank
curvature
1/15),
III
DESIGN OF PROPELLANT TANKS
337
and offers no resistance to bending, the wall is subjected only to direct or hoop-membrane stresses, assumed to be uniformly distributed over the thickness. However, if any discontinuity is present along the wall, such as an abrupt change in radius of curvature or wall thickness, discontinuity and bending stresses are added. At a sufficient distance from the juncture between tank ends (sphere or ellipsoid) and cylindrical shell (where interaction does not occur), the maximum stress in the tank wall due to internal pressure is calculated using the hoopmembrane stress fornmla only. Figure 8-6 identifies the major tank elements. In an optimum tank design, the wall thickness varies according to a combination of local membrane, bending, and discontinuity stresses. This is especially true for the spherical and ellipsoidal tank ends. The structural calculation methods for volume, wall thickness, wall surface area, and weight of various tank shapes will now be discussed. The following general terminology is used: Pt = maximum tank working pressure, psig Sw =maximum allowable wo,'king stress of the tank construction material, psi p =density of tile tank construction material, Ib/in 3 E v =modulus =Poisson's of elasticity, ratio psi
where
a = nominal
radius
of the tank,
in
(2) Wall thickness, in, required to withstand membrane stresses from internal task pressure: pta ts-2Swe (3) Wall surface area, w in2: (8-12) (8-11)
As =4 =a2 (4) Weight, lb: Ws = 4 ;ra _ tsp
(8-13)
(5) Criticalpressuredue to externalloading, psi. When the external pressure is higher than the internal tank pressure, the pressure differential across the tank wall may cause the tank to buckle. 2 Ets2 pcr=_V3(1-v , 2)
(s-14)
Ellipsoidal
and Spherical
Tank
Ends
(fig. 8-6)
e w = weld efficiency
Note that the spherical end is a special case of ellipsoidal end, in which the major halfdiameter, a, equals the minor half-diameter b. (1) Volume: Ellipsoidal tank end volume, in3: _. _a2b 3 end volume,
in3:
Spherical
Tanks in3: 4 7ra3 3 Spherical (8-10) Ve tank
(1) Volume,
(8-15)
Ys -
2 _a a Vs=---ff--
(8-16)
Figure
8-6.-Nomenclature elements.
or
principal
tank
where a = elliptical tank end major half-diameter, in = radius of the cylindrical tank section b = elliptical tank end minor half-diameter, in (2) Wall thicknesses consideringcombined membrane, discontinuity, nd localbenda ing stressescaused by internal tank pressurePt. An equivalentwall thickness, which is an average value of knuckle-and-crownthickness,may be
338
used to calculate ends.
the weight
of the tank
,2 ......
_ .
:;. ......
_L_ ....3
gpta tk : Swew ptR tcr=2 Swe W
(8-17)
(8-18)
6 !'
(tk+ tcr) te = 2
pta(K+_) 2 Sw (8-19)
......./--/I
/"
_"_/
-4-.<-
ts--
p_a (g + _-) 28w
(8-20)
ts
(g+_)
(8-21)
ioo
_2_
ESo = (LkiPS[ RATIO USE USE
175
200
"K'NOT[
FOR FOR
SPH[RICAL SPHRICJL
T&NK$ MEADS
K* 050 K-0 $7
&T &T
k it i ,_
0 0
tc where k R K
(8-22)
tk tcr te ts tc
= tank end ellipse ratio = a/b; k = 1 for a spherical end =tank end crown radius, in=ka; R=a for a spherical end = stress factor, a function of the ellipse ratio k. Figure 8-7 presents a K versus k curve for combined membrane, discontinuity, and local bending stresses = wall thickness at the knuckle, in = wall thickness at the crown, in : equivalent wall thickness of an ellipsoidal tank end, in =equivalent wall thickness of a spherical tank end, in :wall thickness of a cylindrical tank section, in area: tank end surface area, in2:
Figure 8-7.-E11ipse ratio k versus knuckle stress /actor K, compression stress-K, and parameter E'. (From ARS paper, "Design Criteria and Analyses for Thin-Walled Pressurized Vessels and lnterstage Structures," by T. J. Hart.)
where e =eccentricitv. (4) Weight: Ellipsoidal tank

2
k2
end weight,
i
lb:
_,a teE p We 2k Spherical tank end weight, lb:
(8-25)
(3) Wall surface Ellipsoidal
Ws = 2 _a _tsp where E' --design
(8-26)
r(1 + e)-]
Ae=a_ Spherical .b 2 In [f_-_j 2e " area, (8-23)
tank end surface As=2 rta 2
in2: (8-24)
1 k+ factor =2 k + 1 in \/k - 1 k- \,/-k_ - 1 (see fig. 8-7) (5) Critical pressure due to external loading, psi: For an ellipsoidal tank end, it may be approximated as
339
Pcre:
Cb2Ete R2
2 (8-27)
(5) Weight,
lb: Wc = 2 =alctcp (8-32)
For a sphericaltank end 0.342 Ets _ Pcrs -a2 (approximately) where Cb = buckling ranging coefficient, from 0.05 a function to 0.10 of R/te, Pcrc=0"807 (6) External loading critical pressure, psi: For a short tank (i.e., lc<4.gav/a,-_): (8-28)
Etc 2 Ica
_f 1 _3 tc 2 _\1_V2/ a2
(8-33)
For long tanks (i.e., Ic_ 4.9 a V/a/---7_c): Cylindrical Tank Section Pcrc-4(l_ Vc = .a21c where a =radius, in I c = length, in (2) Wall thickness, in, required to withstand membrane stresses due to internal tank pressure: Pta tc = Swew (8-29) where E = modulus Etc 3 v2)a a (8-34)
(1) Volume,
in3:
of elasticity.
Sample
Calculation
(8-3)
(8-30)
(3) Discontinuity stresses.-The discontinuity at the juncture between the cylindrical tank section and the tank ends will cause bending and shear loads along the cylindrical circumference at the juncture, and the adjacent areas. These discontinuity stresses are superimposed upon the membrane stresses and comprise: (a._) axial bending stress; (b__)hoop bending stress; (2) additional hoop stress due to the shear load; (__)shear stress. Discontinuity stresses fade out rapidly, that they become negligibly so small a shortdistance from the juncture. Detailanalyses ofdiscontinuity stresses can be found in standardtextbooks. In general,buildupof wall thickness of less than 0.5 tc, near the juncture, will suffice for most designs, with only small weight penalty. (4) Wall surface area, in 2" Ac = 2 _alc (8-31)
The following design data are specified for the A-4 stage propulsion system, which employs a cylindrical propellant tank section with ellipsoidal ends (preliminary layout shown in fig. 3-10). Required design volume of the oxidizer tank, Vto = 120 ft 3 Maximum oxidizer tank working pressure, Pro = 180 psia Required design volume of the fuel tank, Vtf= 143.5 ft 3 Maximum fuel tank working pressure, ptf= 170 psia Internal radius of the cylindrical tank section, a=41 in Tank construction material, aluminum alloy 6066-T6: Fy = 50 000 psi; F,, = 57 000 psi; p=0.1011b/in3; E=10.4106psi; v=0.36 Weld efficiency, ew = 100 percent. Determine the following: _a) Required internal tank dimensions (b_._) equired thickness R of the tank walls at various sections, considering internal pressure loads, discontinuity, and local bending stresses (,_C_) Approximate weight of the tankage (d__)Critical external loading pressures, a buckling coefficient, Cb = 0.10 tank ends using for the
340
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
Solution (a__) Since the ellipsoidal ends equation (8-15) oxidizer without may tank consists a cylindrical of two section,
quired wall thickness dizer tank end
at the
knuckle
of the
oxi-
be applied: 2 2 _ra2b
Kpta tk = S w
_ 0.80
180 x 41 34 560
=0.171
in
Vt -
3 ness
From equation at the crown
(8-18), of the
the required wall oxidizer tank end
thick-
We rearrange half-diameter
to obtain of the tank
the ends:
minor
elliptical ptR tcro = =-=--= z3w 29. 4 in From thickness equation of the 180 1.39541 -0.149 in 234560
3xVto b=2x2_a2-
3x120x1728 4 x ,_x (41)2
(8-19), oxidizer
the tank
equivalent end
wall
The
tank
end
ellipse
ratio: re= (tko+tero) 2 (0.171+0149)_0.16in 2
a 41 k =-_= 2---_-_.4 1.395 =
Since proportion ume may cal tion tank (8-29),
we use at the be treated section the
an ellipsoidal fuel as with volume tank the the top,
end the volume
of the fuel
same vol-
tank
of a cylindrilc. From tank: equa-
NOTE: In some designs, weight has been saved by taking advantage of the fact that the bulkhead common to both tanks is subject to a relativelysmall differential pressure in operation. Such systems, however, requiremore elaboratepressurizationand loading systems including interlocks. In case of malfunction, the common bulkhead may suffer seriousdamage. The required wall thickness the fuel tank end: at the knuckle of
length fuel
of the
Vtf=
;ra2 Ic tkf ....
tkoPtf Pro wall end:
0.171x170 1S0 thickness
0.162
in
Ic
Vtf = a 2-
143.5x1728 rrx(41)2
=46.9in The required tank at the crown of the fuel
To summarize tankage:
the
internal
dimensions
of the
tcroPtf tctf: a=41in, b=29.4in, k=1.395, Ic=46.9in The end: Pto -
0.149 180 wall
170 - 0.141 in
(b_.) We assume A-4 vehicle require (8-6) stresses and equations working
that
certain the
missions rated. maximum
of the From allowable
equivalent
thickness
of the
fuel
tank
it to be man (8-7), are derived:
tel= Fy _ 50 000 _ 37 600 Sw = 1.33 1.33 psi ness Fu Sw=1.65 _ 57 000_ 1.65 34 560 psi From
(tkf + tcrf) 2
_ (0.162
+ 0.141) 2 required section:
= 0.152
equation
(8-30),
the tank
wall
thick-
of the
cylindrical
ptfa_ tc - Sw psi. stress factor K tank Provide section discontinuity a buildup wall
170x 41 _ 0.202 34 560
in
We use From of the ratio
the
lower
value 8-6, the stresses From
of 34560 tank is end 0.80
figure
of 0.4 t c on the the juncture
cylindrical to allow for
combined k of 1.395.
for an ellipse (8-17), the re-
near
equation
stresses:
TANKS
341
tcj = tc + 0.4 To summarize:
t = 0.202
+ 0.4 0.202
-- 0.283
in Pcre[ =
Cb2
Etef 2 _ 0.10x R2 psi that Ic<4.9av'a/tc. yielding for the an
2 10.4 106x(0.152)-* (1.395x 41) 2
= 14.7 tko=0.171 tkf=0.162in, tc=0.202 in, in, tcro=0.149in, tcrf=0.141, tcj =0.283 (8-25), in the weight of the 0.807 Pcrc_a2teoE'p We21: =13.9 teo=0.16in ter=0.152in cal (c_) From equation oxidizer tank end: We find (8-33)
Thus external tank
equation loading section criti-
applies,
pressure
cylindrical
10.4 x 106 (0.20.,)46.9 41
x psi
{(1
- (_-.36_2) 3 (0.202_ 1 \_--/
"_
From
figure
8-7,
E' is
4.56,
for k=1.395:
Weo-
rr(41) 2 x 0.16 x 4.56 2 x 1.395
x 0.101
_ 139.5
lb
Axial Tank
Compressive Section
Loading
on the
Cylindrical
The
weight
of the
fuel
tank
end:
In integrated 8-2 and 8-3), the withstand large handling the
propellant cylindrical axial and i.e., critical
tank tank
designs section loads It' the
(figs, must during tank is
Weotef_ _/ef--te
139.5
x 0.152 0.16
compressive operation. if tank axial
- 132.8
lb
vehicle not pressure, lated as
pressurized,
pressure compressive tank may
= ambient stress be calcu-
From drical
equation section:
(8-32),
the
v)eight
of the
cylin-
tank
for an unstiffened
cylindrical
14Ic= 2 rralctcp
= 2 x 41 x 46.9 of overall
x 0.202 tankage
x0.101= weight
246.4 for and
lb
tc 13
Add 4 percent local welded wall thickness joints,
buildups,
to allow stresses,
for etc., where S c = critical This that axial is the will compressive axial the tank stress, to buckle psi. stress compressive
discontinuity
for tolerances during fabrication.
cause
Approximate (less accessories):
overall
weight
of the
tankage
One carrying minimum
method ability weight
of increasing of a cylindrical penalty as will pressure raise the or it may compressive F a = za=pt is
the
axial tank
loadsection with the tank. Inter-
to pressurize stabilization. critical be used load
Wt = 1.04 (2 x Weo + Wef + We) = 1.04 (2 x 139.5 + 132.8 + 246.4) = 685 lb
This hal stress
is known pressure of a tank: an axial
buckling to counterFa, lb, where (8-36) tank failures if the a value loads, will prob-
(d__) From loading
equation
(8-27),
the
critical ends
external
balance
pressure
for the
oxidizer
Cb2Eteo Pcreo= 16.3 R 2 psi
2_0.10x
2x 10.4x (1.395
106(0.16) x 41)2
Pressurization from very large is will ever
will bending permitted the beyond
also
reduce
loads. axial and and the
However, below bending
pressure necessary the ably tank
to drop
to carry collapse
The critical fuel tank end:
external
loading
pressure
for the
vehicle
be damaged
repair.
342
An alternative method of increasing the external load-carrying ability of a cylindrical tank is to make it self-supporting. This revolves stiffening the cylindrical skin by means of longitudinal and circumferential members, or honeycomb structures. The members may be either separate stiffeners welded to the tank wall, or may be made integral with the wall by machining or chemically milling a thicker sheet.
the tank. This effect produces a su:ge of the tank internal pressure. For very short impacting times (less than 1.2 x 10 .3 see), the following correlations are established for cylindrically shaped propellant tanks: cw Ps = ,Ta2g
C I
(8-37)
(s-38)
Sample Calculation (8-4) tankage, calculate: load of the with no internal where Ps =pressure surge due to the impact, psi = equivalent flow rate of the propellant due to the impact, lb/sec a =radius of the cylindrical tank, in tc = wall thickness of the cylindrical tank, in g =gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec 2 c = acoustic velocity of the restrained propellant, in/sec c' = free acoustic velocity of the propellant, in/sec Ep = compressive modulus of elasticity of the propellant, psi E = modulus of elasticity of the tank construction material, psi v = Poisson's ratio of the tank construction material In many prepackaged liquid applications, the propellant tankage is required to withstand certain impact loads, as specified by the height of the drop tests. The details of estimating tank pressure surges from a free-fall impact are illustrated by sample calculation (8-5).
c=
/ 1 + [-25 EPa (1- 0"8 v) lEtc
For the A-4 stage
(a.) Critical axial compressive cylindrical tank section
pressure. (b__)Required internal tank pressure to offset an axial compressive load of 100 000 pounds with no compressive stress on the cylindrical tank section.
Solution (a_) From equation (8-35), the critical compressive stress of the cylindrical tank section:
sc:
[+ 22Y 01+ / j,+7 (- + (0202 10.4106

load of the
= 20 360 psi The critical axial compressive cylindrical tank section: Fc=S c x2_ratc=203602,_ = 1 060 000 lb From the results stage tankage stantial axial pressurization. it is obvious that the A-4 a subinternal internal
41 0.202
Sample
Calculation
(8-5)
is capable compressive
of withstanding load without the required
(b__)From equation tank pressure:
(8-36),
Fa 100 000 Pt= _-_a = _x (41) 2"= 18.95 psi
The following data are given for the cylindrical fuel tank of a prepackaged storable liquid propulsion system: Fuel, N2H 4 Fuel density, pp=63.17 lb/ft 3 Compressive modulus of elasticity of the fuel, Ep= 6.06x l0 s Free acoustic velocity of the fuel, c' = 80 100 in/sec Tank construction 6066-T6 material, aluminum alloy
Water Hammer Effects
Due to Impact tank is subject to an effect occurs within
When a loaded propellant impact force, a water-hammer
Modulus of elasticity material, E= 10.4x
of the tank construction 106
343
Poisson's ratio of the tank construction material, v=0.36 Radius of the cylindrical tank, a = 4 in Length of the cylindrical tank, lc = 50 in Wall thickness of the cylindrical tank, tc =0.167 in For a tank falling in direction of its longitudinal axis, estimate: (_a) Tank pressure surge due to the impact after a 6-foot free drop (b__)Tank pressure surge due to the impact after a 20-foot free drop
Tile equivalent impact:
propellant
flow rate
due to
_=pp,va2V=63.25x;rx(t-_)2x35.9 The tank pressure 20-foot free drop: cw Ps = _a_surge
= 792.5 lb/see due to impact after a
43100792.5 _,x (4) 2 x386
psi
8.4 Solution (a.) For a 6-foot impact: free drop the final velocity at
DESIGN OF STORABLE PROPELLANT TANKS
LIQUID
V = _2gfi = _'2 32.2 6 = 19.65
fps
This yields an equivalentpropellantflow rate due to impact of
9= ppTra2 = 63.17x ,7 V
19.65 = 434.51b/see
The design of tanks for storable liquid propellants uses the s'tme general design practices applied to other propellant tanks, except in the area of compatibility. Most storable propellants will remain stable for long periods of time if stored in tanks constructed of materials compatible with the propellants. To minimize propellant decomposition and tank material corrosion, the surface of tank walls in contact with the propellants must be smooth and clean.
From equation (8-38), the restrained fuel
the acoustic
velocity
of
Tank Material
Compatibility
80 100
C = ,,.
=43100 Impact lc c
in/see time delay in tile tank:
--=
50 --=l.16x10 43 100
-3 sec(i.e.,
<1.210
-a sec)
Using equation (8-37), we obtain the tank pressure surge due to impact after a 6-foot free drop: c#,, 43100434.5 Ps = _a-_-g= 7r(4) 2 x386 =964 psi (b__)After a 20-foot ity at impact is free drop, the final veloc-
Prior to final selection, a detail study is required to determine the compatibility of potential tank construction materials with the propellant combination involved. In this study, two major considerations should be kept in mind: (1) the expected storage life of the propulsion system, and (2) the credibility of the available data. For a required storage period of less than 3 years, the compatibility data for many materials with various propellants are generally reliable. However, for longer periods, such as a 10-year storage requirement, the design data are usually extrapolated from the results of relatively shortterm testing. Figure 8-8 illustrates the typical extrapolated corrosion and passivity rate of aluminum alloy 6066-T6 exposed to tile liquid phase of inhibited red fuming nitric acid (IRFNA). Much of the available compatibility test data tend to contradict each other. This is the result of differing test methods, conditions, and criteria. It involves the risk that although a material may be acceptable for a relatively short exposure, it may fail when the exposure time to a particular
V=_=,_232.220=35.9fps
344
I 0.32
I0
Figure 8-8.-Typical extrapolated corrosion passivity rate of aluminum alloy 6066-T6 posed to the liquid phase of IRFNA.
and ex-
environment is increased. Whenever a discrepancy of materialcompatibility observed, thoris ough verificationf the testconditionsis ino dicated. For most of the long-termstorable propellant tankage,the aluminum alloys are used forbest results.Austenitieand semiaustenitic stainlesssteelsshould be used only forrather short-term storage.
A full-penetration "100 percent" weld is one where complete fusion has taken place to the root of the joint. Unfused edges, oxide notch, or any concavity at the root indicate lack of full penetration. All full-penetration welds which cannot be visually examined on the reverse side must be X-rayed to assure full penetration. Figure 8-9 presents the design detail of a typical full-penetration, single-welded butt joint. If possible, interpropellant welding (i.e., the fuel and oxidizer are separated by only one welded joint) should be avoided in tank designs. A double-weld design will prevent the mixing of propellants due to a single failure of welded joints. Figure 8-10 presents the design of a typical storable propellant tank with a forged one-piece common bulkhead. A double-weld design is used on the center-hold joint for the oxidizer duct.
Tank Wall Surface Requirements The inner surfaces of the storable propellant tank wall must be relatively free of rust deposits
Tank Construction
/
One of the prime design objectives of storable propellant tankage is the elimination of maintenance during storage and prefiring activities. This may be accomplished by an all-welded, hermetically sealed construction. To achieve hermetic sealing, leakproof burst diaphragms are installed throughout the inlets and outlets of the tankage. Propellant fill ports are welded shut after tanking. Tandem tanks are favored over concentric tanks, since propellants are more positively separated during storage, transportation, and other adverse conditions. In some applications, the common bulkhead between two propellant tanks is designed to withstand a differential pressure in either direction that may result from inconsistent burst diaphragms. However, the burst diaphragm at the pressurant inlet to the oxidizer tank of the A-4 system is designed to a lower burst pressure than that of the pressurant inlet diaphragm for the fuel tank. This insures that the oxidizer tank pressure is always the higher. Full-penetration welds should be used in the construction of all propellant tanks. This is especially important for storable propellants.
T,. ,L ----
fft_P
orr_L
Figure 8-9.-Design detail penetration, single-welded pellant tanks.
of a typical fullbutt joint for pro-
FO_3-F_D ONE - PIECE COMMON N_R BULKHEAD APPLJED JOINT
-WELD DE95N -PROPELL3_gr
T_NK
t_
---_-_--_
FULL PF'N ETRrlON WELDED JOINT OX$1Z_l
/'2
D_T
Figure 8-IO.-Design pellant tank with bulkhead.
o[ a typical storable proa [orged one-piece common
TANKS
345
and
tool
marks. to achieve alloy of the should process as
All
welded
joints dent-free for tank and the
should
be If
acute becomes ties
with
the one
hydrogen of the most vehicle
tank
insulation. design The
It often factors difficulin
ground an The use. tive vation solvents alkaline from is
a smooth is used inner be cleaned rendering passivation. the cleaning cases,
contour. construction, before inacpassi-
critical system. systems
aluminum tank The
a hydrogen-fueled arising
anodizing
surfaces
is recommended. treated surfaces Basically, of tank the interior differs of a tank. the applicatreatment
in hydrogen transfer may
in connection illustrated
with heat as follows: Assume the with gen. weight O/H= oxygen. be equal the higher and same liquid The
be dramatically
known involves and,
two heat
tanks influx
of equal per the but unit other the
size, time. with
subject One liquid ratio
to hydro-
with with
is filled
in some solution.
oxygen, ratio
or acid
Passivation testing involves prior
of heat
of vaporization density rate times influxes tanks, of the from volume that air This
per is
unit
conditioning testing
or stability of a tank rinse
0/H=0.48, 14.3. Thus
Stability tion tanking.
the tank is the
volume 6.85 heat
of vaporization faster than not of the infurther rate to in would because across greatly liquefaction may
of a propellant
to propellant
in the hydrogen
In reality, for two especially heat-transfer hydrogen the tank temperature
uninsulated because rate surface.
differential
8.5
DESIGN
OF
CRYOGENIC TANKS
LIQUID AND THEIR
wall, creased on the
PROPELLANT INSULATION
In the design of cryogenic may
propellant tanks,
accelerate approximately actual weight ratio shape double gen. drastically system Boiloff by
hydrogen 70 times ratio
boiloff
there are several potential problem areas which affect proper functioning and reliability: (1) Properties rials (2) (3) Thermal structure The relief boiloff (4) The acteristics, sitivity cryogenic liquid their alloys, less Thermal knowledge degree of the hydrogen selection. the steels, tank temperatures service) In general, and good possess of the at the tank construction propellant in the gradients caused propellants tank walls charnotch at F for for aluminum stainproperties ch. II). The senby mateservice tank cryogenic range induced pressure by temperature of tank of the insulation of the cryogenic of the precise
of oxygen. operating tanked Depending ratio), boiloff into this rate the
In an at a mixture on may the again to
oxygen/hydrogen mixture volume or triple The absolute reduce becomes rates of the
system, O/H=5, (surface relative necessity heat influx
is H/O--3.23. the
temperature
tanks
stresses
of hydro-
for insulation a hydrogen
apparent. are not the only problem caused Near of to this tem8-12 show the
strength and materials as -423 of the
by the ambient vapor 0.78 gradient perature, tank the The As
physical boiling pressure
properties temperature, is 2.4 for liquid psi/R,
of hydrogen. the as with gradient compared Moreover, increasing 8-11 and and
of brittleness, construction (as is low most
psi/R
oxygen.
a prerequisite semiaustenitic mechanical (also see
increases which for both have be great
rapidly would liquid Figures
be experienced oxygen
following hydrogen. NPSH. inNPSH. in tank-
austenitic
pressurization. trend data may
at cryogenic thermal the tank valve pated and and temperature
temperatures can profile The
significance just one rise degree requires
to pump of a 3-psi proper capability increase
stresses may be
be analyzed at various of the rate during vehicle
by determining regions tank of the design relief anticihold
seen,
liquid-
hydrogen-temperature crease wall in tank thickness The pressure the may In a large noticeably. vehicle,
minimized capacity boiloff
by discrete maximum
to maintain required payload is further into hydrogen, with boiloff. periods, severe on rapid than adequate of tank
approaches. should propellant actual Among drogen problems. service cific volume.
be based
on the
affect
ground systems. liquid tank design very large especially
situation
aggravated for reasons Even for warmup boiloff, may and
operation the cryogenic the
of the
propellants, serious due its
hy-
by the high heat influx mentioned in connection relatively create places The short a problem further following boost more emphasis discussion
imposes This temperature
most and
is mainly Design
to its are
low spe-
relatively
insulation. insulations,
problems
346
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
to provide which During forces tion, of the 8 6

w
an insulating remotely boost heating, encountered. phase dictates During and flux the removed phase, and
blanket just high large Although the
on the prior temperatures
tanks, from dura-
is
to liftoff.
the are this
aerodynamic
aerodynamic of short
structural flight energy
elements in space, is radiause incan of the imporof of promof
insulation. source the the used as Sun heat from
coast planets. the
the tion
principal
of thermal
By the basic tank are wall
radiation sulation, materials tant, such surface and vapor
shields
surrounding across The shield controlled. in a solar
tank
the
be effectively
S,&'TURA'r_DN TEM_'EF_TURE AND PRESSLIR O_ UOUI'D H_fDROGEN_
properties very emissivity and
the
absorptivity subjected temperatures. are two
Figure
8-I1.-Rate
of change
of
saturation hydrogen.
the oxide
when and body silver in solar as as
to various materials These onto The on the weight.
types
pressure
to temperature
[or liquid
radiation ise for use
Magnesium showing materials base of of the weight
therefore, service.
is
specially
slanted
to hydrogen
shields.
may be applied material such Requirements Tanks vehicle during period, The missions which the be boost based include three distinct for the ground flight design losses requiring a signifiwith a filled economical in tion able tion, ease low Basic Insulation for the Cryogenic shielding coast versus flight
coatings aluminum. depends boiloff
a lighter amount duration
Insulation Propellant Most phases cryogenic hold space. will criteria. during cant tank continuous cost are
required and propellant
on optimization
of shield
effective tanks phase, tank on propellant is
insulation essential: and flight coast
propellant
Types design features of an insula-
propellant
insulation evaporative ground become periods be indeed
Major
desirable
primarily
performance
include: insulation low cost, of repair,
light weight, characteristics, low hazard, good
uniform and repeatease of applicareasonable and ruggedness, above with all, a an often act as heat, prevents can be rein
However, long hold topping item. anticipated,
periods If long
on the hold
may also it may
reliability, can
heat conductivity. Excellent results
be achieved This
laminated-type aluminum multiple flectors, while applied is the conductive double-curved sensitive in loss system the are the foil layers.
insulation. and fiber-glass
employs
structure, foils radiative in between This The insulation laminar
Tim aluminum rejecting space transfer. surfaces. to damage, of vacuum gases. has wide been thus
effectively evacuated heat to single-curved
and to large-diameter, insulation reand to however, due possibly
sulting
o=t-
to cracks
infiltration borne For tures

,='l SATU_ATICI_I TEle_RATUPE ,s AND PRESSURE OF _c LIOUID =z i OXYGEN
of leak latter, finding typical tank
Application infrequent.
to airstrucFigure 8-13 apA is
io
Figure 8-12.-Rate of change of saturation oxygen. vapor pressure to temperature [or liquid
honeycomb-supp0rted application. example insulation plastic inner and an of an externally of this outer
shows plied _installed
hydrogen between
type. facing
to _-inch
nominal-size
honeycomb
TANKS
347
v, N[_C_U_ O
CC_[
wao_
O_
Solution
ATMOSPHRE
@_S
Z 2 Le _FT 1 --
\\
(a) ferential
During across The transfer
ground the overall rate
hold, insulation
[he temperature XT= From 70-(-360) of the equation
difinsulation (4-19),
..........
_k.
o;,.
///
= 430 _ F. the heat
thickness
t=20.03_0.75=0.81in.
_o LIQUIO HYDROGg N
@Y
_Euu_
5AS
Figure liquid nal sheet. filled bubbles individual ing). vacuum
8-13.-Construction hydrogen type). The with cells an may tank
elements insulation
of design
a typical (exter(b) During
= 2.02
10-4 Btu/in_-sec
the The
boost
phase,
AT = 800rate
(-210)
= 1010 P. or may not (weight!) The will be foam form
heat-transfer /3.8
isocyanate-type properly spaces because sealed when of the
foam. ceils cold
[k'_,_
10-?_
or the However,
vacuum degradation
(cryopumpof (outer it is Many tank located can Selection
:4.74
10 -_
Btu/in_-sec
possibility of air insulation), with must analyzers, from
by infiltration (inside the as with of the ceils ways gas
of Tank factors internal
Insulation will influence The
Designs the to the selection may wall; boost; reto a tank of a be it i.e.,
insulation), often The vice, tect preferred for which purge
or hydrogen to purge passage serves lateral also
helium, be provided. deto deleaks. with In helium,
insulation be integral, be bonded Basically, must
design. or external
insulation during
a leak-detection helium
in conjunction contamination
or disposable in place any
it can tained. tank
or mechanically insulation applied
figure 8-13,
rather The shown than
a separate the honeycomb
gap
is purged ceils. of the
be justified and/or the has the
with
respect
to advantages
thermal is about
conductivity 3.8 10 -_ - F).
insulation (0.2
of performance Locating lant tank the insulation
economy. inside adwmtage damage. the severest of the propeltank
Btu-in/in_-sec-F
insulation obvious handling from of the
Btu-in/ft2-hr Thermal insulation
of protecting The lowand is thus
conductivities vary from 0.05 Their a. Since cost to be and the
of various 10 -? densities quality weight, based
types 10 -7 range
of from
from
to 6.0
structure temperature subjected its source. propellant filling. in internal
is isolated effects
Btu-in/in_-sec-F. 2.0 tion to 20 lb/ft will affect
propellant
of an insulaan optimization on mission
to only moderate thermal cycling from Internal insulation also minimizes loss However, insulation would enter transfer. insulation in installation; and in cleaning subject temperature insulation the from heating and sealing the advantage extreme during of the heat when chilling the tank during occur gaseous infeasuch and
study will have characteristics. Sample Calculation the the
made,
if a crack the
or leak and
should tank, gradually
of a hydrogen crack Other are
(8-6) heat-transfer insulation rates shown in Btu/in in figure _-
hydrogen crease tures as: temperature of the innear the tank wall is the outer surface is the
Determine see 8-13 across during-
undesirable apparent, in locating the tank. effects sealing.
tank
of internal difficulties of leaks; insulation and tend the
(a__) Ground hold.-The sulation surface around 70 F. (b_.)oost phase.-The B face temperature the outer insulation 800 F. -360
repairing Internal pressures which External lating perature Installation,
is also severe the has
to higher
F and
more
to impair insulation tank
inner insulation surreaches -210 F and temperature reaches
of isotemboost. external
structure
of aerodynamic repair,
348
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
II i ...............
// M co,_ c,.os.,-ouT
14'
I _il; '_"
i (-1
__:"_R _'''L
be produced with mechanical precision and versatility of construction and materials. A strengthto-density ratio, Fu/p, can be obtained by filament winding and impregnating the fiber-glass roving with a suitable resin, which is higher than can be achieved by any other method or material. For instance, the strength-to-density ratio of a fiber-glass filament-would resin-bonded structure (average p =0.08 lb/in 3, Fu = 120 000, F,/p = 150 x 104) is about twice that of high-strength alloy steels. Good reliability and close dimensional control of filament-wound pressure vessels is assured through the use of calibrated winding machines which orient the reinforcing fibers precisely. However, most of the liquid propellants are not compatible with resin-impregnated, fiber-glass structures. Therefore, an aluminum tank liner which is compatible with both propellants, must be used to separate the fiber glass from the liquid. It also provides a positive sealing barrier, since the resin-bonded fiber-glass material is pervious to both liquid and vapor over extended periods. Figure 8-15 presents a typicalaluminumlined, fiber-glass filament-wound liquid propellant tank. Design and fabrication of fiber-glass filamentwound tanks with a thin aluminum liner is basically simple. However, a key problem arises from the fact that the modulus of elasticity of fiber-glass resin-bonded materials is about 5106 psi, while that of aluminum is about 10x 106 psi, and that the strength of the aluminum is usually no more than a third of that of the fiber glass. Since the geometry of the tanks usually imposes equal strain on aluminum liner and fiber glass as the tank is pressurized, the aluminum becomes loaded to its elastic limit long before the fiber glass reaches the level of its high-strength capability. Consequently, with a plain liner configuration, the aluminum is stretched far beyond its elastic limit and forced back to its original shape each time the tank is pressure cycled. Thus, the liner may experience fatigue failure after a small number of pressure cycles. The pressure-cycle life of a plain liner depends on amount of stretch beyond the elastic limit, type of aluminum, bonding between lines and fiber glass, weld joints, variation in thickness and contours, etc. Awelldesigned, plain-type tank liner should have a life of about 10 to 20 pressure cycles.
i_
SECTION A-A
_ECr,O_ _-.
Fig.re
8-14.-Design
o[ a typical
insulated
com-
mon bulkhead
separating
LH 2 and LO 2 tanks.
insulation can all be done without special consideration of access, ventilation, and curing techniques in closed areas. However, special consideration will be required for tank leak detection, especially with integrally insulated areas. If a crack does occur in the external insulation, liquefaction of air and cryopumping will occur resulting in a significant rise in heat transfer.
Insulation
for Common
Bulkheads is used between
When a common
bulkhead
propellant tanks and cryogenics are involved, insulation is required to prevent freezing of the propellant with the higher boiling point. Figure 8-14 shows the equatorial area of a typical insulated common bulkhead. A fiber-glass honeycomb is located between a forward and an aft facing sheet. In the equatorial area, facing sheets have to be faired into cal tank portion, they are reinforced grid ribs. This design also requires insulation on the inside of the LOX equatorial region. No foam filler tkis particular example. where the the cylindriby waffle special tank in the in
was used
8.6
DESIGN OF FIBER-GLASS FILAMENTWOUND LIQUID PROPELLANT TANKS
Most of the pressure vessels which possess surfaces of revolution can be fabricated conveniently by the technique of filament this method a lightweight structural winding. member By can
TANKS
349
tural (Hilsch Without those
members. tube) moving with lower and
In these may
cases,
a separation with on the the
tube
be combined it operates energy
diffuser. principle from spreads
parts, the higher energy. can
of separating
molecules
Temperature be obtained, pressure been Co. tim cold have
of 100 F or more construction vanced Figure glass, 8-15.-A typical aluminum-lined, liquid propellant tibertank. the vice hydrogen may configurations system be used
depending drop. developed In a LOX/ the Adby
on
available
AiResearch
Manufacturing with common to direct
filament-wound
bulkhead, stream
detoward difit.
the bulkhead, ferential and One to use an effect elasticity than fiber will that glass design approach liner. aluminum fiber glass. to extend The liner For cycle the life is have of less if the has liner a
i
thus lowering the temperature resultant heat transfer across
a corrugated equivalent of the of the
corrugations modulus to a value instance, and of the its extension
to reducing
is stressed of elasticity The
to 100 000 psi of 5 106, corrugations
modulus
be 2 percent.
then should be designed to permit the 2-percent extension so that the aluminum will not be stressed beyond its elastic limit.
/'
'
_"c._._-_ _," -,"_:--_f_"
\\"1 --_
8.7 DESIGN OF PROPELLANT DIFFUSERS function the tank gases tank vehicle the and of a pressurant gases direction injected at a right This will diffuser evenly into and in a angle minimize interpropelA radialis used a Under location and However, at the a ringdifof permits bulkhead requires individual 8.8 PROPELLANT ZERO Figure TANK
/
'
/'
)"4'-,.
, d_-<
:z_
.'
./
l],
",
PRESSURANT The is the plane to the main
to introduce propellant The near tank
pressurant at a desired are forward axes. usually
velocity.
end,
8-16.-Typical pressurant
designs
o[ propellant
tank
diHusers.
disturbances face. lant type simple, the type fusing the Figure tank diffuser, fuel
at the 8-16 pressurant located tank.
pressurant-propellant presents diffuser at the diffuser This some tank design. typical axis, designs.
EXPULSION OR CONDITIONS
UNDER
GRAVITY
OSCILLATORY
G-LOADING
for the
arrangement common tank of many at the
lightweight ellipsoidal of the
zero or oscillatory g-loading condivehicle trajectories, fluid tank becomes gas uncertain from pro-
reversed end nozzles diffuser, tank. The
tions typical for many in a propellant means with must must The be be two
forward
oxidizer
consisting located
requires
to prevent
pockets The prior
circumference
interfering pellants tion tank. impulse force
propellant either
expulsion. subjected
to an accelerato usage, in the as
pressurant depending exchanger. optimum
enters on
the the
tank source,
at a temperasuch this as a may struc-
for settling
immediately can be
ture LOX not
level heat be the
or they
continuously approaches and positive
confined expulsion.
In some temperature
cases,
defined
for critical
settling
350
Impulse
Settling employs a small parallel to the This acceleration the tank outlet operation. This for most space reaction control propulsive force vehicle centerforces the proprior to initiation approach is esvehicles, because units can be
This method directed axially, line of thrust. pellant to cover of main engine pecially suitable their low-thrust
used to perform the auxiliary function of providing the thrust required for propellant settling. Although this method would eliminate the need for positive expulsion devices for the main propellant tanks, it would necessitate separate positive-expulsion propellant tank or tanks for the sole use of the reaction control system. The possible disadvantages of this impulse-settling method are (I) no control of vehicle center-ofgravity shifts, and (2) low thrust-to-weight ratio under these conditions, which may increase response times beyond tolerable limits. For single-start upper stages, jettisonable short-duration solid settling rockets may also be applied to advantage.
propellants and higher temperature pressurant gases. Figure 8-17 presents a concentriccircular, convoluted metal positive expulsion diaphragm used in a spherical tank. This system is unique for bipropellant systems because it allows both propellants to be stored in the same tank, as long as the volumetric mixture ratio does not deviate appreciably from unity. An expulsion efficiency above 97 percent (i.e., the percentage of the propellant which can be expelled from the tank) may be expected. This design also minimizes shift of center of gravity during the entire process of expulsion. Figure 8-18 presents the corrugated metal positive expulsion diaphragm applied to a cylindrical tank. A center post is provided to support the diaphragm. The diaphragm is formed into a lobed corrugation capable of performing the required mechanical expansion. Transition sections are provided at both ends of the diaphragm for attachment to the tank ends. An expulsion efficiency of 97 to 98 percent may be achieved with this design. However, the utilization of
_SSVRAmr
GAS
Positive
Expulsion
INLEt _O_C[_ R_ _RCU_t_ VmvoLwr_
The other method of achieving proper fluid orientation within the propellant tanks is by continuously confining the propellant to the vicinity of the tank outlet. A positive expulsion propellant tank assembly usually consists of an outer tank shell and an inner movable expulsion device. Frequently used positive expulsion devices are: (1) metallic diaphragms, (2) elastomer diaphragms, and (3) moveable pistons. The design of the expulsion devices depends upon a number of considerations. Primary among these is the design configuration of the propellant tank. Another is the allowable shift of vehicle center of gravity during expulsion, which in many vehicle applications must be minimized to avoid instabilities induced by a pitch or yaw maneuver. A choice of construction materials capable of sustained contact with the pressurants and propellants must also be made.
<
Figure
8-17.-Concentric-circular expulsion diaphragms propellant tank.
convoluted used in a
metal positive spherical-shape
Metal
Expulsion
Diaphragms Figure 8-18.-Corrugated metal positive expulsion shaped pro-
Metal expulsion diaphragms made of 1100-0 aluminum (0.010 to 0.020 inch thick) are desirable for long-term storage contact with storable
diaphragm used pellant tank.
in a cylindrically
351
tank volume
is less
efficient
due to dimensional
limitations (i.e., size of the center post compared to tank diameter). This design, too, minimizes shift of center of gravity. One disadvantage of the metal diaphragms is that only one complete expulsion cycle is possible, because the metal probably will be cold worked. The cold working not only changes metal elastic properties and the Ap required for expulsion, but may cause fatigue failure.
disadvantage of pure elastomers in storage contact with many storable propellants is tensilestrength degradation as a function of time. They are also incompatible with hot pressurant gases produced by gas generators. Positive Expulsion By Movable Pistons
Elastomer
Expulsion
Diaphragms
Elastomer-type diaphragms are applicable to most tank configurations and often offer a more efficient utilization of tank volume. One design approach takes advantage of the stretching properties of pure elastomer and uses the diaphragm as a bladder. Figure 8-19 presents the bladdertype elastomer positive expulsion diaphragm used in a spherical tank. As the bladder is pressurized and inflates, the propellant is displaced and positively expelled and uniformly confined during all phases of expulsion. By positioning the bladder in the geometric center of the tank, center-of-gravity shift during expulsion is virtually eliminated. The initial unpressurized volume within the bladder can be utilized as the ullage volume. The elastomer diaphragm will produce an expulsion efficiency of up to 99 percent in many tank configurations. In addition, it is capable of many expulsion and refill cycles. An inherent
An alternate method of obtaining positive expulsion in cylindrical tanks is a movable piston actuated by pressurant gas. Positive attachment is required during storage to keep the piston in the proper position. To prevent leakage during operation, seals will be required. The seals may be piston-type rings or some type of metallic wiper seal. In either case, the dimension and surface finish of the tank inside diameter should be maintained relatively accurate and smooth. In some designs a concentric center post is utilized to guide the piston, requiring an additional seal. Figure 8-20 presents the design of a movable piston guided by a center post. The pressure differential across the movable piston required to overcome friction during operation increases the required pressurant pressure and the tank structural pressure loads for a given propellant pressure at the tank outlet. It may be estimated by ApAp = [sFnLs where Ap=pressure (8-39)
differential
across
the piston,
psi
TAN_ pR_SS_ I_L_r
_D
ANTI
- EXT_u S4ON _TE
Cai.ON
_t_eAo_
_e_rm_
I,
p_pe_LA_r _r_eT
_'-LAOO_[R
LASTOMgR
POSITIVE
_*_G SelL
kl
CY_Na_C_L
11_
Figure 8-19.-Bladder-type elastomer positive expulsion diaphragms used in a spherically shaped propellant tank.
Figure
8-20.-Movable propellant tank
piston used in a cylindrical [or positive expulsion.
352
Ap-- cross-sectional area of the piston, in: is = coefficient of friction of the piston seals Fn =unit normal force reacted by the piston seals on tank wall and guide post, lb/in of seal Ls = total length of all piston seals, in
Estimate movable
the pressure piston.
differential
across
the
Solution The cross-sectional area of the piston
Ap - 7r (20) _ _ _ (1.5) 2 _ 314.16 - 1.76 = 312.4 4 4 Sample Calculation (8-7) The total length of piston seals: in
in s
The following data are given for a cylindrical positive expulsion tank with a movable piston as shown in figure 8-20: Inside diameter of the tank, 20 in Diameter of the guide Coefficient of friction is =0.1 Unit normal force = 500 lb/in post, 1.5 in of the piston seals, Fn
Ls= _ (20+ 1.5)=67.54
Substitute this into equation (8-39); sure differential across the piston
the pres-
reacted
by the seals,
_p-
fsFnLs Ap
- 0.1>:50067.54 312.4
10.8psi
Chapter Design of Interconnecting Con ponents and Mounts
IX
9.1 THE PRINCIPAL INTERCONNECTING COMPONENTS AND MOUNTS In section1.4,we briefly introducedthe principal interconnecting components and structures. Figure 9-I shows these fora typical LH2/LO 2 turbopump-fedengine system. A discussion of the most frequently used components follows. Design detailis presented in subsequent subehapters.
Propellant
Supply Ducts
Among the principal interconnections between engine and vehicle are the propellant supply ducts. Since every psi of propellant tank pressure above the minimum required for proper engine performance results in additional weight of the tank walls and of the gas pressurants, it is desirable to keep the pressure losses between tank outlets and engine inlets to an absolute minimum. The task of designing these ducts, or at least the flexible portion thereof immediately upstream of the engine, frequently falls to the engine designer. The designer must find an optimum balance between low pressure drop, by making the duct diameter as large as possible, and flexibility and structural integrity, which in general becomes more difficult with increasing diameters. The designer must further consider the fact that the ducts, because of their location off the engine gimbal center, are subjected to torsional loads, in addition to bending. Furthermore, the ducts are subjected to internal pressure, frequently in a stringent cryogenic and vibration environment. Because of the many forces acting upon the ducts, restrainers against buckling are frequently required. These may be located inside the ducts, thus adding to undesired pressure drop; or they may be applied externally, which
increases the duct envelope and may cause interference with other vehicle systems. Figure 9-2 shows a typical flexible propellant supply duct which has restraining linkages for stabilizing the bellows. At the vehicle end, these ducts will connect to longer or shorter vehicle ducts, the length of which depends on whether the forward or the rear tank is being connected. It is important that the engine designer not only mform the vehicle builder of connecting flange dimensions and types of gasket being used but also of the forces transmitted by the engine duct to the vehicle during gimbaling as well. In most pump-feed systems, the working pressure of propellant supply ducts usually does not exceed 50 psig. In upper stages, during lower stage boost, however, pressures may temporarily be substantially higher as a result of a combination of high accelerations and full tanks (100 psig and over). Figure 9-3 shows the propellant ducting and mounting for a cluster of four storable propellant pressure-feed engines. The thrust mounts are of a box-type, beam construction. The propelhmt duets, which consist of restrained bellows and rigid sections including flowmeters, connect the thrust chambers to the main propellant valves. The main valves, in turn, connect directly to the propellant tank ducts. Care has been taken in the design to keep the flow path and ducting volume constant between main valves and individual chambers. This arrangement also assures uniform pressure drops to all thrust chambers. Furthermore, all interconnecting components on the fuel side as well as on the oxidizer side are designed to be interchangeable. The valves used in this design include burst diaphragms. Thus, exposure to the propellants of all ducting downstream of the valves will occur only during engine firing. In most pressure-feed systems, the working pressure of the propellant ducts is less than 500 psia. 353
354
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
ENGINE
GIMBAL
MOUNT
ASSEMBLY
TURBOPUMP ASSEMBLY
G.G. LI NE
OXIDIZER NE GIMBAL ACTUATING LUGS
OXIDIZER TURBOPUMP ASSEMBLY FUEL OXIDIZER TURBOPUMP TURBOPUMP MOUNT MOUNT PUMP DISCHARGE HIGH PRESSURE MAIN OXIDIZER DUCT TURBINE EXHAUST HOT GAS DUCT TURBINE DRIVE HIGH PRESSURE HOT GAS DUCT PUMP DISCHARGE HIGH PRESSURE MAIN FUEL DUCT CHAMBER ASSEMBLY
OXIDIZER TURBINE EXHAUST HOT GAS DUCT Figure 9-1 .-Various interconnecting components and system. mounts in a typical LH2/LO 2 pump {eed engine
Pump-Discharge, In turbopump-fed high-pressure connect the main to the ]ows ment pump change some have levels the thrust sections required to oxidizer
High-Pressure engines ducts and and fuel main The permit thrust tolerance motion rigid, due loads. applied. fuel ducts the the
Propellant pump-discharge are pump designed discharges
Ducts
rating nents absorbed bellows,
pressure connected
loads
acting links
on the member attached
two
compomust be to the
by a flexible compensating a typical duct used
by restraining or by other 9-4 presents propellant links. duct of the It is typical for the This which engine duct, same duct
propellant oxidizer
to to
means. pump-discharge, with external main shown as the re-
Figure high-pressure straining (LO2) 9-1. (LH2) pressure in figure
valves contain degree
attached belof moveand turbo-
chamber. which between and acceleration designs successfully been
for the system used
oxidizer in figure highmain fuel is shown end-load tied
chamber
Another duct
pump-discharge, engine has system, a unique two
accommodate and
buildups, to temperature However, welded The working the sepain ducts
propellant 9-5.
misalinements, engine been have
in place
compensator together movements
incorporates
bellows bellows other
by a restraining One bellows
rod to limit opposes the
proposed.
Therefore,
in
DESIGN OF INTERCONNECTING
COMPONENTS AND MOUNTS
355
BRU-
J_TS
Figure pressure
9-4.-Typical propellant
pump-discharge, duct with restraining
highlinks.
CON_IECTbNG
TO
PUMP
DISC_ARC-[--_r
Figure duct (Note: fluid
9-2.-Typical for a large Duct pressure is
(lexible turbopump-[eed mounted in
propellant engine test fixture
supply system. with

8ELA._fS RI[ST RAtNING RO0
connections.)
E_O LOAO COMPENSAT_
--
BEU.
,
Figure pressure compensator. 9-5.-Typical
1
O_JTCET CONNC_r
J
FL._,_IG_E EO TQ
pump-discharge, duct with
highend-load
propellant
balancing loads The pump made ing, less by
the
duct,
thus
reducing
duct-separating lines between can be
90 percent. high-pressure propellan_ gas generator flexible relatively
discharge because than
and of their
usm_lly hoses small size
of wire-braided-type 1 inch).
or tub(often
Propellant-Tank-Pressurization Figure 9-3.-Propellant for a ducting cluster and o[ [our mounting storableThese lines are employed
Lines to connect the main such (including
arrangements propellant
propellant tanks to the pressurant sources as stored pressurant gas systems
pressure-Iced
engines.
356
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
storage lators),
bottles, gas
heat
exchangers, cryogenic
pressure propellant hoses and
reguheat tub-
Cryogenic
Propellant Bleed
Lines with
generators,
exchangers, etc. ings are used.
High-pressure
Cryogenic turbopump
prope!!ant engine systems experience
feed may
difficultiesdur-
ing start if the metal parts containing cryogenic fluid are at ambient or insufficiently low temperSeal Drain Lines It is ing difficult shafts between The hoses For and to achieve or rods two Therefore, seal dynamic seal tubings drain are perfect of turbopumps drains seals lines routed are dynamic and placed away this the For spaced is pump required. seal drain The can thrust often in and be sealother atures, and if the fluids in the volumes below
the tank outlet are superheated and form gas pockets. Since the pressure upon opening of the main valves and start of the turbopumps will
at the
components. provided series. flexible overboard. done
further reduce the static pressure at the pump inlet, accelerated gas production will result. This, in turn, may lead to pump cavitation and To prevent this, a starving of the gas generator. continuous
required
including
LO2/RP-I the drain
systems, lines along exit. highly
by routing wall
bleed from a point farthest downinlet is applied until
chamber mixtures, ports ure drain during stage
to the which
chamber can form
propellant vent Figline seal
stream from the pump
combinations at the
explosive
shortly before engine start. In this manner, fresh liquid at tank bulk temperature will continuously replace the warming fluid, and cool the containconditions ing metal parts. To avoid hazardous
routing vehicle
to sufficiently periphery stage to the a typical routed and
9-6 presents lines boost operation. are
schematic
of an upper
system. vehicle
at the launch site, the bleeds, particularly if they can form combustible are ducted away. connection beyond made To make or explosive mixtures, this possible, a line
periphery exits during
flight
to chamber
from the engine to the vehicle and
is required. The lines are generally and tubings.
of wire-braided flexible hoses
Pneumatic
Supply
Lines
A special ease is presented by cryogenic engines in upper stages which will not start until some time after the bleeds have been closed at liftoff, which or cruising periods. which dumping across are returns them the the have to start after prolonged Here, a recirculation system fluids to the tanks rather Lines and vehicle can flows provides avoidecoof maximum temperature boiling temperacases, by a of all lines than is preferred. engine recirculation builder insulation, the the
Liquid rocket engines usually are equipped with one or more pressure vessels to supply pneumatic pressure for valve actuation, for turpurges, and possibly vessels must be charged bine start, for sequenced for other purposes. The
prior to test run or flight,requiring high-pressure flexible line connections to the vehicle, and disconnects design terpart fluid not and on the its at the only vehicle temperature vehicle consider side but and periphery. the also pressure. the Their mating countype of
overboard Bleed if the as and
interface
between
required.
must
be minimized means, ance nomic the such tank
vehicle
subcooling, to keep below tank
of temperature pressure
stratification,
bulk
sufficiently
\ \,
\
Z
.... : J_
ture fluids
at operating may be media mentioned 9-6).
pressures. parts exposed from be similar ground
In some accomplished through Routing to drain
prechilling cooling vehicle lines
of metal supplied will
to cryogenic
advantageously
disconnect
to the
engine.
,,(Lr
_'_':{
-_
(fig.
Purge
Lines sequences, and
During the start and shutdown Figure 9-6.-Typical pump seal drain schematic.
for prerun and postrun servicing, inert gas purges
DESIGN OF INTERCONNECTING COMPONENTSAND MOUNTS
357
are frequently required to keep a system dry, to prevent combustible mixtures from forming, or to expel residual propellants. If they are continuous during ground hold, it is advantageous to feed them from ground to avoid increased flight weight. This requires connecting lines from the englne to the vehicle. It is strongly recommended that entirely separate purge systems for each propellant be employed to avoid backup of one fluid into the system of the other. Check valves are not considered as reliable as strict separation. For engine design we are concerned here only with those purges which connect directly to an inlet port of an engine part, such as the thrust chamber cooling jacket or injector manifold. From the viewpoint of the environment in which the engine must operate, the engine designer should additionally specify the purges to be provided by the vehicle builder to condition the engine compartment as needed. All purge lines can be made of wire-braided flexible hoses and tubings and may be routed as are the drain lines.
Turbine-Exhaust, Hot-Gas Ducts The hot gases from the turbine exhaust may be ducted to near the main chamber nozzle exit or into a thrust chamber exhaust manifold. Most turbine-exhaust duets are of welded stainless steel or nickel-alloy, sheet-metal construction. Bellows sections permit the degree of movement required by the system for thermal expansion, misalinements, and tolerances. In most cryogenic propellant systems, a heat exchanger is incorporated in the exhaust duct assembly to vaporize one of the propellants, usually LOX, for tank pressurization (fig. 5-7). Thrust Mounts mount transmits the thrust loads
The thrust
Hydraulic
Lines
Various high-pressure hydraulic lines are used in a liquid rocket engine for hydraulic actuating, lubrication, etc. All lines must permit flexure and must be of the proper size and pressure rating. Most of the hydraulic lines are made of wire-braided flexible hoses and tubings.
between engine and vehicle thrust frame. In some designs (fig. 2-4), the thrust mount also serves as the structural mount for many other major components of the engine system. Thrust mounts usually consist of truss members of tubular and box shape, made of aluminum alloy or alloy steels. In engine systems using fixed thrust mounts, thrust vector control is accomplished by swiveIing the thrust chamber, or by other means such as jet vanes, secondary injection, or jetavators.
Gimbal Mount Assemblies In most large turbopump-fed engine systems (figs. 3-2, 3-4, and 9-i), the compIete engine assembly is gimbaied at a universal-joint-type gimbal mount assembly which connects the thrust chamber to the vehicle thrust structure.
Turbine-Drive,
High-Pressure,
Hot-Gas
Ducts
In most turbopump-feed engines, the gas generator is connected directly to the turbine inlet; thus, there is no need for ducting. In some designs, however, high-pressure hot-gas ducts are required to connect between gas generator and turbines (in systems with two individual turbopumps), or between main thrust chamber bleedoff ports and turbines (tapoff gas-turbine-drive systems). These ducts usually consist of rigid and flexible sections made of stainless steels and nickel-based alloys, for service temperatures up to approximately 1700 F. The ducts must be capable of absorbing considerable deflections from thermal expansion, in addition to deflections due to misalinements and dynamic loads.
Turbopump
and Other
Component
Mounts
Turbopump mounts (fig. 9-1) are used to secure turbopumps to thrust chamber or other structural members, such as the thrust mount. They often consist of welded tubular trusses, forged structural members, and flexible end joints. In some designs, rigid-type, pump-discharge propellant ducts are used as members of the turbopump mounts. Most propellant valves are fastened directly to the thrust chamber or gas generator. Other control components and small storage vessels may be secured by aluminum-alloy sheetmetal brackets.
358
9.2
DESIGN OF TUBINGS FITTINGS To interconnect
AND TUBE
fluid lines
in rocket
en-
gines, high-quality, cold-finished seamless tubing of either aluminum alloys or austenitic stainless steels are frequently used. In rocket engine design practice, the term "tube" refers to lines up to 2 inches. Stated nominal tubing sizes refer to their outside diameters. For sizes of more than 3/4 inch, flanged joints should be used. Two principal classes of tubing are distinguished: common pressure tubing and mechanical tubing. The latter is designed and manufactured with closer tolerances then the common tubing. It is more expensive, but may save much time when machining and chucking in uutomatic production machines is involved. Unless specified otherwise, pressure tubing is used in rocket engines for all purposes.
Tubing
Design
Working Pressures
Pressure tubes are supplied fully annealed and pressure tested. They fall into two major classifications: average wall and minimum wall. Average-wall pressure tubes are made with a wall thickness which may vary from the nominal size by plus or minus 10 percent. Minimum-wall tubes are made with a wall thickness that may not be less than that specified, but may be heavier by 20 to 40 percent, depending on the type of tubing. For lines carrying pressurized fluids, minimum-wall tubes should be used. A factor of safety (i.e., the ratio of the ultimate strength of the tubing material to the maximum allowable working stress) of 4 may be used for general rocket engine applications. Higher values (6 to 8) should be used in applications involving hazard and excessive vibration. For high-pressure application, aluminum tubing should be avoided where possible. Allowable working pressures for a factor of safety of 4, for various stainless-steel and aluminum tubings, are presented in tables 9-1 and 9-2. Tubing Installations in Engine Systems
decreases tubing outside diameter less than 6 percent. Recommended minimum bend radii for stainless-steel and aluminum-alloy tubing are presented in table 9-3. Tubing assemblies must be properly supported to prevent stresses and consequent weakening of the system under vibrating conditions. In addition, proper support minimizes the danger of recoil and live whip in the event of tube failure. Where tube fittings are employed, support spacing should be reduced by 20 percent to account for the added weight. Supports should be placed as close to each side of fittings, valves, and other components as practical. Overhang should be minimized by placing supports as close to bends as conditions allow. Table 9-4 presents the recommended maximum bracket spacing for common-size tubing assemblies in engine systems. Where tubes of different diameters are connected, average spacing may be used. General design practicerequiresno detail drawings fortubingassemblies less than 3/8inch size. They are to be shop fitted according to an engine mockup duringthe assembly of the engine system.
Tube-Fitting
Designs
The three-piece AN flared tube fitting per AND10056 or MS33656 (fig. 9-7) is widely used as a standard in rocket engine designs. The angle of flare of the fitting was established at 37 to give maximum flare contact and provide a nose sufficiently strong to resist crushing. The AN three-piece fitting consists of a coupling nut (AN818), a sleeve (ANS19), and a connector. The sealing occurs between the nose of the fitting connector and the inside of the tube flare. The AN819 sleeve has an external shoulder against which the AN818 nut acts. This produces a locking effect on the nut, as the sleeve is slightly sprung upon proper torque. The sleeve is free to turn during initial assembly to allow for slight eccentricity of the tubing or the nose of the fitting connector. Figure 9-8 illustrates a typical flareless tube fitting per MS33514, the Ermeto, manufactured by the Weatherhead Co. It is designed for use with flareless, heavy-walled tubing in high-pressure applications. The assembly of this fitting involves a preassembly to check for contact of the
Installations requiring bends must be accomplished with minimum distortion and constriction of the tubing. A satisfactory bend is one which
DESIGN
OF
INTERCONNECTING
COMPONENTS
AND
MOUNTS
359
TABLE
9-1.-Corrosion-Resistant Steel (18-8) Annealed [Allowable working pressures in psi at 100 F;

Maximum working pressure, --1/2 3000 psi 5/8
(MIL-T-8504 safety factor
ASG) of 4]
Tubing
3/4 0 065
Wall
thickness,
in .........................
0.022 Maximum
0.035
0 042
0 083 _JXX_LL_:__I I 0.109 0 058 psi 2400
working
pressure,
_e oD. .............................. 1/4 _ in

Maximum Tube OD, in .............................. working pressure, 318 0 028
.2-1---_-1---_"_---I I 1-1J2 1-1/4 I

1500 psi 1 0 049 -1,t4 0.058 1-1f2 0.065 2 0.095
Wa. <.io_ne_s, in ......................... 10.020.0280.035 1 1 100_9|0.0_80.0_2 1 10.0950.10._ 1 1

1,/4 0 020
--
1/2 0 032
0 035
0 0-t2
TABLE
9-2.-Aluminum Alloy, 5052 Round Seamless Drawn WW-T-7Sa Temper [Allowable working pressures in psi at 100 F; safety factor of 4]
Maximum working 1/4 i 0.025 Maximum pressure, 3/8 [ 0.042 I 1/2 0.049 i 750 1500 psi 518 0.05S psi
H34
Tube
OD, in .............................. in .........................
Wall ,hickness.
-[--1
3/4 [ 0.072 0.0-t2
1 J 0.095
1-1/4 I 0.120 I
working
pressure,
_beOO,. .............................. I lJ41 3_81lJ2I 5_8 3'4 _

w_ll<.,ek.ess, in
SLEEVE SUPPORTS TUBE AND PREVENTS WIPING OF NUT ON FLARE
........................
I _ 1_
0 020
0 02S
0 032
k22_L___
0 035
0.049
I 0 065 10.072 l 95
111_11'21_
COUPLING OR B-NUT
SPECIAL OUTER OF FLARE PER AND t0061 C MS 33584 EDGE COUPLING
FLARE
MUST PASS INNER EDGE OF SLEEVE BUT EXCEEO OUTER NOT
sE
*'AN THREAD MALE _ CONNECTOR
NUT
EDGE THREAD
SEALING
SURFACE
STRAIGHT MALE CONNECTOR
Figure
9-7.-3-piece AN flared-tube AND 10056 or MS3365G.
fitting
per
Figure
9-S.-Flareless
tube fitting MS33514.
(Ermeto)
per
36O
ROCKET ENGINES
TABLE
9-3.-Minimum Steel and
Bend
Radii
[or StainlessTubing
Aluminum-Alloy
[All measurements
in inches]
Tube OD
Wallthickness
Inside bend radii 5/8 3/4 3/4
Radii to center of tube 23/32 7/8 29/32 1-11/16 1-3/16 2 1-3/4 2-13/16 2-1/16 3-3/8 2-7/8 3-11/16 3-3/16 4 3-1/2 4-9/16 3-13/16 5-1/8 4-1/8 6-3/4 4-3/4 7-7/8 5-7/8 8 7 10-1/4 8-1/4 12-1/2 10-1/2 14 12
Figure 9-9.-Typical
installations o[ $ube fitting boss.
ends into AND10050 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 1/2 5/8 Any Any Any Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over Through Over 0.022 0.022 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.065 0.065
The rial as used sions parts The connect strong
tube as the
fittings tubing. the fitting. fittings
should Fittings
be of the are tubing be found cases,
same
mateto be material dimenand MS to by in-
1-1/2 1 1-3/4 1-1/2 2-1/2 I-3/4 3 2-1/2 3-1/4 2-3/4 3-1/2 3 4 3-I/4 4-1/2 3-1/2 6 4 7 5 7 6 9 7 11 9 12 I0
as the with
designed of like and from details
strongest can In some
Design
of tube are
AND
MS specifications. boss design
AN and
interchangeable. for engine fittings, fitting is ends components, specified typical into the
3/4 7/8 1 1-1/8 1-1/4 1-1/2
AN tube Figure of tube
AND10050. stallation boss.
9-9 illustrates
AND10050
9.3
DESIGN The
OF
FLANGE
JOINTS lines of a rocket engine
interconnecting must retain mechanical leakage. be capable of seal life, thermal in rocket joints such and as fluids Each
system and one seals sembly out loads, 3/4 erally of these its inch
at various of these joints The requiring joint
pressures lines as may static an asintimate throughsizes are The of gendesign to other injector housing have
1-3/4 2 2-1/2
temperatures, or more must to prevent
of maintaining surfaces For flange design. applicable chamber and valve line regardless
conformance and used
and sealing gradients. bolted engine is also
3 4
operating or larger,
of all strains, joints
flange
components, TABLE ing [or 9-4.-Recommended Tubing Assemblies Support Bracket Spacdome flanges. flanges
thrust
turbopump
in Engine
Systems
Maximum support Tube size(OD), in Aluminum ahoy 1/4 through 1/2 .... 5/8 through 3/4 .... 1 and over ......... 12 17 21
spacing
in inches Flange Figure 14 20 24 used joints the Joint 9-10 Design Considerations typical assembly. the and flanges design, stresses of the part. the nuts), proper safe flange Most joints flange
Stainless steel illustrates duct and have within in a propellant consist fasteners joint of three (bolts must weight the elastic to an effective joint
elements: gasket,
flanges, gasket. and the boltgoal
In addition flange special tube hardened wall. Flareless in engine sleeve, tube designs. which fittings cuts into the ing. consider
a leaktight
In flange
structural behavior
may
be used
of optimum
must
optionally
361
a material
'A/ASHER BOLT
so that leakage
when of the
properly contained sealing if the and joint
loaded, fluid. surfaces has
a barrier preGaskets are to be For
will
UI _BOLr
be formed
in depressed
surface
regions,
venting which usually repeatedly these always 4. age begins
damage
the
flange
unsatisfactory, disassembled
reassembled. should flanges. a rule, fluid stress the sealing flange pressure of the
applications, be softer
gasket than those
surfaces
Sealing occur
surface when the
condition.-As the internal with on the a lower that radial if the compressive
leak-
will the
tO exceed gasket Radial tend stress consists compressive along internal stress
which sealing local sealing higher circumseal required com-
\r_
_-[.
x.x_)
,_LLO,.._
$ A$$,MB
LY
holds surface. surface pressive
in contact scratches
to induce along Conversely,
gasket path, flange serrations,
resulting
in leakage. surface
_WASHER
of concentric stress the pressures of the is will
local Figure 9-I O.-Typical duct flange assembly. joints of a propellant higher
be induced and will The
ferentially compressive sealing-surface design. finish
serrations, gasket.
for a given
nominal
finish rms,
a function from with
of gasket a mieroinch tool
In addition considerations 1. Working fluid.-These sign and a leaktight by temperature at the flange
to structural for flange temperature greatly affect The joint effects. joints are
needs, joints and the are:
other
design of the de-
Generally, of 32 to 125
it ranges
concentric
pressure type
markings. 5. gasket through to more, that and stress pressure. 6. sealing (series) provided Sea/drain.-In at the seals (fig. flange and 9-15). sonie joint overboard applications, is required. drain line positive Dual are then Gasket sealing which the is sealing induced toading.-The of a flange fluid level flow load minimum joint is to close could must of gasket the tip all occur. requirement sufficient paths Furtherso fluid for good
of seal compounded
material. flange
problems greatly Temperature
of maintaining differentials are and apt
precompression
of rocket of steep introduce disturb
engines heating thermal
be maintained compressive internal
be large, transients. strains designing flange parts on the should actual elastic, tained 2. it is
because They which joint, may tim
flow When
a specific
stresses (or subzero) various their the joint. effect effects
to resist
the
sealing. of the
an elevated be analyzed load. loosen the sealing
temperature to assess thermal must are nor tighten joint loads limits. most mass under sealing flow become function two flow
temperatures Ideally, flange
should sealing neither design
In mainFlange Figure Joint 9-11 Structural presents of a typical in rocket working moments stresses the Design the structural joint The is become their joins the subject dotted quite wall maximum by the design as fiering, lines. large; at of the to bend-
be sufficiently at least
so that within Degree sufficient or gas tests. He), size
reasonable of sealing.-For to prevent tightness When
applications as evidenced bubble lighter openings is or gases of to It with
configuration quently under ing The the corner duct. The joint basic as used various shown bending resulting
flange
engines. loads, may reach flange
flange
by liquid immersion (H 2 and molecular 3. seal
soap the
exaggeratedly
diffusive may
through significant.
Gaskets.-The effectively made to the
of a gasket flange which
Z, where
between surfaces,
surfaces. will readily is coated
is usually conform
of a material
approach the
to the flange
design bolts
of a flange in tension
or which
is to prestress
_II
II
362
ROCKET ENGINES
D s =outside
1
diameter fluid pressure unit unit unit
of the pressure, should
gasket, psi (the
in mammum
p
J %
=internal working
be used) flange flange duct, flange rag rag Ib/in ring from from from
F, =force bolt F 2 = force

, ;k_ _
per per per
length lb/in length tension length
of the of the of the of the p, lb/in of the of the at the
loading,
longitudinal F 3 = force
!'
internal F 4 = force per per gasket F s = force
pressure unit loading, unit load lb/in length
flange flange flange
rag rag outside
from from
.......
Figure
)2
A_Kg'r
lb/in length
compression diameter, 9-11.-Structural typical design flange configuration joint. o[ a Sg = required stress, ternal so that tained under Defining (i.e., through free acting follows: a gasket to seal maximum a flange 1 inch the on body, along flange the that compressive effectively working ring the pressure segment arc stress against and of unit is mainfluid leakage, other length passing as forces required as a all loads. n m =gasket and
average gasket compressive for proper seating against fluid factor, pressure a function p, psi of gasket experimentally; from 0.8 design to 10
an indesign
to be determined values factor, and from its 0.1 range a function rigidity; to 0.8 duct
design = flange uration range We = end loads thermal lb Wb = minimum ing, lb
of flange
configvalues and
of a circle between
cross-section and the are
centroid) minimum established
correlations segment, bolt loading,
on the effects required
due to inertia
(tension design
or compression), flange bolt load-
design flange
F1=F2+F3+F4+Fs
(94)
Sample Calculation following joint duct Working ating Maximum of the A-1 of the (9-1) design stage under 1505 working data are given for the flexWe The flange ible
F2: \-7-5-] + ;-5

p(D22 F3 - Dt 2) 4 D
2._
(9-2)
oxidizer-pump-discharge engine: normal psia pressure under 1750 psia steady
(9-3)
pressure conditions, fluid transient diameter diameter diameter on the
operocca-
Sg(D32 - D22) F4 4 D
(9-4)
sional Inside Inside
conditions, of the of the of the duct, lb duet, gasket, gasket, due
D 1 =8 in O 2 = 8 in D 3 = 8.5 in to thermal con-
Sg =mp F s = nF1 W b = FtzrD where D (referring =diameter eentroid in D_ =inside D2 = inside diameter diameter of the of the flange gasket, and in duct, to fig. of the of the 9-11) circle flange passing ring through cross
(9-5) (9-6) (9-7)
Outside End Gasket Flange Determine loading loads traction,
W e = 2400 factor, factor, the m = 0.8 n = 0.3
minimum flange
required joint.
design
bolt
of the
the Solution We will p= 1750 use a maximum working pressure
section,
in
psia
363
From gasket
equation compressive
(9-5),
the
required
average
A B
= design =design A taper
factor, factor, angle of the and
ranging ranging
from from generally
4 to 6 10 to 14 used of the for the flange
stress:
of 25 is flange strain as the
Sg = mp= 0.8 x 1750 Combine equations (F2 Fi (9-1)
: 1400 and
psi
hub
portion The stress
ring. analysis twisting section which passing section. the are The
(9-6):
ring
may
be treated ring of turning along of the ring
of a thick under through the the following working to fig. uniformly
circular + F 3 + F 4) (1 - n) influence distributed eentroid Combine and bolt (9-7) leading this to obtain of the and equations minimum joint: (9-2), (9-3), (9-4), correlations stress 9-11):
of uniform a circle cross
cross
couples
approximate strain
maximum ring (refer
the
required
design
and
of a flange
flange
[prtDi 2 + 4 We + p,'r(D22 - D12) + Sgzr(D32 Wb: [1750 Wb : = 141 000 lb 4(l-n)
- D22)]
Mtz
FlYi
+ F2Y2
+ F3Y3 + F4Y4-
FsYs
(9-11)
(D 4 - D) zr x 82 + 4 x 2400 + 1400 r;(S.5 _ - 8:)] Y_: 2 4 (1 - 0.3) (D - D _ - t) Y2-" After been value must the required the Since use close of the The design number, tensile bolt size, loading and that has torque load is highspacing gasket should even cir(D5 - D) Ys:2 (2 DY4-
(9-12)
(9-13)
determined, of the bolts the bolts is be chosen.
(2 D - D 2 - D1) Y34 adD 3 - D2)
needed
to produce
(9-14)
elasticity
vantageous, strength distribution cumference. is recommended a tight joint: be sufficiently
of small-diameter, Bolt around the spacing to insure
desirable. load
(9-15)
a reasonably
following for maximum
empirical
correlation to produce
(9-16)
Ps : 2 d + T where Ps = maximum d T =nominal = flange The general bolt bolt thickness, proportion by the spacing, dia, in in of the flange empirical ring in
(9-8)
MtD 2 0 : -4 Ely_y
(9-17)
MtD2(L1 S z2Dlly_y
- L) (9-18)
may
where D4 : diameter in =outside flange of the bolt circle,
be determined tion (fig. 9-11):
following
equa-
D s T=At (9-9) Y_, Y2, Y3, L_ = B_ where t =thickness mined L1 = overall of the by a hoop axial length duct wall, in, as deterMt (9-10)
diameter ring, in
of the ring and
Y4, Y5 :distances between the cross-section centroid forces F s , in = resultant per unit ring, twisting length in-lb/in couple F,,
F 2, F 3, F 4 and
stress of the
calculation flange ring, in
of flange
364
ly_y
= the moment of inertia the of ring cross sectionabout the Y-Y axis, in4 t=
Yield pres sure D 2xFyew
21178 2 x 170 000 x 0.75 = 0.066 in
E 0
S x
= modulus of elasticity the of flangematerial, psi = angular displacement of the flange ringunder maximum working pressureand loads, rad = flange ringmaximum tensile stress, which occurs at the corner Z and is normal to the plane of figure 9-11, i.e., in the hoop direction
From equation (2-10), ultimate pressure = 1.5 x 1925 = 2887 psi. Based on ultimate strength, the thickness of the duct wall Ultimate pressure 2 Fu ew in x D: _ 2887 x 8 2 200 000 x 0.75
t=
= 0.077
We will use the higher value and round it to t= 0.08 inch, as the selected wall thickness of the duct. Generally, based on given bolt size, gasket diameters, and duct dimensions, a proposed flange configuration may be derived simply from good design layout practice. Then the proposed design is checked for working stresses and strains. The flange thickness T may be adjusted accordingly. Assume flange design factors A = 6 and B = 12.2. From equation (9-9). the flange thickness: in axial length:
Sample
Calculation
(9-2)
With the data given in sample calculation (9-1), design the flange for the oxidizer pump discharge flexible duct of the A-I stage engine, with the followingrecommended materialand boltdata: Flange and duct material, Inco 718 Minimum yieldstrength,Fy = 170 000 psi Minimum ultimatestrength,F u = 200 000 psi Modulus of elasticity, = 29.6 106 psi E Duct weld efficiency, = 0.75 ew Bolt size and material, 5/16-24 A-286 (200000 psi),stainless-steelolt,0.526 head dia b Allowable ultimateboltload, 10262 lb Solution Use the flange design and nomenclature in figure 9-11. From equation (2-8): Design limit pressure = 1.2 steady =1806 or Design limitpressure = i.i maximum transientpressure= I.I 1750 = 1925 psi From equation (2-9), yield pressure= 1925=2117 psi. In accordance with standard practice, thickness of the duct wall is determined 1.1 the as psi operating pressure = 1.2 x 1505 shown
T=At= From equation
6 x 0.08=0.48 the flange
(9-10),
L_ =Bt=12.2xO.08=0.976 Also, from a design layout, following additional values: D4 Ds L D = 9 in =9.62 in
in, say 0.98 we obtained the
= 0.37 in (approximately) = 8.6 in (approximately) in 4 (approximately)
ly_y = 0.0273 From equation
(9-7):
Wb 140400 F, =_-_= 8.-------ff = 5200 lb/in r, " From equation (9-2):
F 2 = _--_D-]+,_=
fpo,2xwo(175082 2400 /
_ -_x-83g _/+--_-___.6 = 3347 lb/in
DEMON OF INTERCONNECTING
365
From
equation
(9-3):
stress under maximum ditions:
transient pressure con-
p(D 22 - D L2) F3 4D -0 SzFrom equation (9-,1): MtD2(L1 2Dlly_y = 121 200 - 82) _ 336 lb/in load This From equation (9-6): From stress psi (2-8) and (2-9), the yield psi. strength ultimate - L) _ 1174 x (8.6) 2 (0.98 2 8x 0.0273 - 0.37)
F4 = Sg(D32 - D22) _ 1400 (8.52 4D 4x8.6
equations
= 121 200 x 1.1 x 1.1 = 146 600 than the minimum and (2-10), yield tile
is smaller psi From equations
Fy = 170 000 1560 lb/in load stress= Thus, the and,
of the (2-8)
material. 1.1 x 1.5=200 flange now 000 psi. is number
F s = aF 1 = 0.3 x 5200= From equation (9-12):
121 200x proposed We will from
configuration the the (9-8),
satisfactory. of bolts in bolt spacing Ps=2d+
determine
equation
maximum
(D 4 - D) _ (9 - 8.6) _ 0.2 Yl=2 2
T=20.312 number
+0.48= of bolts:
l.104
in
From
equation
(9-13): The required
Y2-
(D - D_ - t) _ (8.6 - 82 2
0.08)
= 0.26
in r;D4 P--Tn" 9 1.104=256' say 26
From
equation
(9-15): The required calculation transient (2-10), the bolt pressure. required loading (9-1) was Using ultimate W b calculated based bolt on the loading: lb equations in maxi(2-8)
(2 DY4-
D 3 - D2) _ (2 8.6 -8.5 4 4
- 8) _ 0.175
in
sample mum and
From
equation
(9-16): W b x 1.1 1.5= 140 400 1.65=231800
YsFrom Mr= Flyl
(D s - D) _ (9.62 - 8.6)_ 2 2 (9-11): 3 + F4y 4-Fsy
0 51 in "
Therefore, the ultimate loading on each bolt =231 800,/26=8900 lb. This is smaller than the lb. allowable ultimate bolt load of 10262 The required preload on each bolt: Wb_ 140 400 26 - 5400 Ib
equation
+ F2y 2+F_y
s 0.51 26
= 5200 x 0.2 + 3347 = 1174 in-lb/in
x 0.26 + 336 x 0.175-1560
Sheet From ment sure equation (9-17), under the angular displacetransient presable MtD 2
8=
Gaskets
for Flange
Joints of asbestos are tim 1/32 less with readily gasket Frequently to 1/8 than flat applicain a flat, inch 50 fibers availmay
of the flange condition:
maximum
Gasket bonded with in flat sheet
materials rubber sheets, most gaskets
consisting or neoprene from range which from
1174 4 29.6 rad
x(8.6)
be cut used
to suit
requirements. pressures be used higher can
4 Ely_y :0.0268
x 106 0.0273
in thickness. psi, working tions, sheet sheet at both flanges.
At fluid gaskets gaskets can For
or 1.54
faces
pressure
From
equation
(9-18),
the
maximum
be secured
366
concentric groove machined on one of the flanges, with the groove depth sized for proper preloading of the gasket. Preferably, the flange facing should be serrated concentrically. In rocket engine applications, sheet gaskets should be limited to pressure levels of less than 200 psi, and to temperatures in the range from -100 F to 900 F. Elastomer and Metal O-Rings for Flange Joints
BRIAR COR_ERS 005" _--i D3 -D2 _
_SEAL IT NICKS, OTHER
SURFACE $1"(OULD
FINISH
fl' AND
EE FREE OE
SCR,ATCHES Ih_ERFECTION$ ANNUblk:_
EXCEPT MARKS
TOOL
G_OOVE
SIDE
FINISH
f2
Elastomer O-rings have been used with good results for rocket engine flange joints in medium temperature service (-60 to 400 F). Satisfactory results have also been experienced at pressure levels as high as 3000 psi. Typical elastomer O-ring flange joint design data are presented in table 9-5 for use in groove-type flanges, as shown in figure 9-12. Table 7-3 may be used to select the hardness of the O-ring materials with respect to working pressures. Elastomer O-ring seals for various flange size may easily be made by cutting straight O-ring stock to a specific length, and cementing the ends together. For low- and high-temperature services (-430 to 2000 F), and for sealing against very high pressures (up to 4000 psi), metal O-rings may be used in rocket engine flange joints, with proper detail design. Hollow stainless-steel O-rings, such as manufactured under the trade name "Toruseal" by the D.S.D. Co., have been used extensively in various services. They can be coated with Kel-F and Teflon for cryogenic service. One of the advantages of metal O-rings is that they require considerably less space than other seal types. However, the O-rings must have a good seal surface finish, and high compressive seal loads, to assure satisfactory re-
NIC*:S, OT_E_ EXCEPT
SC_,TC._ES IMPER_ETIO_S Ar_,'_UL_R
J,t'4D
TOOL
Figure
9-I 2.-Flange
seal
groove
design.
sn_t._ Metal O-rings can be used in a groovetype flange, as shown in figure 9-12. Table 9-6 presents typical design data for metal (3-ring flange joints,
Spiral-Wound
Gaskets
for Flange
Joints
Spiral-wound gaskets manufactured by the Flexitallic Gasket Co. have been used extensively in rocket engine flange joints for liquid oxygen and hot gas (up to 1600 F) services. Pressures are generally kept below 1000 psi. The gaskets (detail shown in fig. 9-13) are made of spiral-wound 304 stainless-steel ribbon, with a Canadian asbestos filler. It is not recommended that gasket widths of less than 3/16 inch
TABLE
9-5.-Typical
Elastomer O-Ring Flange [All dimensions in inches]
Joint
Design
Data a
Nominal Actual O-ring O-ring cross section cross section 1/16 3/'33 1/8 3/16 1/4 0.070 *_ 0.003 103 * .003 139 -* .004 .210 t .005 .275 _* .006
Minimum squeeze 0.017 .020 .025 .030 .039
Depth of groove,
a
Width of groove, b 3/32 9/64 3/16 9/32 3/8
Bottom radius,
i"
Seal surface finish, fl
Seal surface finish, f2
0.045_ 075 1052 .170 .225
0.005 .005 .005 .005 .005
1/64 1/64 1/32 1/32 1/16
64 rms
64 rms
DESIGN
OF
INTERCONNECTING
COMPONENTS
AND
MOUNTS
367
TABLE
9-6.-Typical [All
Metal
O-Ring in
Flange inches]
Joint
Design
Data
dimensions
Actual Nominal O-ring, OD rube +0.005 OD
O-ring OD
size
Flange
groove
dimensions
[ Tube I
,
Wall thickness
I
D2 maximum 0.867 1.367 1.867 2.367 2.867 3.801 4.801 5.801 7.741 9.741 14.741 19.741 29.741 [ Ds + 0.005 ] I f ] ] ] [ I i ] I I I I - 0 1.005 1.505 2.005 2.505 3.005 4.005 5.005 6.005 8.005 10.005 15.005 20.005 30.005
+0.003 -0 0.061 .061 .061 .061 .061 .094 .094 .094 .124 .124 .124 .124 .124 may
a+0.005 - 0
[l
1 ..................................
1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 4.000 5.000 5.000 8.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 30.000
] ] ] ] I I ] I 1 1 ! ] 1 D,
0.009 .009 .009 .011 .011 .011 .011 .011 .011 .011 .011 .011 .011 to D,..
0.042 .042 .042 .042 .042 .075 .075 .075 .105 .105 ,i05 .105 .105 32 rms
1-1/2 2-1/2
.............................. ..............................
2 ..................................
3 .................................. 4 .................................. 5 .................................. 6 .................................. 8 .................................. 10 15 .................................. ..................................
20 ..................................
30 ..................................
aSee
fig.
9-12
for flange
design.
Duct
diameter
be equal
be
used.
These (spring wrapping. for the
gaskets rates) The higher are
are by
made varying gaskets
to
various the are tension recom-
centric. gasket Gaskets loads.
Typical flange of The amount this values of joints
design are
data presented
for
spiral-wound in table 9-7.
stiffnesses of the
harder pressures. used in For surfaces
type
require range from
high 6000
compressive to is flanges, buildup 25 000psi.
mended The as tool shown marks
gaskets in on figure
groove-type optimum should
flanges, results, be con-
The by
gasket contact maximum
compression of tolerance the
concrolled with of
9-12.
metal-to-metal for
sealing
allowance
TABLE
9-7.-Typical
Spiral-Wound [All dimensions
Gasket in
Flange inches]
Joint
Design
Data
Gasket
dimensions
Approximate
re-
A diameter _'0.016 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 8.000 Ii .000 15.000 20.125 25.000 aSee fig.
B diameter t 0.032 1.375 1.875 2.375 2875 3.375 4.375 5.500 6.500 8500 11.750 15.750 21.000 25.875 9-13 for seal
Sealing sq.
area, in.
quired compressive load, lb at deflection I 0.025 82O0 8300 9000 9800 I0 800 12950 23000 26400 33 600 73 600 98 600 153000 186 500 0.035
i
Flange
groove
dimensions
t
D2 tO.OlO 0.9001 1.400 1.900 2.400 2.900 3.900 4.875 5.875 7.875 10.875 14.860 19.985 24,840 [ i I t
]
D: 0010 1.425 1.925 2.425 2.925 3.425 4.425 5.560 6.560 11.810 15.820 I I l ] ] I ] } I I c_ c_ c5 c_ c5 + , -'e_ e,
[,
0.442 .638 .835 1.031 1.227 1.620 3.056 3.645 4.832 11.110 15.040 24.150 29.900 See fig.
10 600 11 500 12 700 14 100 15600 18 600 32 400 37 000 43 000 97 000 122 500 178500 206000 flange design.
0.010 +0
125 rms
8.560[ _
_i.005 25.955 j _ may d be equal to D2.
design.
9-12
for
Duct dlameter D,
368
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
._PIRAL r
WOUND STEEL RIBBON
EJSd
A_*BESTO$
STAINLESS
Fs,
FILLEII
= 8 (H - 0.02)_C,
(9-19)
ENL
_t_GED
Fs2
= Fsl
p(H - 0.02) 2
(9-20)
II/
T----T/V-
II
'_"
"="
where Fs_ = seal contact load per inch of seal fluid circum-
ference lb/in Fs2 _ .... C-C E = seal
without load
internal per inch
pressure, circum-
contact with
of seal pressure,
ference lb/in llange =modulus psi J H d =end =length = seal (i.e., width p =internal
internal
fluid of the
Figure
9-I3.-Spiral-wound joints.
gasket
for
of elasticity
sealmaterial,
thickness of the deflection the M and fluid
of the seal leg,
seal in
leg,
in
in the flange pressure,
flange between groove psi
joint, initial depth)
in seal
gasket culty of erratic tolerances is their surfaces, aluminum.
thickness with
and
groove gaskets loads,
depth. is due
One the
diffi-
difference
spiral-wound compression and variations
presence Another sealing are of

M.*,TERIAL FINISH -
to thickness
in wrapping. the the flange flanges when
tendency particularly
to indent
340
STEEL
H'g#.T
TREATED 0,_
TO INCH
_SO 0'_ 00_0 -
18OOOO INCH NBRITTLE.M_;_"i" _ELIL',rED
_L_CTROLI;SS TEFLON COAT
NICRFA. Co1 -
PLATE.
0012
Pressure-Actuated An ingenious seal loads a metal, section. tween points flange like the deflection is the 9-14. circular When at its surfaces. legs The oriented Thus generate tact load. the flex open toward internal formations in figure of the
Seals approach capabilities flange spring
for Flange toward joint under type effect is
Joints attaining working seal, shown by

THESE _tARCS ....... - ....... J. I,.L_o? sEc'r_. A -A
better de-
to accommodate
,,
K
'
-oo3
,)i oo._ooo. '

' -:oz
pressure-actuated The seal such having a seal make
achieved cross behigh the
a U-shaped is compressed joint, contact designed, deflections. must of the always flange is utilized of the seals are flange the with
SURFACES
TO
BE
FRE:E
OF NICKS
B_RS
_ND
TOOL
MARKS
EXCEPT
ANNULAR
TOOL
_-_)FLAT @ /_J
I'I%"rllN
_3(]_
INCH
PR
INCH
CIKCUM} _J:_ INCH
R_t4C PER INCH CIRCU=FER[;N_CE. OPTIONAL
surfaces open
of a flange ends If properly
PARALLEL THICKNE&S
TO SURFACE OF TEFLON
X IHTHI_ COATING
ON THESE
SURFACES
the spring-
to follow end of the the
flange seal
be joint. to conseal
inside fluid
pressure portion
a considerable Pressure-actuated groove the amount the
installed joint.
OPEN L_T GRO0_I_ #,LLA TION CLO_EI) GROOVE
in a concentric This seal. for the limits The seal
cut
into
the
of total contact correlations
flange points are loads:
preload of the established for the Figure 9-I 4.-R actuated o c k e td y n e seal design Naflex pressurejoints.
INSTALLS'lION
transmitted
through following design of seal
shown
in figure
9-14
approximation
contact
[or [lange
369
C I =design 0.04
factor. This is a function of seal to 0.8
tc :thickness Many
of tllecoating, in seals Rocketdyne
leg configuration, its value ranging from
versions of pressure-actuated
have been applied to rocket engines. has developed seals, made cryogenic
Generally, the contact surfaces of pressureactuated seals are coated with a material of a lower elastic modulus from which than that of the material Thus the seal the seal is made.
the Naflex-type pressure-actuated
of alloy steel and coated with a thin They are most effective for (up to
layer of Teflon.
(-430 F) and high-pressure
material can be utilized to achieve the springlike p,'opertiesrequired for maximum deflection capability, while the coating material provides the properties needed to establish tileintimate contact required to prevent leakage between and flange surfaces. cient compressive the coating to make the flange surfaces. pressive stress may stress must be developed seal in
4000 psi) services.
Figure 4-32 illustrates a
typical Naflex seal installation at tileflange joint between dome. Design thrust chamber and liquid oxygen
details and data for typicaINaflex be seen in figure 9-14. Also be coated or
flange joints may approximately
To prevent leakage, suffiit flow into imperfections on The required coating comby be determined
see table 9-S. For hot gas applications, up to 1700 F, the seals may with soft metals such as copper, aluminum, _old. For certain stringent applications, all propellant and turbine gas flanges in a rocket engine
Eoh S c : -tc where Sc = seal coating compressive stress, of the coating on the psi
can be equipped (9-2i) tween areas.
with a Naflex-type dual static sealing to the
seal incorporating an intermediate cavity behigh-pressure and low-pressure A seal drain line may be connected
intermediate cavity, as shown mateleakage rate, ifany.
in figure 9-15. the seal may also
Ec = modulus rial, h =depth sealing psi
of elasticity of the imperfections in
This line can also be used to measure This arrangement system
flange
be applied to pnenmatic monitor leakage.
flange joints, to
surfaces,
TABLE
9-8.-TypicaI
Design
Data [All
o[ NaHex dimensions
Pressure-Actuated in inches]
Seals
and
Flange
Joinzs
Seal dimensions A diameter +0 - 0.005 0.934 1.496 2,058 2.621 3.080 3.620 4.618 5.616 6.614 8.610 10.606 15.596 20.870 aDimension NOTES: 1. 2. 3. B diameter! (REF) 0.464 1.026 1.548 2.111 2.570 3.110 4.108 5.116 6.114 8.110 10.106 15.096 20.370
I
J
Flange groove dimensions
a H D2 D3 I *0 +0 +0.004+0 + O. 002 K + 0J - ooa.M03 R ac [ - 0.005 i- 0.005 _-0.010 -0 -0 - 0,003 +00.005f+0 0.010 -0 -
[,
235_
I ,o.,o, " l [
.155 [
' 0,190 0.433 190 ' .995 l .210 1.507 2.070 2529 3.070 4.070
0.948 1.510
I
3
.017 .
o
.1 4
2.072i 0.14S 2.6351 3.0941 3.6351 4.6351

4
i
1
0.020t0.005 32 rms
.250
I 1 {
6.070 5.635' I 5.070 6.635, 8.070 8.635i .205 10070 10.635 .173 15.070 20.320 15.635 i 20.$85 i
increases 0.009-meh maximum after mekel See fig. 9-14 for Naflex seal design. See fig. 9-1_ for flange design. Duct diameter D_ may be equal to D2.
plating
and Teflon
coating.
370
From figure 9-14, the seal land of contact =0.019. Thus, the seal coating compressive stress without imernal pressure 582 Sc = 1 x 0.019 - 30600 From equation (9-20), with internal pressure the seal
psi contact load
Fs2 =582+
'-"--SEAL NAFLEX DRAIN TYPE LINE DUAL STATIC SEAL
2000 (0.2052
0.02)_
767 lb/in
The seal coating compressive internal pressure of 2000 psi
stress
with an
G AREA
767 Sc = 1 0.01---_ 400 psi = 40 The allowable depth of imperfections on the flange sealing surfaces should be calculated from the initial coating compressive stress, using equation (9-21):
_
Figure 9-]5.-Typical with Naflex-type drain line. Sample Calculation design of a flange joint dual static seal and seal (9-3)
h-
Sctc Ec
30600x0.002=0.0012 5104
in
The following data are given for a Naflex seal represented by section A-A of figure 9-14: Design factor, C 1 =0.07; H=0.205 in; J=0.017 in; M=0.187 in. The seal material modulus of elasticity, E=30 l0 6 psi. The flange seal groove depth, a=0.173 in. The thickness of the Teflon coating, tc = 0.002 in, with a modulus of elasticity, Ec = 5 x 104 psi. Estimate the seal coating compressive stresses with and without an internal pressure, p, of 2000 psi. Also, determine the allowable depth of imperfections on the flange sealing surfaces.
9.4
DESIGN OF BRAZED ROCKET ENGINES
JOINTS
FOR
Solution The seal deflection
d = M - a = 0.187 - 0.173 = 0.014 From equation (9-19), without internal pressure the seal contact load
Fsl-
80 106 (0.017) 3 x 0.014 = 582 Ib/in 8 (0.205- 0.02) a 0.07
The best tube fitting or gasketed flange joint falls short of a good welded or brazed joint in reliability. Hence, every sealed joint on each rocket engine should be studied aiming at its elimination, or its replacement by a hermetically sealed joint, for increased overall system reliability. Specifically, certain sealed joints originally provided for convenience during the development phase of an engine system may no longer be needed as development aDproaches completion. The brazed joint design shown in figure 9-16 may be utilized effectively to replace tube fittings and flange joints. A union sleeve with internal recesses for preplaced braze alloy foils connects the tube ends. The brazing can be accomplished by induction-heating coils, either in-place on the engine, or on the bench. Coax cables with low impedance losses have been developed, permitting a brazing fixture to be used in-place, even at great distances from the generator.
.__.-
-" ....
_-- _:_,S,
DESIGN OF INTERCONNECTING COMPONENTS AND MOUNTS
371
__-CLEAP,
ANCE
FOR BRAZING
FIXTURE
/------'---INTERNAL
RECESSES FOR PRE-PLACEO
successfully induction brazed. Tubes and sleeves for brazed joints can be made of aluminum alloys, austenitic and semiaustenitic steels, and nickel-base alloys such as Monel. A preplaced braze alloy in the form of 0.001to 0.003-inch-thick foil is snapped into recesses inside of the union sleeve. Diametrical clearances of 0.002-0.008 inch between sleeve and : tubing are found to give satisfactory results. Holes are provided on the sleeve to permit visual joint inspection after brazing. The quality of the brazed joint can be also judged by the degree of external braze-alloy filleting at the outer edges of the sleeve. The recesses for the braze alloy are located midway between tube and sleeve ends. The length of the union sleeve can be determined by the braze bond shear strength and the effective bond area. Sleeve lengths range from 0.5 to 2 times the tube outside diameter. Many types of brazing alloys can be used. A eutectic alloy of composition 71.8 percent silver, 28 percent copper, and 0.2 percent lithium, with a melting point of 1435 F, can braze without flux and permit in-place brazing. System Applications of Brazed Joints
_----
UNION
SLEEVE
Figure 9-16.-Typical
brazed ]aint design.
Pertinent design consideration brazed joints for rocket engines
and details of are as follows:
Working Fluids, Pressures, and Temperatures Applicable to Brazed Joints There are virtually no design limitations on the types of fluids that can be handled by brazed joints. Chemically active propellants such as fluorine, hydrazine, etc., have posed no problems to brazed joints. Similar satisfactory results have been obtained with brazed joints used in liquid hydrogen, liquid oxygen, hydraulic, and pneumatic lines. Structurally, brazed joints are designed to be as strong as the strongest tubing or duct of like material. Brazed joints have demonstrated reliability at working fluid pressures as high as 4000 to 5000 psi. Generally, brazed joints are recommended to be limited to service temperatures of less than 1200 F. Allowance must be made for strength degradation of brazed joints used at elevated temperatures. A typicalbrazed jointis illustratedn figure i 9-16. The union sleeve can be used to join tube to tubes, tube to bellows, or tube to components. Line sizes as large as 6 inches (insidediameter)and walls as thinas 0.005 inch have been
After an engine system has reached its production phase, the majority of the small- or medium-size sealed fittings and flange joints should be replaced by well-located brazed joints. These should be designed to facilitate in-place brazing, if possible. This requires a specific clearance around the joint for the brazing fixture. The minimum clearance A for the brazing fixture (fig. 9-16) is 5/8 inch for tube diameters of 1/4 to 5/8 inch; 3/4 inch for a 3/4-inch diameter; 7/8 inch for a 7/8-inch diameter; and 1 inch for 1- to 1-3/4-inch diameters. For repair of lines or servicing of components with brazed joints, a length of line may be cut out and a new length inserted and brazed in-place, with two union sleeves. Figure 9-17 presents the in-place brazed joints applied to an upper stage propulsion system. About S0 percent of the original fittings and flanged joints were replaced by brazed joints, which eliminate considerable weight. In addition, it also permits the use of high-strength, thin-wall tubing, instead of the older heavy-wall tubing.
372
allow fortemperaturechanges, dynamic loads, and engine gimbal effects, ifany. This often determines the linegeometry. In general,however, lines should be as shortand straight as possible. 5. Structural integrity.-The structural design of a duct system may involve a number of complex problems. This is especially true with ducts for elevated or very low temperatures, and requiring a high degree of flexibility. The design and fabrication of metal bellows for application in ducts is a highly specialized technology.
Duct Design Figure 9-17.-In-place an upper stage brazed joints applied propulsion system. in
for Minimum Pressure
Drop
9.5 DESIGN OF ENGINES
DUCTS
FOR
ROCKET
Basic Design Considerations Primary design considerationsforvarious ducts used on rocketengines are: 1. Fluid flow rate and system pressure drop.The size of the duct is determined largely by the required flow rate and permissible pressure drop of the flow system. An optimization must be made considering duct weight, pressure drop, and space, before finalizing the duct size. 2. Working temperature and pressure of the fluid.-The selection of construction materials and structural design for ducts depends mainly on the working temperature and pressure level of the fluid, but also on chemical compatibility. Temperature also influences line flexibility and duct geometry. 3. Duct/oints.-The number and type of joints in a duct system are usually determined by system assembly and servicing requirements. All mechanically sealed joints should be reviewed, at various engine design and development phases, for their possible elimination or replacement by in-place, induction-brazed or welded joints. (See secs. 9.8 and 9.4.) 4. Line flexibility and geometry.-The required degree of flexibility in a duet system is dictated by component tolerance buildups, misalinements, and required freedom of movement to
Techniques for fluid-flow pressure drop determination have been discussed in chapter VII. Equation (7-7) may be used to estimate the pressure drop of a straight duct section. Either equation (7-7) or (7-9) can be utilized to predict the pressure drops of other shapes, for which some experimental data are available. Besides avoiding excessive flow velocities at various sections of a duct system, basic requirements for minimum pressure drop are: constant flow area, smooth flow surfaces and path, minimum length, and few turns. In most duct designs, a certain number of turns is unavoidable. The design of these turns affects considerably the overall pressure drop of a duct system. A turn may offer a large resistance to the flow if not carefully designed. Investigations show that the flow resistance in a bend with constant cross section is affected directly by its turning radius ratio R/D (where R = radius of curvature of the axis of the duct, D=diameter or width of the duct) (see fig. 7-21). By increasing the turning radius ratio, large reductions in pressure drop are possible. Bends with a circular section are better than those with a square section. However, the square section may be much improved by changing it to a rectangle, so that the turn is made on the short side; that is, the loss can be decreased by increasing the rectangle aspect ratio W/D (where W= width of the long side, D = width of the short side). For a duct with a rectangular section, therefore, a very efficient corner may be produced if the values of both the radius ratio and the aspect ratio are kept large.
373
This cases able, ducts around zero guide junctions smoothed
consideration where a sharp as the
should turning
be applied corner
in all
SMOOTHED DIAGONAL WALL JUNCTION
is unavoidinlet loss to the drop, If the are in figure
such shown the radius vanes
elbow-type 6-15. is reduce corner To
turbopump Here, this the due largely
in figure sharp ratio. can
pressure used. diagonal
be very duet
effectively on the added
of the
walls
out and vanes
as shown
9-18, the compartments Since in most cases
so formed may
be madeto need to be probFigure
have a good radius ratio and a high aspect ratio. only a few vanes
r
9-18.-Elbow-type guide
*
sharp vanes.
1
turning duct with
added for high aspect ratios, the remaining lem is one of securing a good The radius ratio.
radius and aspect ratios of each compartas the gap/chord ratio S/C as tileratio
THRUST CHAMBER/-_p_i -, _Q_
ment are increased
is
I
reduced (fig.9-18). Theoretically, then, the corner pressure drop will decrease S/C is decreased. However, each additional The S/C -----[l + ") x'x i ,
vane adds more
surface area and blockage, and
cop sequently tends to increase losses.
ratio can be optimized in tests and ranges from 0.25 to 0.45. Well-designed may elbow-type sharp
I
1 ', ]
_UNIVERSAL
turns with guide vanes
have resistance
coefficients K as low as 0.i to 0.2 (see eq. 7-9). Duct Design for Flexibility
. _
For most interconnecting ducts between engine components, as for misalinements can be achieved
two
BEILvL2226! ................. .Inlet ]INLET _ TO CONNECTED VEHICLE DUCT
the required flexibilitysuch and temperature changes
by placing one or two bellows
sections in the line (figs. 9-4 and 9-5). These may be either restrained or unrestrained, dependIn two components a minimum involving large of three flexible
OUTLET CONN CTED _--r-,k}..__._ CHAMBER
ing on structural loading considerations. ducts connecting relative movements,
sections is required. The least two of the bellows bellows are preferred. The duct systems shown
longitudinal axis of at
sections should be posiENGINE GIMBAL
tioned at a right angle toone another. Restrained in figure 9-3 illusas ap-
Figure signed
9-19.-Typical for the
propellant ilexibility
supply ior
duct
de-
trate a basic three-bellows arrangement plied to gimbaled approaches clustered engines.
required
engine
Figure 9-19
gimbaling.
presents one of the frequently used design for a relatively short duct system to during gimbaling of iently welding. steel and temperatures straining flow incorporated These will operate into joints this are duct made system of stainless and elevated rea smooth internal to give drop. by The three flexible sections facilitate large movements an engine system.
are kept in the plane of the engine gimbal point. This results in minimum displacements of the Bellowsbe convert-
at cryogenic The
(up to 1000 F). mechanism is designed
sections for a given engine movement. type universal joints (fig.9-20) may
passage
for low-pressure
374
--PLAIN END FOR WELDED INSTALLATION
FORK ASSEMBLY
ally expanding thin-wall tubing, at spaced intervals along its axis, coincident with an axial compression, to a configuration as shown in figure 9-21. Our discussion will be confined to this type of bellows. The various structural characteristics and design correlations of bellows are presented using the following nomenclature (see figs. 9-21 and 9-22): Ct :bellows wall-thinning correction factor
--.._
GIMB/kL RING ASSEMBLY RIVET
_ ---'_"--_
Cp = ply interreaction factor (1.00 for 1-ply bellows, 0.90 for 2-ply bellows, and 0.85 for 3-ply-or-more bellows) d o : outside diameter of the bellows, in di = outside diameter of the convolution root of the bellows, in d m = V'(di 2 + do2)/2 = root-mean-square diameter of the bellows, in d d =mean duct diameter, in E --modulus of elasticity of the bellows material, psi e a = axial deflection of the bellows, in eb = equivalent axial deflection of the bellows due to pure bending, in ep = equivalent axial deflection of the bellows due to parallel offset, in e s = equivalent axial deflection of the bellows due to pure shear, in F s = shear load, lb Fp = pressure separating load, lb G = shear modulus of elasticity of the bellows material, psi b : (d o - di)/2 : mean convolution height, in L --pitch of the bellows (axial length of a convolution), in La = (Nc - 0.5)L + Npt = free axial bellows, in Nc Np t Lb M p Pcr = number of bellows length of the
,?+o
Figure 9-20.-Typical gimbal-ring-type bellows universal joint designed and manufactured by Marman Division of Aeroquip Corp.
convolutions
For higher pressure applications (over 200 psi), external wire braids or links may be used to restrain the bellows section. The braids can be made of stranded stainless-steel wires, about 0.012-inch diameter. In extreme cases, more than one layer of braid should be used with regard to the high separation loads.
Structural
Design
of Bellows
For Flexible
Ducts
Most of the bellows used for flexible ducts in rocket engines are hydraulically formed by radi-
=number of bellows plys = thickness of the bellows wall, in = axial length of the rigid duct section, in =bending moment, in-lb =internal (or external) fluid pressure, psi = critical stability pressure of the bellows, psi R a = axial spring rate of the bellows, lb/in R b = bending spring rate of the bellows, lb-in/ degree Rp : parallel offset spring rate of the bellows, lb/in Rs -- shear spring rate of the bellows, lb/in
DESIGN
OF
INTERCONNECTING
COMPONENTS
AND
MOUNTS
375
"qF---
,XIAL OEFLECTION
(a)8EL.LO'_$ UNDER PURE SENDING
{hi _ELLOW$ UNOR PURE SHEAR
L i
(} BELLOWS UNDER PARALLEL OFFSET
1.2
I,I
(diPARALLEL OFFSET DF ARTICULATED BELLOWS
.--L---_
p.--L--_I
1.0
0.9
0.8
07 0.6
Figure
9-21.-Elements
and bellows.
various
motions
of
0.5 0.4 0 JO 20 PERCENT 30 THINNING 40 5O 6O
Rt
= torsional degree Sb :bellows Sa =bellows Sm = bellows Ss :bellows St =bellows T =torsional Tcr v y 0 6
spring
rate
of the bellows,
lb-in/ Figure
bulging stress, psi hoop stress, psi motion stress, psi shear stress, psi torsion stress, psi moment, in-lb
9-22.-Bellows wall thinning correction [actor Ct versus percent thinning.
the minimum thicknessat the convolution outside diameter(fig. 9-22). Amounts of thinningrange from I0 to 40 percent. Effects of thinning, re a considered by applying the thinningcorrection factorCt (fig. 9-22) to the bellows design. 2. Bellows axial spring rate:
: critical stability torque of the bellows, psi = Poisson's ratio of the bellows material, in = transverse deflection of the bellows, in =bending angle of rotation, degrees =torsional angle of rotation, degrees
1. Thinning of the bellows wall.-Hydraulicformed bellows are usually made by starting with tubes of the same diameter as the bellows diameter at the root of convolution, d i. The typical thinning profile of a bellows wall starts with the original material thickness at the root of the convolution, and tapers approximately linearly to
Ra -
1.49 CtCpNpEdit Nch_ (steel
lb/in alloys) (9-22)
and nickel
Ra-
1.23 CtCpNpEdit Nch _
3 , lb/in alloys) (9-23)
(aluminum
376
3. Bulging stresses.-These are the radial bending stresses induced in the side walls of the bellows, by internal or external pressure. Bulging stresses should be kept below those listed in table 9-9: S Ctph 2 (9-24)
Sm :
1.78 CtEtea Nch2
, psi alloys) (9-28)
(aluminum
b : 2--'ffp-_'pt2. psi
4. Separating loads.-Bellows are pressure loaded so that they experience a separatingload, in addition to the normal duct axial force: P(dm 2 - dd2)_ 4 , lb
All other types of bellows motions, such as angular and parallel offset, can be converted into an equivalent bellows axial deflection, and applied to equations (9-27) and (9-28) to calculate the corresponding motion stresses. 7. Bellows under pure bending (fig. 9-21a): M Rb =_dm2Ra
458.4
' lb-in/degree
(9-29)
Fp-
(9-25) eb-
dm sin 0 , in 2
(9-30)
5. Hoop stresses.-The bellows hoop stresses are calculated by using the total area per inch of bellows axial length of a tube of equivalent wall thickness. Hoop stresses should always be kept lower than the yield and nltimate strength of the bellows materials by a specified margin.
Motion stresses due to pure bending can be calculated by substituting eb for ea in equations (9-27) and (9-28). 8. Bellows under pure shear (fig. 9-21b): Fs 3dmSRa 8 La 2 ' lb/in (9-31)
Sh : 2--'_p_ 6. Motion stresses the bellows.-These bellows side wails. for bellows cycle life, due to axial
(9-26)
Rs :
de[lections
of
are due to bending of the Allowable motion stresses to design
0='
229.2 FsLa Radm _ 3dmY --, es-- 2L a
, degrees
(9-32)
materials, with respect are given in table 9-9: 1.40 CtEtea Sm: Nch2 (steel
in
(9-33)
, psi alloys) (9-27)
and nickel
Motion stresses due to pure shear can be calculated by substituting es for ea in equations (9-27) and (9-28). 9. Bellows under parallel oHset (fig. 9-21c):
TABLE
9-9.-Yield
Strength,
Limiting
Bulging Stresses, and Allowable Used Bellows Materials
Motion Stresses
of Frequently
Material
Yield strength, psi
Limiting bulging stresses, psi t_0.012in 140000 140000 190000 190000 190 000 65000 t_0.013 in 120000 120 000 150000 150000 150000
Allowable motion stresses, psi 1000 cycles 208000 208000 160000 160000 160000 106000 10000 cycles 100000 cycles
321 and 347 stainless steels ........................ 19-9DL ............................................ A-286 ............................................ lnco 718 .......................................... lnconel X ......................................... 6061-T6 aluminum alloy .............................
39 000 88000 180000 170000 98 000 40 000
150000' 92000 1500001 92000 150000 138000 150000 138000 150000 138000 68000i 28000
377
Fs 3dm2Ra Rp - y - 2 La 2 FsLa M =_--=-+ 2
' Ib/in
(9-34)
13. Bellows buckling due to external pressure.-When a bellows is pressurized externally, it buckles in same manner as a thin cylinder: 4 EtNph 3 Per-(1
_ v2)dmSPb, psi
3 dm2YRa 4 La 2 '
in-lb
(9-35)
(9-43)
3dmy ep----L--_a, in
(9-36)
Motion stresses due to paralleloffsetcan be calculatedby substituting forea in equations ep (9-27) and (9-28). 10. Parallel offset of articulated bellows
14. Bellows squirm due to torsion.-When a bellows is loaded by pure torsion, it tends to buckle in some manner as with internal pressure squirm: rrdm2Ra 2 , in-lb
Tcr-
(9-44)
(fig. 9-21d): Fs Rp=-7=3dm2Ra 2 [4La 2+6LaLb+3Lb2],Ib/in Fs(2 La + Lb) 2 3dm2(2 = 4(4

La 2
The values for Pcr and Tcr of bellows under angular and offset deflections will be reduced considerably. A correction factor which ranges from 0.2 to 0.9, as determined by experiments, (9-37) should be applied.
M--
La + Lb)yRa Lb2) '
+6 LaLb+3
in-lb
(9-38)
3 din(2 + Lb)Y La ep_(4 L 2 + 6 LaLb + 3 Lb 2),in
(9-39)
15. Allowable working stresses for bellows materials.-Bellows generally operate in the plastic range. However, it has been the practice to calculate stresses on the basis of elastic deformation, and correlate the data on that basis. In reality, the calculated stresses are only index stresses, which define the plastic conditions of the bellows, under the influence of pressure and motion loading. The yield strength, limiting bulging stresses, and allowable stresses of frequently used bellows materials are presented in table 9-9. 16. Bellows used at elevated temperatures.For applications at elevated temperatures allowable working stresses for bellows materials must be adjusted accordingly. Generally, an internal liner should be provided to protect the bellows against high-velocity, hot-gas flows. 17. Bellows forming lin_,its.-Bellows designs are limited by how severely the material can be worked during forming. Generally, the following geometric limits should be used for bellows up to three plys:
ep can be substituted forea in equations(9-27) and (9-28)to calculatemotion stresses. Ii. Bellows torsion.-The stress due to belof a thin tube:
lows torsion
is given
by the twist
2T St- _"prrdi2 t , psi
(9-40)
Rt
T (_
1.37 i0 -2 GditNp, (2 h +0.57 L)Nc
lb-in/degree
(9-41)
12. Bellows squirm due to internal pressure.When a restrained bellows is pressurized internally beyond a critical level, it experiences a stability failure of the same type as a buckling column: 5.02 Ra Per= d/, \' La
do
Maximum: psi (9-42) Minimum:
= 1.35 in
(9-45) (9-46)
L = (8 + 2 Np)t,
378
ROCKET ENGINES
Sample
Calculation a bellows, pump engine, calculations material,
(9-4) as discharge with the shown in figure duct data given in 9-4, for din= _/(di2+ 2 d2) - _ (82+ _ '822) -- 8.42 in
Design the A-1 oxidizer stage
flexible following to those and 718 (9-2).
of the and From deflection angulation: equation (9-30), the due equivalent to pure axial bending or
requirements, sample Bellows Thinning Outside the
in addition (9-1) Inco of the di= 8 in length angular determine axial spring
of a bellows,
of bellows diameter
wall,
20 percent convolution root of eb =
tim sin 2
0_ 8.42 2
sin
3 = 0.22 in
bellows,
Free axial maximum Required Life, In addition, Bellows Bending Rb Bending motion, Required working Solution We will of the first
of the
bellows,
La = 7 in of
Table
9-9 lists,
for
Inco
718
and
a life stress of to use designed we use stress. a
10 000 cycles, psi. value of 0.36 the It is
an allowable good practice,
motion
movement, the
0= 3
150000 a lower
however, bellows design, bulging
10 000 cycles following: Ra rate duct load of the bellows, rate, spring of the link
for high-pressure stability. times the stress this and In our limiting = 0.36
for improved value Thus, psi.
or angular moments M restraining pressure
motion
150 000 = 54 000 equation (9-27):
Substitute I AO CtEteb
eb into
at 3 angular at maximum
Sm-
Nch2
1.40 CtEteb use material height the limiting to establish thickness From for Inco From all bellows: sample into bulging the t. factor table 718 at calL=(8+2 Free Np)t=(8+2 axial length 3)0.022=0.308, of the bellows: say 0.310in equaFrom equation (9-46), the pitch of the bellows stress ratio of _ 1.40 1 29.6 106 0.022x 54 000 (0.410) 2 0.22 = 22.1, say 22 Nc Smh 2 (from cent fig. 9-22, Ct=l for 20 perthinning)
bellows
convolution figure 9-9, 9-22, the Ct= 1.36, t>0.013 culation duct tion is (9-24)
h to wall
Prom
wall-thinning for 20 percent bulging is the psi. 150000 design Substitute
correction thinning. stress psi. limit
limiting inch (9-2) 1925
pressure these
of the
for a three-ply
La = (Nc - 0.5)L
+ Npt 3 0.022 in (i.e., the correction lessthan factor thinning (9-22) bellows: to 7in) C t for is
= (22 - 0.5) 0.310+ =6.66+0.066=6.726 h 2N/_-_
-CTT :I 1.36x p 1925

value at a wall tries): in, say thickness
4/23x150000
18.5 From the axial of this in figure spring 9-22, rate this spring
at 20 percent into rate equation of the
For size, (after
a reasonable we arrive several
of h, in a bellows
0.72. obtain
Substitute the axial
t of 0.022
h=18.50.022=0.407 The the tion can bellows now root-mean-square axial deflection be found:
0.410
in Ra= and
1.49 CtC pN pEdit Ncha _ 1.49 0.72 0.85
diameter due
equivalent
to 3 angula-
3 29.6 22 (0.410)
106 8 (0.022) 3
do=di+2h=8+20.410=8.820
in
= 4550
lb/in
379
From equation stability pressure 5.02Ra do La
(9-42), the critical internal for bellows without angulation: 5024550 6.726
Fp=
p(dm 2 - dd2)r_ 4
Per=
The required restraining link load at maximum working pressure, considering the normal axial force pdd 2tr pdm 2rr_ 1750 (8.42) 2 ,7 4 4 4
Comparing this with the maximum working pressure of 1750 psi, a safety factor of 3080/1750= 1.76 remains to allow for bellows stability under conditions of angulation. From sample calculation (9-2), the yield pressure =2117 psi, and the ultimate pressure = 2887 psi. Substitute these into equation (9-26), to obtain the yield hoop stress of tile bellows:
F=FP+
= 97 500 Ib
9.6
DESIGN Design
OF GIMBAL Considerations
MOUNTS
Gimbal
Sh =-2 _pt _ 2 x 3 xx0.022 I0.57 + (2 x 0"41)1J 2117 8.42 k_ = 42 000 psi (less Tile ultimate hoop stress than 170000 psi)
Primary design considerations for gimbal mounts are: I. Required pivotal movement o[ engine assembly or thrust chamber for thrust vector control.-Geuerally ranging from 4 to +__10 . 2. Required adjustment for thrust alinement and positioning. 3. Thrust level.-This determines the structural and bearing design of the gimbal mounts. 4. Required operational li[e.-Generally 1000 cycles minimum. 5. Minimum deformation of the bearing surface, prevention of bearing surface galling. 6. Propellant duct installation.-Some designs require flow of one of the propellants through the center of the gimbal mount. 7. Maintenance o[ the gimbal rnount.-This is largely affected by the lubrication requirement of the bearing surfaces. If possible, a gimbal boot should be provided to protect the bearing surfaces from dust, water, and foreign materials. 8. Lightweight.-High strength-to-weight materials should be used.
of the bellows:
Sh =
42 0002887 2117
=57 300 psi (less
than 200 000 psi)
The bellows tablished: di =8 in t =0.022 in Nc=22 R a = 4550 lb/in From equation of the bellows
design
configuration
is now es-
d o =8.82 Np=3 L =0.31
in in
dm =8.42
in
h =0.41 in La=6.726in
(9-29),
the angular
spring
rate
Ring-Type dm2Ra _ (8.42) _ x 4550_ Rb = 458.4 458.4 The bending tion M = RbO = 705 3 = 2115 in-lb From equation separating load (9-25), the bellows pressure 705 in-lb/degree
Gimbal
Mounts
moment on the duct at 3 angula-
Figure 9-23 presents a typical gimbal mount designed for low-thrust, upper stage engine applications up to 20 000 pounds. The design is a closed-yoke, flowthrough-ring-type gimbal, utilizing plain bearing pivot joints. This configuration provides for the main oxidizer duct to pass through the assembly in the longitudinal axis to the thrust chamber dome. The gimbal mount is designed to connect the vehicle main oxidizer
.'
380
ROCKET
ENGINES
THRUST
CHAMBER
Figure designed
9-24.-Typical for medium-thrust
cross-type engine
gimbaI
mount
applications.
incorporating gimbal and this bearing
bearing blocks,
surfaces, upper slides. of 4340 cross plated. treated. are applied bearing from area. between
upper and alloy unit The lower All are
and
lower
retainers, parts of The surdry-
thrust design
vector are surfaces
alining made of the
steel. bearing bearing
bearing Figure signed applications. 9-23.-Typical [or ring-type upper gimbal stage mount deraces lubricant surfaces. type duct lower ment. alinement either weight. should Solid and the top of the thrust chamber mount pivot parts dome. an the of pins plated. may design bearThe psi support Except bolts, The of the mechanism for the all gimbal steel other provides vector pins can of the alineand ficient
chromium
or electroless are
nickel phosphate coatings The design projected
low-thrust,
engine
Solid-film to all pressure The
of this coef0.1.
gimbal of bearing
mount
ranges varies
15 000 to 20 000 bearing 0.06 and
of friction
adjustment
for thrust
be made for minimum pivot nickel
aluminum
or titanium bearing surfaces
alloys
be chromium film dry lubricant
or electroless coatings surfaces. gimbal type area.
or grease The The 0.08.
be applied bearing 10000 ing psi
to all pressure
bearing of this
is about
of bearing
projected
coefficient
of friction
is around
Cross-Type
Gimbal
Mounts
Figure 9-24 presents the design of a typical cross-type gimbal mount used engines (up to 200000 engine assembly is mounted assembly. on medium thrust in fig-
Ib), such as shown
ure 9-I. Here, the gimbal mount to thrust chamber
secures the and elbow unit Figure 9-25.-Typical tot high-thrust socket-type engine gimbal applications. mount
to the vehicle thrust frame, and dome designed
It consists of a cross-shaped
381
Socket-Type Figure gimbal applications mount assembly unit made consists and of alloy blocks, is also
Gimbal 9-25 presents designed
Mounts a typical for high-thrust million heavy-duty engine pounds). the structure. and All load lower parts is engine The bearing are carried beof the cornThis
position friction The less is
coating, bearing bearing plated. For
which surface. surface these range inch
provides
a dry,
low-
mount
on
the
sphere mounts, 24 000
is
electrodesign
(up to several designed vehicle retaining The of integral their steel.
nickel required.
No lubrication gimbal from
or maintenance to 2S 000 area. 0.15. are arrangeand is about alinement groove block
to secure thrust upper bar. thrust bearing The
to the
bearing pounds The Lateral
pressures per square
of bearing of friction for thrust
projected
bearing
coefficient adjustments using gimbal dome.
by a socket-type tween spherical two bearing socket
spherical blocks. has
located surface
accomplished ment thrust between chamber
a tongue lower
and bearing
a Teflon-fiber-glass
Chapter Engine
10.1 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
Systen s
Design
Integration
In the foregoing chapters the design of the major liquid rocket engine subsystems and their components has been discussed. By themselves, these subsystems cannot fulfill a useful purpose. Only when integrated into a whole will they function as a system and produce for what they were designed: thrust. While the engine designer thus must view the complete rocket engine as the system, he should not lose sight of the fact that, to the stage builder, the engine is again a subsystem. (In fact, to the launch vehicle systems engineer, the stage in turn becomes a subsystem, in addition to other stages, ground-support equipmerit, launch facilities, downrange stations, etc.) In an earlier chapter the major engine parameters requiring optimization during implementation of rocket engine design were defined. It is apparent that the subsystems discussed will not form an optimized complete system unless they are designed for one another witil this goal in mind from the beginning. The subsystems presented in the foregoing chapters have become highly specialized fields during recent years. Their designers and developers often have only a rather general feeling for the functions and peculiarities of the other subsystems. Their concentrated effort will not come about unless it is guided by an important function: systems engineering. In most rocket engine projects this function is assigned to the "systems engineer," commonly called project engineer or project manager. In conformance with user requirements, he has the job of establishing all ground rules and performance parameters (ch. II) and to subsequently optimize them through complete integration of all subsystems during the entire design and development period. Because of the previously discussed interaction of funding, time, and reliability, the project engineer must be a good manager, too, in addition to his engineering qualification. From his
superiors he needs adequate authority, commensurate with his responsibilities. He must have a broad and thorough understanding of the various disciplines governing the design and development of the subsystems. In view of the latter's high specialization, he cannot be expected to have a complete education in all these disciplines. However, in the words of Du Pont's Crawford H. Greenewalt, he must have "the ability to create a harmonious whole out of what the academic world calls dissimilar disciplines," and that in this respect his job may be compared to that of a "symphony conductor under whose hand a hundred or so highly specialized and very different talents become a single effort of great effectiveness." The job of systems integration does not merely assure that all parts physically fit together, although this certainly is a first basic requirement. Wherever parts and subsystems join, an interface exists, a demarcation line between these systems. This may be a bolt hole pattern; a flow of fluid, heat, or electrical current; an exchange of forces, loads, or torques; or a complex dynamic interaction. The importance of systems engineering is being recognized to an increasing degree. Figure 10-1 shows the final configuration of the engine for an early postwar ballistic missile. Comparing this to figure 2-4 we realize the progress made through good systems engineering. However, to have designed and developed a goodlooking, perfectly functioning rocket engine is not enough. It may appear superfluous to state that the design of rocket engines must also consider vehicle application. Yet in the daily grind of problem solving, engine detail design and development, this is easily forgotten. The rocket engine and component designer and developer who can think and converse in terms of vehicle application will be sought after indeed, will be the company he represents. and so
383
384
ROCKET ENGINES
We can tinuous designer exchange progress above vital. lation forming materially prises." mission, problems. almost all, and
easily close
realize
the
importance between Complete documentation reviews,
of conengine and free and and is simuperwill "surto its interface in
communication builder.
and
vehicle
of correspondence, reports, prompt During of flight static reduce Each will Many any vehicle have frequent notification
design
of changes closest when tests, of later according different however,
engine vehicle engine the vehicle
development, configuration, development possibility type,
somewhat
of these type.
occur,
10.2
ENGINE BY
SYSTEM
DESIGN
INTEGRATION
DYNAMIC
ANALYSES
The
Scope Dynamic
of Dynamic analyses
Analyses are essential for optimum Dynamic of the schematic optimization transient start transystem of system impulse, engine and
engine systems analyses system.-This control from point sients, nation 2. refers design engine Figure engine IO-I.-Ballistic showing greatly missile improved liquid simplicity. rocket stability, special a functional of view, may
design integration, commensurate be grouped into two basic areas: operating refers as dynamics to system component well as
with vehicle mission requirements. 1. lnternai
optimization,
optimization of cutoff etc.
minimization of cutoff Engine-vehicle to vehicle for adequate performance, overall maneuvers, tank surges,
determi-
operating pressurization transient operating vehicle etc.
dynamics.-This systems steady-state structure and during and
and
engine-vehicle compatibility performance
engine-guidance
Rocket for optimum the engine and signed facets from
engine mission will fly,
design not
for vehicle only for vehicle
application flight before deThe range loop or Long been
General The general ment the dynamic result in the tion
Approach techniques approach
to the and taken toward years
Analyses equations by industry solution engine synthesis, of effort used, and of the systems, and and The and the
is a consideration
performance. and after it must it has be
Governvarious are
agencies
the
developed,
installed.
problems of many areas
in rocket
of engine more complex and bolts" fitting
installation areas, such
in a vehicle as guidance
experience correla-
of analysis, engine approach of their
compliance "nuts bolt and sizes. connecting
prestart problems,
conditioning such and as
to simple matching attachment
of rocket this
operation. postulates system components
philosophy that the releon the physical
governing vant characteristics
dimensions
characteristics
of any
depend and
dlmmma
ENGINE SYSTEMS DESIGN INTEGRATION
385
processes. processes the much system detail
By describing in detail, can as be as well described represents system.
these as
components their The interaction, with
and as
Some chamber tion pellant chamber is
physical combustion fully known type,
processes, dynamics, understood.
such are
as not Rate
thrust always of combuspro-
analytically complete a mathematical
quantitatively
is necessary.
set
to be a function mixture but ratio, and
of pressure, combustion quantitative
of equations model of tile
then engine the
geometry,
a specific
Through senting problem nent state various lated may be the areas
solution
of the equations model, engine and the
repre-
mathematical of an are for the systems defined,
important are studied, compoproblems steadyby simu-
expression combustion
for reliable chambers
use with rocket is not available. analyses made
engine Certain with the like or eq. com-
characteristics designs engine and
system of these
system-start-transient aid of an engine have Thus, model (10-2)) bustion. not ideally
improved and as
(set
of equations instantaneous instability can
solution Also, operation, characteristics,
assumed system-coupled
evaluated.
transient
combustion This deficiency
thrustis
affected may be analyses. incorporated
chamber-feed-line, described:
instability be rectified
component checked
by these
dynamic will be
by experimental Dynamic used during the system. the
systems analyses can
evaluation. also be effectively phase is (with system Diftestof
If necessary, prior tions, involved immediately each of the functionally mathematical Let head know, us look developed
modifications testing.
to hardware Dynamic because not
development-redesign Once test and and the serves information the actual
analyses, all in a given and/or processes and
however, of the rocket engine
have physical
their
limitaare As in the
an engine available, idealized operating ferences analysis performance
processes
predicted
characteristics
system better
assumptions) characteristics can be noted cycle and of the final of the system defines thus
thoroughly becomes quantitatively, increases.
understood. defined confidence
can be compared. evaluated. This limits as to be system. of component a guide integrated Similarly, operating test results, can
analyses
for the into from dynamthe be modi-
at an example. by a propellant of pump write: speed,
The pump flow
hydraulic is, rate, as we and
redesign an analyses ics, engine fied and and
components engine engine-vehicle with and its
optimum,
a function We can
geometry.
in conjunction improved.
components
H=[(N, where H = pump N = pump Q = pump t = pump A=area used many as tion design developed speed, flow normal rpm rate, gpm radius, to the such the within equation form which as
Q, r, A)
(10-1)
head,
ft
Criteria System
for the
Mathematical
Model
of an Engine
impeller
in flow, (10-1), system. be expressed shown by equapump as in 2 can of the be equation
The generally eters, then
mathematical consists and of linear equations,
model of a group
of an engine of lumped algebraic are formulated or digital
system paramand and computer.
meridional interdependence an engine (10-1) may
Correlations, to determine processes
or nonlinear which
differential
programed
for an analog
Furthermore, a specific (10-2), only.
of function, is valid
Careful examination of an engine system schematic will be sufficient to determine whether a mathematical tem. the in the usually sion This many entire model simply significant system Some various will amounts physical which may idealized be possible for the sysof involved are expres-
for a particular
to an observation processes assumptions The physical be expressed
H = aN _ + bNQ + cQ When known, description to obtain the of an engine the numerical (10-2) values becomes pump solution of a, b, c are
(10-2)
mathematically. required of the
to obtain equations.
a quantitative
equation
a quantitative and a means operation of the
of a given numerical system.
design
significance stood before meaningful.
of these assumptions must be underthe mathematical model can become
386
There are many ways to describe a rocket engine system mathematically. The choice will be based on the answers expected from the model. A model used to predict engine systems orificing requirements may call for high steadystate accuracy over a stated operating range, while the dynamic characteristics are of little consequence. A model used for the design integration of control components and subsystems may require good dynamic accuracy for intermediate frequencies (0.01-100 cycles/sec)and good static accuracy. A model needed to describe high-frequency effects (100-10000 cycles/ sec) may require little in the way of static accuracy, since the phenomena under study occur so rapidly that the system as a whole has no time to shift to new operating levels. The mathematical model most frequently used is of the type employed for system main-stage operation and control design. This usually serves as the basic mathematical model of an engine system, with some modifications incorporated for other, special applications. In general, all mathematical descriptions of a basic model are for conditions around the systems design point, with the following assumptions: (1) All liquid propellant flows are incompressible and at constant temperature (2) All gas equations are based on perfect gas performance, where the gas properties are functions of composition (3) All vehicle-supplied parameters, such as main propellant tank discharge pressures, are constant.
K a=2gpA2Ra2
(10-4)
b=_g where Pl P2 a b
(10-5)
=pressure at the inlet, psi =pressure at the outlet, psi =design factor for turbulent flow pressure drop, sec2/lb-in 2 = design factor for fluid inertia to changes in flow rate, sec2/in 2
_z = weight flow rate, lb/sec it = change in weight flow rate, lb/sec 2 h1_2 = gravity head of the fluid in the duct, in. If the system is subject to an acceleration other than I g, this term must be modified p K A = fluid density, lb/in s = duct or component resistance coefficient, to be obtained from flow tests = flow area of the duct, or flow area of the component at the design operating point, in 2 = component area ratio=component flow area/A (at the design operating point, Ra = 1) :length of the duct or component, in =gravitational constant, 386.4 in/sec 2 process and operating dy-
Ra
L g
2. Combustion namics:
Refer to figure 10-2, which describes schematically the combustion process. A transportation time delay is assumed, representing the time required for the propellants to pass through the injector and enter into the combustion process, and expressed as poAo( Lo + Lo') g'o p[At(L[+ LI') Wf
Examples of Equations Engine Model
for a Mathematical r = (10-6)
The mathematical expressions and equations for the various physical processes and operating dynamics of a rocket engine may be derived from equations given in chapter I and in other chapters for the design of the various components. Here, we will present several typical examples to illustrate the application of these equations in a mathematical model. 1. Pressure component: drop of fluid flow in a duct or Figure P, - P2 =aw2 +bit-Ph,-2 (10-3)
r[=
(10-7)
-, ,.=:
w o AI
I O-2.-Schematic bustion
description process.
of the
com-
387
These assume define
can
usually
be indicated p-ros combustion correlations:
by the and p-rfs. gas,
Laplace If we we can
Vc
=volume injector
of combustion to throat, gas constant, weight lb/mole of the gas stored lb of the
chamber in 3
from
transformation the
operators following
a homogeneous
R' _Ii
= universal mole =molecular gas,
18 528 in-lb,/R combustion
pc= \T/kV3 R,( (wc

Wc = wo + wt
(lo-8)
(10-9)
Wc
= weight bustion
in the
com-
volume,
g'c Ro
= flow rate of the gas emerging combustion chamber, lb/sec =weight fraction the combustion =throat area, in 2 constant, velocity, combustion thrust main types 22.2 ft/sec of oxidizer chamber
from stored
the in
Wo
Ro = (w + wt)
(10-10) At g
=gravitational = ctiaracteristic equations and for the other to engine
ft/sec
wo=_o+
(p-rSfvo-Rofvc)dt
(10.11)
C* These be applied
process chambers,
can gas
t wf= wf fo [P-rfSwl-(1 - R)fVc]dt(lO'12)
generators, 3.
of combustor. dynamics:
Turbopump
operating
P2 - Pl =aNp wcA tPcg C* (10-13) a=

T
2_y
(10-16)
4 rr2rp2p g
(10.17)
=t(Ro)
C*=t(Ro) = time pass into Po, Pt Ao, Lo, Lo', t o. fvf iI_o, _f At Lt Lt' = density =injector = travel and = travel and = time =injected fuel, = weight the fuel fuel period flow lb/sec of oxidizer combustion beginning and chamber of time fuel required through the for oxidizer the injector process, and fuel, and fuel, and and
(10.14)
(10-15)
= [(4,)
x=
(10-1s)
(10-19)
4,
r/p
fuel enter sec lb/in
to
combustion area, oxidizer
Tp = bNp2x 3
(10-20)
of oxidizer distance prior prior distance
in 2 in
of injected of impinged to combustion, in consideration, rate of oxidizer
oxidizer oxidizer in sec and stored volume, period t in lb, in lb,
b = 8 z73rp3App g
(10-21)
to impingement,
Nt = RgNp 1485 _i'tAHot Nt
(10-22)
Tt -
(10-23)
at the Wo, wt
AH=CpT
- -_t
(10.24)
= weight of oxidizer the combustion at the end
and fuel stored chamber volume, period t
lNp = f (RgTt Equation tion (10-25) is
- Tp)dt
(10-25) equatorque a change to seek zero. beof
of time
= complex formation
operator
in a Laplace
trans-
a torque-balanced Any unbalanced
for turbopumps. turbine speed and causing
Pc Tc
= pressure = temperature
of the
combustion combustion
gas,
psia gas, R
tween shaft
pump the
will
initiate
of the
integrand
388
where p, P2 a =pump =pump =pump inlet pressure, rise
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
This psia psia factor, lb(3) design radius, in 2 pumped fluid, lb/in 3 (4) factor, in in-lb-sec 2 design
includes
pressure
drops
in various pertrans-
discharge pressure 2
pressure,
flow passages, formance, and fer and
turbopump operating thrust chamber heat characteristics system performance, and points sec. of engine 10.3.) system and (See see. engine matching of various steadyby
combustion of engine and calibrating operating (See
sec2/in b rp Ap p =pump =pump =pump =density
Optimization state properly design ponents. Determination performance perforalance ence
torque impeller flow
operation
tile com-
area,
of the
Np = pump Nt =turbine Rg = speed Tp =torque Tt = torque _Pt =turbine
shaft speed, rev/sec shaft speed, rev/sec ratio of the turbopump gear train
mainstage including engine 10.4.) control probsuch int2u-
characteristics, variations of various
at pump shaft, in-lb at turbine shaft, in-lb gas Btu/lb gas specific Btu/lb-F gas gas total specific ratio gear shaft, train, referred 2 coefficient to the in-lb-sec head heat temperature heat ratio at constant at inlet, presR flow energy rate, content lb/sec of the turbine
coefficients.
(5)
Evaluation
AH = available gas, Cp = turbine sure, To =turbine y Rt I =turbine =turbine =inertia main _, x r/p r/t
lems during main-stage as thrust and mixture (6) Evaluation tions Once main-stage established, problems basic with and of various their effects
operation, ratio controls potential
perturba-
on mainstage model system for the is special a
operation the basic operation it can
mathematical of an engine be utilized inputs.
pressure of the pump
to study
additional
Vor example, of the rocket missile computer. engine-thrustmain tied valves, to an to allow controller enperturbation, investigations 150 000engine had Fol-
mathematical LOz/RP-1 on of an drive
description pump-fed ballistic an analog additional its electronics, system checkout An updated the
=nondimensional =nondimensional =nondimensional = pump =turbine overall overall
pump pump pump efficiency
pound-thrust been lowing control and analog established design
flow coefficient torque coefficient
for an intermediate-range
efficiency
subsystem, computer adjustment. model, then
servovalve
were and
by suitable
transducers mathematical
Dynamic Operation
Analysis
of Engine
System
Mainstage
transient gain gine was
performance including for more
In general, mainstage and with system the aid level,
engine as specifications,
design well as
requirements initial can model of the be determined
at the
nonlinear
component consisting engine given 10-22) analysis in
used
detailed dynamics.
of the
thrust-control-loop
of a mathematical descriptions a computer. at main tile 10-2, The
of linearized system operating tables as may a and and
complete on the as and are: static (such
Based stage 10-3, primary static
Dynamic Cutoff The engine (1)
Analysis Transients main system
of Engine
System
Start
and
values 3-2 to 3-5), b in eqs.
design 10-16,
factors
(such
objectives start
of dynamic transients of the are: systems
analyses schematic controls,
of
be obtained.
dynamic
Investigation for needed as type and and
objectives
for mainstage
operation
start-transient quantity sequencing of thrust of start
snch
of control and timing
compoof
(1)
Evaluation matic, tion with
of the respect of the and components
engine
system
scheopera(2)
nents, their
to mainstage dynamic the
operation chamber time, ignition and
Determination requirements Estimation thrust
(2)
Evaluation interactions, various
characteristics, of level. (3)
performance at mainstage
energy,
buildup
characteristics
389
(4)
Evaluation teristics transients, ignition ture
of comp,uent and delays, and start system of various and their effects where interactions as gas such
dynamic during
characstart chamber tempera800
,ooo,
900
_
Ga,S
\ VALVE
_i
, FUEL
] i
I
PUMP
r I
OISCHARGE-_%,
7I
"--_--__,,.... ! .._,w," .,,-
j
T "
iVALVE
-_
combustion generator dynamic operation or thrust potential on start the such
I
[
" _,--
- b -_--_ i i
I
i
'
'
! f
/
.....
,..... ;
"
,
.... PUMP
RO$.',O,,
-OPEN I
_---_-
f--_.
---
"_--_
--_- .......
; F._ --./_ FUEL , ,
surges, the
propellant transient.
pump (The
stalling aim is
0
r 7!1/ I
600
"{l ,/
--_--'_-"
I
'
'
MA,N ////"_"--OX,D,ZER I / I/
_
(5)
Evaluation during to avoid exhibiting instability.)
of system prolonged
stability at levels chamber perturbatransients, are as the become such propeltransfers engine, effects absent
I .....
r /M_IN [ '/OXiDiZe'.. .....
i II I t/
t1 ---
..... GASGENERATOR
PPESSbRE-'_ . -CLOSED
(6)
Evaluation tions such settling
IC-NITER FUEL
IGNITION--,(
,/
_,_"/
as
a start effects
propellantr 200 PRPRESSURE --
of gravitation A-2 start may stage transient
For LO2/LH2 dynamic rather
some
engine
systems, of its
turbopump-feed analyses They (wave
IO0
complex. hammer systems,
include
o_.l
02
TIME
0.3
FROM
0.4
START
o._ 0.6
SIGNAL,
o7
o8
09
_o
as water lant fuel feed feed fuel
equation)
in the of heat the
SECONDS
distribution throughout choking passages, cavitation density from stall in the pumping, me are
and pressure chamber of the changes enthalpy Because these
drops system,
high-pressure gas in the characteristics pump many inlets, by others. of programed
Figure engine turbine
lO-3.-Graphic model system drive. for
presentation a typical a gas utilizing
of
the .start for
of hydrogen at the pump and
transient
turbopump-feed generator
coolant pump, changes of this mathematical in fuel
caused
(3)
Evaluation
of possible
temperature generator of total cutoff thrust decay with time
surges during cutoff and
complexity, models
equations usually
in main chamber or gas the cutoff transient (4) Evaluation impulse, improving (5) Evaluation teristics and optimization
for a digital Figure transient gine drive. pumps, parameters, system Valve
computer. 10-3 model presents graphically a gas as well are generator as the start enbuildup Other of a typical timing, of gas such as turbopump-feed pressure propellant indicated. combustionflow rates, can are in order to optiof
by minimizing repeatability of engine sequences
utilizing
for turbine
charac-
characteristics and main
generator, gas-generator
A series
of cutoff
modified
chamber
shutoff timing of the control valves is usually simulated with the mathematical model. The various these sequence Figure transient 10-3. are decay chamber The curve. simulated problems used. 10-4 model presents of the by the The versus cutoff graphically typical main time engine chamber area curve the cutoff are cutoff runs problem a function are then analyzed and whether particular
gas temperature and propellant be included in the model. Several usually mize engine (1) to evaluate systems cutoff Important alternate simulated potential start objectives transients cutoff operational engine-start with the problem transient are: of the start
to determine methods model, and areas operation. analyses
potential
areas, of the
of figure pressure
of dynamic
engine-thrust-decay integrated
characteristics under may the be used
represented pressure the
Investigation for needed including
systems transient
schematic controls, and
sequencing
to assess
engine
impulse.
timing of various control valves (2) Evaluation of pressure surges and other components during the cutDynamic These Analysis analyses of Engine-Vehicle may be performed Interactions during the adverse effects in propellant ducts and feed system off transient
initialdesign phase
of an engine system, as
390
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
I000 I ! ; r I I
10.3
---
DESIGN INTEGRATION SYSTEM CALIBRATION Requirements System
FOR
ENGINE
900
- i
"--FUEL
PUMP
3_SCHARGE
.........
I
i |POSITION ,.___VAI ' E I

I i
\1__ i
_'_ /-_ L,_"F 700
[ b
'i I
_ ",.
....
_
r I
T OPE N J
[ z
Design Engine
for the Calibration
of an
GAS GENERATOR VALVE!
././././_MAINFUEL i x',_i'l VALVE 1
Because
of unavoidable
mechanical
toler-
L_
I'
_'_'
VALVE
6oo-d
--_.-
_;
._
-_::CLOSEI_
Ld
E 03 03 hi at" r_ 500----
II I ',I I
\
! ,
400
--
-"L-/I I I
_\_ l__, / :_ GAS PRESSURE [ _ \_lr"_" MAIN
OXiDiZER PUMP DISCHARGE,
I L
[ I !1 PRESSURE [
ances, it may be expected that the operating characteristics and performance of the various engine system components will deviate somewhat from their nominal design value. A certain amount of calibration is always required for these components, as well as the engine system as a whole, to attain the desired engine performance characteristics within design specification. Therefore, provisions must be made in component and systems design to permit effective calibration during system integration. The specific impulse Is of an engine system is the ratio of thrust F to propellant weight flow rate &. Thus, any deviations affecting F or & will affect system performance. I s also is a function of propellant mixture ratio. It is desirable, therefore, and beneficial to calibrate an engine system by adjusting its propellant feed system. Prior to complete engine system calibration, the pressure or pressure drop versus flow characteristics of each individual component should be calibrated and evaluated. Hydraulic and pneumatic components, such as pressure and flow regulators, valves, flowraeters, ducts, and lines, can all be readily calibrated on flow benches. However, those components which operate at temperature extremes, such as thrust chamber assemblies, gas generators, and turbopumps, are best calibrated by combining the flow tests with actual hot firings. The characteristic propellant flow curve of an engine system is obtained by summing the pressure or pressure drop versus flow curves of the various components (figs. 10-5 and 10-6). The general design approaches toward calibrating an engine system to attain its design thrust at design mixture ratio are: (1) The design operating point of each component should be kept within the relatively flat region of its pressure or pressure drop versus flow curve. (2) The mechanical tolerances and built-in adjustments of each component should be designed so that the random deviation
GENERATOR I
CHAMBER
CHAMBER
0._ o.z 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 o.-t o.e 0.9 Lo

TIME FROM CUTOFF SIGNAL, SECONDS
Figure lO-4.-GrapMc presentationof the cutoff transient model of the typical engine of figure 10-3. well as following development test firings. A_eas of general interest to be analyzed may include, but should not be limited to(l) Engine system operation and performance requirements from a vehicle mission point of view (o) Matching of engine propellant supply requirements with the vehicle propellant system, including dynamic evaluation of the vehicle propellant tank pressurization system, PU control system, vehicle acceleration and sloshing effects, and feed system-combustion coupled instabilities (3) Matching of the engine controls with the vehicle guidance system, including response of engin.o start, cutoff, thrust level, and vector controls to vehicle guidance commands (4) Simulation of interaction between engine systems operation and vehicle dynamics. (This may involve closed-loop coupling of an analog simulation of vehicle guidance and trajectory characteristics with an engine system during hot firing)
_____._.__._>
391
_MINIMUM _CURVE REGULATOR OUTLET PRESSURE SYSTEM OE SIGN PRESSURANT LINE PRESSURE ORIFICE DROP_._ "_1 _'x= _ -/I _ // DESIGN PRESSURE DROP !N THE CHAMBER ( MANIFOLD COOLING_ PASSAGE AND INJECTOR -_ // /f _ /i ./ _ _=/-_/ POINT--\ \ / / _ / / _ _ _r _ CURVE
OR
REQUIRED TANK CALIBRATED
PRESSURE SYSTEM
VS r_.OW RESIST/kNCE
SYSTEM DESIGN PRESSURE VS FLOW CURVE OR SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE WITHOUT ORIFICE L_NE {AT _ ENTRANCE CHAMBER CHAMBER OURVE TO PRESSURE TANK) INLET PRESSURE END VS FLOW CURVE VS VS FLOW CURVE
CALIBRATION
DESIGN PRESSURE DROP-_._ DESIGN PRESSURE DROPS iN VALVES AND LINES_
__--*_---'-_PRESSURANT / / /-_OESIGN PLOW _
DESIGN
INJECTOR
PRESSURE
DESIGN CHAMBER _N,JECTOR END PRESSURE
PROPELLANT
FLOW,
LB/SEC
Figure
10-5.-Propellant
flow
design
characteristics (oxidizer
of or fuel).
typical
pressure
feed
engine
system
v--CALIBRATED \RESISTANCE
FUEL CURVE x--FUEL \CURVE
SYSTEM
SYSTEM RE, STANCE WITHOUT ORIFICE
_.
_-
CURVE OXIDIZER
WITHOUT SYSTEM
ORIFICE RESISTANCE
---....
CALIBRATION ORIFICE PRESSURE DESIGN DROP "_, _
,,,
,---FUEL PUMP PRESSUI_: VS [ /--FUEL FLOW PUMP CURVE PRESSURE AT NZ
t
Pfd
" OX,Q, J
i Wfd wfo i FUEL Wfb FLOW LB/SEC %a Wod
ZERUMP P PRESSURE
OXIDIZER FLOW LB/SEC
FUEL SYSTEM FLOW DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS Figure IO-E-Propellant flow design
OXIDIZER SYSTE},I FLOW
DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS feed engine system.
characteristics of the A-I stage turbopump
of its sign able
flow value limit,
characteristics will and be kept to keep
from within other
its
de-
ratio, ber test pressure design previous testing. newly drops The either the flow
and
Is (as drops
verified Based of the point data, for the
by actual on can or as these be
thrust flow
chamrates, from the at the actual
a reasonsystems system
firings). operating design Certain designed
in order
to facilitate
various
components estimated from have obtained may design
calibration, components region. (3) Sufficient aside system due tions. then be or other
in their pressure
design head
operating be set feed deviacan
components specific system. versus system design in figure The flow by the flow of design
to be pressure
should propellant resistance feed
in each to component The
engine flow
allowed design propellant summation and as
to compensate propellant
for contingencies system
pressure
flow can
curve
of by versus characflow
be obtained pressure drop
chamber pressure 10-5.
calibrated adjusting
by means means.
of orifices
component shown is introduced for calibration.
teristics, an orifice system
In addition, required propel-
in each
propellant
minimum
Design The the lated
for Calibration first design flow rated rate step
of a Pressure is the
Feed
System of calcu-
tank lant
_ressure
versus
curve
for each
determination as
design from
of each
propellant, design
is thus derived. In most pressure feed systems, the design orifice pressure drop for
systems calibration determines the maximum
systems
thrust,
mixture
.....
_ ----_:::.:=?:
392
allowable cumulative pressure drop increase the components above their nominal values. suitable tank pressurization system can then designed, compatible with minimum required pressure versus flow characteristics. Sam ple Calcu la tion (I0-I)
of A be tank
The following data are available from analyses and component tests for the A-4 stage propulsion system, at rated thrust conditions: Thrust chamber injector end pressure range required to maintain rated thrust = 110 3 psia Thrust chamber injector pressure drop range (both oxidizer and fuel) = 25 2 psi Thrust chamber oxidizer dome pressure drop =3_ + 1 psi Oxidizer line pressure drop = 5-+ 1 psi Main oxidizer valve pressure drop (at the fully open position) = 4 1 psi Thrust chamber fuel manifold pressure drop =4_+1 psi Fuel line pressure drop = 4 1 psi Main fuel valve pressure drop (at the fully open position) = 4 1 psi Pressure allowance required for mixture ratio control by oxidizer valve vernier positioning (fig. 7-4)= 10 psi Determine the design pressure drops of the calibration orifices, and the minimum required tank pressures for design flow rates. Solution The design pressure drop of a calibration orifice must be equal to the sum of the maximum pressure drop increases of components above their design values. Thus: The design pressure drop of the oxidizer calibration orifice = 3 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 8 psi. The minimum required oxidizer tank pressure at the design flow rate = 110 + 25 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 8 + 10 = 165 psia. The design pressure drop of fuel calibration orifice=3+2+l + 1 +1 =8 psi. The minimum required fuel tank pressure at the design flow rate = 110+ 25 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 8 = 155 psia.
feed system are similar to those of a pressure feed system. However, the difference in turbopump pressure or head versus flow characteristics from those of a pressurized system dictates a somewhat different approach to systems calibration. For mechanically coupled turbopump feed systems, such as the A-1 stage engine, systems calibration generally involves adjustment of the turbopump speed as well as the installation of an orifice in one of the propellant lines. For turbopump feed systems with dual turbine drive, such as the A-2 stage engine, the calibration can be accomplished by adjusting the speeds of both turbopumps. The design principles for the calibration of mechanically coupled turbopump feed engine systems are best illustrated by a typical example, as shown in figure 10-6. Here, the propellant system resistance curves without orifices (representing conditions downstream of the pump discharges) are constructed based on the designs and test results of the components for the A-1 stage engine system. Next, the discharge pressure versus flow curves of both pumps are constructed from test data obtained with the A-1 stage engine turbopump, operated at speed N1. These pump curves intersect the corresponding system resistance curves at point A. At this speed, fuel flow rate _/fa is above, and oxidizer flow rate _#oa is below the required design flow rates, Wfd and _i,od. To achieve the design oxidizer pump flow _Pod, at a desired discharge pressure Pod, the design operating speed of the turbopump assembly mr, st be raised to a required level N 2 by increasing the turbine gas flow. However, at this speed, the fuel pump, which is mounted on the same shaft as the oxidizer pump, would be delivering a flow rate d'fb considerably above the required design flow rate 1//fd (point B in fig. 10-6). To reduce the fuel flow to _fd, a calibration orifice is placed in the fuel line. This amounts to increasing the fuel pump discharge pressure at constant speed hr2 to Pfc, where _'fd is reached at point C. The pressure drop across the calibrating orifice is represented by Pfc-Pfd, where Pfd is the desired fuel pressure. If fuel flow rate _/fa is below and oxidizer flow rate _/o._ is above the required design flow rates, the calibrating process would be to speed up the turbopump to obtain the desired fuel flow,
Design System
for Calibration
of a Turbopump
Feed
The propellant flow characteristics downstream of the pump discharges of a turbopump
ENGINE SYSTEMSDESIGN INTEGRATION
393
and to place an orifice in the oxidizer line. However, it is generally desirable to place the orifice in the system of the propellant with the higher boiling point. In this situation, therefore, and also when the pressure drop across a calibrating orifice tends to become excessive, it is customary to trim the pump impeller so as to reduce the effective speed, and thus attain the required flow and pressure levels. In view of pump efficiency effects, it is desirable to trim the pump drawing the smaller horsepower, usually the one with the lower mass flow rate, except in cases of extreme density differences. The adjustment of the turbine gas flow rate, and thus the turbopump operating speed, can also be made by means of orifices in the turbine inlet gas line, or in the gas generator propellant lines. In general, turbopump feed systems afford less stringent requirements for the various components regarding deviations from their design steady-state flow values, because the system is inherently more flexible. However, systems dynamic characteristics under transient conditions may restrict these deviations. Sample Calculation (I0-2)
Determine
the location
of the calibration drop, and its
orifice, ex-
its nominal design pressure pected range of adjustment.
Solution(see sample calculation (6-2)) The required oxidizer pressure head at the design point = 1095 + 200+ 150 + 25 + 35 = 1505 psia. The required fuel pressure head at the design point = 1095 + 200 + 290 + 10 + 15 = 1610 psia. Since the LOX pump discharge pressure is 1505 psia, but the fuel pump discharge pressure is 1720 psia, the calibration orifice must be located in the fuel system. The nominal orifice design pressure drop = 1720- 1610= 110 psi. From a detail analysis, we have found that the change of the fuel pump discharge pressure, as a function of turbopump speed increase or decrease, is a fraction of that of the oxidizer pump discharge pressure. Due to the effects of chamber pressure deviations, therefore, the maximum value of fuel calibration orifice pressure drop is required exist: when the following conditions is at
The following design values and allowable deviations are given for the A-1 stage LOX/RP-1 engine system components, at rated thrust: Thrust chamber injector end pressure= 1095 _+ psia 30 Thrust chamber injector pressure drop (both oxidizer and fuel) = 200 20 psi Thrust chamber oxidizer dome pressure drop =150+10 psi Oxidizer line pressure drop = 25 -+2 psi Main oxidizer valve pressure drop = 35 3 psi Oxidizer pump specific speed, Ns = 1980 rpm Oxidizer pump suction pressure = 55 psia rain Oxidizer pump discharge pressure at 7000 rpm and a design flow rate of 1971 lb/sec = 1505 -+25 psia Thrust chamber fuel jacket and manifold pressure drop = 290 _+ psi 20 Fuel line pressure drop = 10 + 2 psi Main fuel valve pressure drop = 15 +-2 psi Fuel pump specific speed, Ns = 1090 rpm Fuel pump suction pressure = 45 psia rain Fuel pump discharge pressure at 7000 rpmand a design flow rate of 892 lb/sec = 1720-+ 25 psi
(a._) Thrust chamber injector end pressure its lower limit (1065 psia) (_b) All pressure drops in oxidizer are at their higher limits (c_) All pressure their lower passages
drops in fuel passages limits
are at
(d.._)Oxidizer pump discharge pressure is 25 psi below its nominal value at the turbopump speed commensurate with the stated specific speed (e) Fuel pump discharge pressure is 25 psi above its nominal value, at the same speed The equivalent required oxidizer pump discharge pressure under these conditions = 1065 +220+160+27+38+25= 1535 psia. Required oxidizer pump developed head H = 144 (1535 - 55) _ 2990 ft 71.38 Oxidizer pump volumetric flow rate
Q=
1971 449 12 420 gpm 71.38 =
......LL
::---
394
Substitute the required
this into equation pump speed
(6-7) to obtain
F6970 (7950) 's11.aaa H = L: _ ] = 4730 ft or 4730 50.45 = 1666 psi 144 The equivalent fuel pump discharge pressure under these conditions would be 1666 + 45- 25 = 1686 psia. The required pressure drop of fuel line calibration orifice under these conditions would be 1686 - 1125- 220- 310- 12- 17=2 psi. Therefore the required range of adjustment for the pressure drop of the fuel line calibration orifice is from 2 to 216 psi.
N- Ns H'Ts _ 1980 (2990) 'Ts = 7190 rpm QOS (12 420) -s Fuel pump volumetric flow
892 449 = 7950 gpm Q50.45 From equation (6-7),the fuel pump nominal developed head at 7190 rpm
H = (.NQaS_ / \"_-s or
I333
= f7170 (7950)s_ ] 1333 = 4900 ft _
490050.45 144
10.4 ENGINE SYSTEM INTEGRATED PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS -1715 psi In the process of engine system design integration, importanttask is the integration an of engine system perfonnance characteristics. These data are preparedand compiled by the rocketengine designer to provide the vehicle systems engineer with intbrmation necessary to integrate the propulsionsystem with the vehicle system. _ere possible,a briefexplanationof the data and itsapplication should be included to provide clearer understandingand greaterusefulness. The followingare importantaspects of integrated engine performance characteristics.
The equivalent fuel pump discharge pressure under these conditions would be 1715 +45 + 25 = 1785 psia. The required pressure drop for the fuel line calibration orifice thus would be 1785-1065-180 - 270 - 8 - 13 = 249 psi. Similarly, a minimum fuel calibration orifice pressure drop is required conditions exist: when the following
(a_a_) hrust chamber injector end pressure T is at its higher limit (1125 psia), and conditions (b), (c), (d), and (2.) above are reversed The equivalent required oxidizer pump discharge pressure under these conditions = 1125 + 180 + 140 + 23 + 32 - 25 = 1475 psia. Required oxidizer pump developed head H=144(1475-55)=2870 71.38 Substitute this into equation quired pump speed N =1980(2870)_ (12420) .s From equation developed head (6-7), ft
Nominal Engine Conditions
Performance
Values
at Rated
These are usually prescribed by the engine model specification. These data are for engine system nondnal steady-state operation, at rated conditions. Tables 3-2 to 3-5 are typical examples of nominal engine operating and performance parameters, which include nominal thrust, specific impulse, propellant combination, flow rates, mixture ratio, and various component operating data. Allowable deviations are specified for important parameters such as: thrust, -+3 percent, and mixture ratio, *-2 percent. Engine system specific impulse is usually specified at its minimum value. The performance of all deliverable engine systems must be above this minimum during acceptance tests.
(6-7);
the re-
=6970
rpm
the fuel pump nominal
395
In addition to tables for nominal engine performance parameters, nominal engine performance graphs such as chamber pressure versus engine thrust, and engine specific impulse versus engine thrust, are often included as additional monitoring aid. Figure 10-7 presents a typical performance graph for the A-1 stage engine system, of chamber pressure versus engine thrust at sea level.
Required oxidizer flow for vehicle surization-3 lb/sec Determine the following nominal values at rated conditions: _.) Thrust gas (b) Thrust ber _) Engine Engine (e_) Engine Solution generated generated system system system
tank pres-
performance exhaust cham-
by the turbine
by the main thrust propellant flow rates mixture ratio specific impulse
Sample
CalcuIation
(10-3)
The following data were obtained from design analyses and component tests of the A-1 stage LOX/RP-1 engine system at nominal rated conditions; i.e., 750000 pounds thrust at sea level: Thrust chamber sea level specific impulse at 1000-psia nozzle stagnation pressure, and a mixture ratio of 2.35 O/F=270 sec Turbine sec Oxidizer Oxidizer cent exhaust gas specific impulse = 32.6
A trial-and-error method is used to solve this problem. Our first step is to approximate engine system and gas generatorpropellantflow rates. We substitute thrustchamber Is intoequation (1-28): = F _ 750 000 = 2778 lb/sec Is 270 The thrust chamber mixture ratio can now be oxidizer
pump developed head--2930 ft pump overall efficiency = 70.7 per-
Fuel pump developed head = 4790 ft Fuel pump overall efficiency =65.9 percent Gas generator O/F mixture ratio = 0.408 Turbine gas available energy content = 359 Btu/lb Turbine overall efficiency = 58.2 percent Required auxiliary drive shaft power = 500 bhp
used to approximate and fuel flow rates: Engine oxidizer
the corresponding
flow rate 2778x2.35 _i' = (2.35+ 1) - 1948 lb/sec
Oxidizer 1250
n,., 0 1200
flow rate = 1948 + 3 = 1951 lb/sec
'
"
Engine
fuel flow rate _i'f= 2778 - 1948 = 830 lb/sec
Z . -- t,t.I n., rr'
1150
From equations (6-12) and (6-13), the required oxidizer and fuel pump drive horse power for this approximation are: 1951 2930 - 550 0.706 = 14720hp
-r' u
_'
] IOO
Oxidizer
/ / _
pump horsepower
::)W (_ -r I.-
1050
--/--
-CONFIDENCE LIMITS [
Fuel
pump horsepower
- 830x 4790 = 10 96Q hp 550 x 0.659 turbine shaft horsepower:
I000
--_
The corresponding
7OO,OO0 7500(30 8OO,OO0 ENGINE THRUST, POUNDS Figure lO-7.-Chamber thrust at sea level pressure versus engine [or the A-1 stage engine.
Thp = 14 720 + 10 960 + 500 = 26 180 hp From equation (6-19), bine gas flow rate: the corresponding tur-
396
0.707 x 26180 _i't= 359x0.582 We use this value
Fuel pump flow rate -88.4 lb/sec =(91.726.6)+(2768horsepower 1941)= 892.1 lb/sec
to start
a new calculation
Turbine
shaft
cycle to separate main chamber and gas generator data. The thrust generated by a turbine exhaust gas flow rate of 88.4 lb/sec = 88.4 x 32.6 = 2880 lb. Thus the main chamber thrust: Ft = 750 000Thrust chamber 2880 = 747120 lb Turbine
1970.6x 2930 892.1 x 4790 ThP = 550 x 0.706 + 550 0.659 + 500 = 14850+ 11 790+ 500= 27 140 hp
gas flow rate w_ = 0.707 27140 359 0.582
_ 92 lb/sec
flow rate l_,tc = 747 120 270 2769 ib/sec
This value closely confirms for the last trial. Thus: (a__)Nominal (b__)Nominal turbine exhaust
the assumptions gas thrust = 92 x 32.6 = 3000 lb
Oxidizer
pump flow rate _ 88.4 x 0.408 + 2769 x 2.35 + 3 1+0.408 1+2.35 = 25.6 + 1942+ 3= 1970.6 lb/sec (c) Nominal Nominal
main thrust chamber thrust = 750 000 - 3000 = 747 000 lb thrust chamber propellant flow rate = 747 000/270 = 2768 lb/sec engine
Fuel pump flow rate = (88.4Turbine Thpshaft 25.6) + (2769horsepower 889.8x4790 + 550x0.659 +500=27090 hp 1942) = 889.8 lb/sec
1970.62930 550x0.706
system propellant flow rate = 2768 + 92 = 2860 lb/sec Nominal engine system oxidizer flow rate 92 x 0.408 27682.35 + - 1967.7 lb/sec 1+0.408 1+2.35 Nominal engine system fuel flow rate -: (92 - 26.7) + (2768- 1941) = 892.3 lb/sec (d__)Nominal engine system O/F mixture ratio = 1967.7/892.3 = 2.20 (e_) NominaI engine specific impulse = 750000/2860= 262.4 Resulting sec
Turbine
gas flow rate wt0.707x27090 359 x 0.582 for another = 91.7 lb/sec calculation Engine Performance Variations Off-Nominal Conditions Engine performance off-nominal conditions From
We use this trial:
value
characteristics at various must be available to the
The thrust generated by a turbine exhaust gas flow rate of 91.7 lb/sec=91.7 x 32.6=2980 lb. Main chamber Thrust thrust Ft = 750 000-2980 = 747 020 lb
vehicle system engineer. They can be summarized in the graphic form such as figure 2-1 (engine thrust and specific impulse versus altitude curve), or by means of tabulated engine influence coefficients which will be discussed, The effects of off-nominal conditions of the system performance parameters vital for the design of a vehicle (1) Atmospheric pressure (2) Propellant densities (3) Pressures at _he engine (4) Propellant mixture ratio control (5) Vehicle acceleration (6) Throttling of the engine following engine are considered system:
chamber
flow rate _i'tc = 747 020 27-----0_ 2768 lb/sec =
Oxidizer
pump flow rate lb/sec
propellant inlets and vehicle PU
_ 91.7 0.408 _ 2768 x 2.35 + 3= 1970.6 1 + 0.408 1 + 2.35
system
-,qmNlm
ENGINE
SYSTEMS
DESIGN
INTEGRATION
397
Engine
Influence
Coefficients
example,
the
change
of
engine
thrust
for
the
A-1
These are used to convert or correct steadystate, main-stage engine system performance parameters (dependent variables) from one condition to another of parameters (independent variables) such as atmospheric pressure, fuel temperature, oxidizer density, etc. This may be a correction to standard sea-leveI conditions (firststage booster engine), or a conversion to other specified conditions. The coefficients are derived from the linearized solution of a set of steady-state differential equations which describe the performance of an engine system. These equations are solved by a digital computer and presented in tabular form, as shown in table 10-1 for the A-1 stage engine system. Each influence coefficient is expressed as a percentage and represents the change of a dependent engine variable, such as thrust, as produced by a 1-percent change in an independent variable, such as atmospheric pressure. A coefficient preceded by a positive sign (+) indicates that an increase of an independent variable produces an increase in the dependent variable. Conversely, a coefficient with a negative sign indicates a decrease in the dependent variable, as a result of independent variable increase. These influence coefficients are usually sufficiently accurate over the entire design operation range of an engine system. Because the influence coefficients are linear, the total
simultaneously termined by
stage engine be expressed
system as:
(without
C* correction)
can
( F - F n) _ C l(paFn Pan
Pan)+
C 2(po
- pen)+ pon
C 3([
[Pfn
pfn)
C4(Poi+ Poin
Poin) +
Cs(PfiPfin
Pfin) (10-26)
where F, F,
Pa, Pan
: engine system value, lb
thrust
and its nominal
Po,
Pon
: atmospheric pressure and its nominal value, psia : oxidizer density and its nominal value, lb/ft 3 = fuel density lb/ft s and its nominal value,
P[,
Pfn
Poi, Poin :oxidizer pump inlet suction pressure and its nominal value, psia Pfi, Pfin = fuel pump inlet suction pressure and its nominal value, psia C_, C 2, C a, C 4, C s :influence Sample Calculation (10-4) coefficients
effects
of several
on an engine the
influences
system individual
acting
can effects. be deFor
summing
Estimate the thrust of the A-1 stage engine system operated at the following conditions, without considering the effects of C* correction: Atmospheric pressure, Pa = 10.2 psia Oxidizer density, Po = 71.00 lb/ft 3 Fuel density, p[= 50.90 lb/ft 3 Oxidizer pump inlet suction pressure, Poi = 65 psia Fuel pump inlet suction pressure, Pfi--49 psia
TABLE [Value of C* correction
lO-1.-Influence to be obtained
Coefficient from the
for
the
A-I
Stage mixture
Engine ratio and curve nominal
System shown values Fuel pump inlet suction pressure, 45 psia in fig. 10-8]
C* correction Independent
versus
A 1-percent independent causes percentage dependent the
increase variables following change variables of
of Atmospheric pressure, 14.696 psia
variables
Oxidizer density, 71.38 lb/ft a
Fuel density, 50.45 Ib,/ft a
Oxidizer pump inlet suction pressure, 56 psia
correction 1.0000
Dependent Engine Engine Engine Engine Engine
variables thrust, specific mixture oxidizer fuel
and nominal 750000 impulse, ratio, flow, 892.3 262.4
values: -0.1780 sec . .1780 .0000 .0000 .0000 1.8750 ,2650 1.6420 2.0430 .6530 -0.7420 .0640 -1.3650 -1.1120 .3120 0,0440 .0072 .0270 .0465 .0207 -0.0066 - .0150 .0020 .0108 .0045 1.1030 1.1350 - .0260 - .0632 .0094
lb .......... 2.20 ......... 1967.7 lb/sec. lb/sec .....
flow,
398
Solution From equation (F - Fn)_ (-0.178) F_ (10-26) and table 10-1:
x (10.2 - 14.696) 14.696 x (50.90 - 50.45) 50.45
+ 1.875 x (71.0 - 71.38) _ (-0.742) 71.38
10-1, which are for the A-1 engine system. The change of engine mixture ratio is computed for changes in atmospheric pressure, propellant densities, etc., assuming the C* correction first to be zero. For the resultant change in engine mixture ratio, the C* correction is read from the graph. The value of C* correction found is then used with other independent variables to compute the changes in the remaining dependent variables.
0.044 (65- 55) + (-00066) (49 - 45) 55 45 =0.04531 or 4.531 percent thrust of an altitude, where Sample Calculation (10-5)
Engine system Pa = 10.2 psia: F = 0.04531
x Fn + Fn = 0.04531
x 750 000 + 750 000
: 784 000 lb
Estimate the thrust of the A-1 stage engine system operated at the conditions listed for sample calculation (10-4), adding the effects of C* correction, Also, for the same conditions, estimate the thrust assuming an additional mixture ratio error of +10 percent, due to faulty calibration.
Nonlinear
Corrections Solution
When the linear approximation is not sufficiently accurate, the usefulness of the engine influence coefficients can be extended by a technique which allows nonlinear corrections for certain parameters. An example of this method is the C* correction. For instance, a plot of C* correction versus engine mixture ratio change may be used in conjunction with a table of influence coefficients such as figure 10-8 and table
By analogy table 10-1, the change due to tion (10-4) are
with equation (10-26) and using engine system mixture ratio the conditions of sample calculadetermined as 71.38)
(MR- MRn) _ 1.642 x (71.0MR n 71.38 -_ (-1.365) x (50.90 50.45
- 50.45)
0.027 (65- 55) 55 or -1.62 percent
(-0.002)
-0,1 _-. Z L_ -02 I
(49-45)__0.0162 45
9 -o.3
i.e _ u -0.4
From figure 10-8, the C* correction for a mixture ratio change of-1.62 percent is approximately -0.02 percent. From table 10-1, the influence coefficient for engine system thrust is 1.1030, for a i percent C* correction. Thus (Percent change in F) = 4.531 + (-0.02) = 4.509 Therefore, engine system effects of C* correction: F= 750000 percent considering x 1.103
-0.5
-O.6 -16 -12 CHANGE -8 IN -4 ENGINE PERCENT MIXTURE RATIO, 8 12
thrust
(1 + 0.04509)
= 783 820 lb
Figure 10-8.-C* engine mixture engine.
versus change in correction ratio curve for the A-1 stage
If the mixture ratio error of 10 percent is added, the total mixture ratio change = 10-1.62
ENGINE SYSTEMSDESIGN iNTEGRATiON
399
= 8.38 percent. From figure 10-8, the C* correction then is approximately -0.11 percent. Thus (Percent changein F)=4.531 =0.441, Engine system thrust: = 783 080 Ib +(-0.ii) 1.103
or 4.41 percent
F = 750 000 (i + 0.0441)
10.5 MECHANICAL INTEGRATION ENGINE SYSTEMS Basic Considerations
OF
in the vehicle in the field should not require assembly of additional major components. Integrity of the propellant feed and hot-gas systems, once verified in a complete system during acceptance test, is not necessarily mdlified by the need to temporarily disassemble the engine for shipment. The integrated engine package concept provides added assurance that static teststand firing results have verified structural soundness of the package to a substantially greater degree, than is the case for a system where the vehicle provides portions of the engine structure. An example of a special case of mechanical integration of a liquid propellant rocket engine is the prepackaged storable liquid rocket propulsion system shown in figure 8-1. This system is a completely integrated assembly of all-welded construction, consisting of thrust chamber assemblies, propellant tanks, pressurization system, and necessary controls. This provides maximum assurance of system integrity from the time of manufacture, which includes loading of the propellants, through delivery, vehicle assembly, and launch. Complete propellant separation until systems start is achieved by hermetically sealed burst diaphragms for maximum safety. Acceptance tests are conducted by taking sample units at random from the production line, and hot firing them. In addition, destructive tests of various types are performed. Packaging of Rocket Engine Components
Besides combining allcomponents and subsystems functionally and physically, the design formechanical integration an engine system of must considerti_e overallenvelope of the system and itsweight. This includes the locationof the system's centerof gravity. Also, itshould permit simplified maintenance and checkout practices. Judiciouspackaging design techniques should be applied to minimize the number of interconnecting hydraulic, pneumatic, and electrical lines, with their attendant fittings, connectors, joints, and other potential trouble spots. Welded and brazed joints should be used as much as possible. Problems introduced by vibration, high temperatures and pressures, leakage and space restrictions are thus more easily handled. Engine mechanical integration is a vital part of the system design concept; therefore, all factors related to integration and packaging of components and subsystems must receive careful consideration early in the preliminary design stage. In general, a modular engine packaging approach should be selected such as used for the A-1 (fig. 3-2) and A-2 (fig, 3-4) stage engine systems, as well as for many advanced operational engine systems. This assures engine integrity from time of manufacture through vehicle launch. It also provides a compact package for ease of handling, transportation, and installation in the vehicle. Ease of checkout and component accessibility is also afforded by the packaging concept. The engine should be completely assembled in the manufacturer's plant. Subsequent acceptance testing, air transportation, and installation
Most major rocket engine components, such as thrust chamber (fig. 4-1) and turbopump (fig. 6-14) assemblies, readily form a logical, independent mechanical unit by virtue of their function and their physical shape. However, in the case of minor components such as control valves, gas generators and igniters, packaging design principles can best be served by making them an integral part of a major component assembly, or to integrate them by grouping. A typical example is a gas generator assembly externally attached to a turbine inlet flange (fig. 3-2). Similarly, gas generator propellant valves and combustor can be integrated into one unit (fig. 4-51). Certain types of hydraulic and pneumatic rocket engine control components lend themselves most conveniently to the packaging design. Here, one of the main objectives is to
4O0
reduce line runs, by combining all parts and passages into one housing. Such a housing (or mounting plate) is relatively leakproof, trouble areas now being limited to external line connections to other components. Furthermore, if components are packaged in this manner, reductions of weight and size are achieved through the use of common walls and through the elimination of extra mounting platforms, clamps, and fasteners. Since relatively few packages are required as compared to the usually large number of individual components, maintenance of such a system is greatly simplified. Integrated packages are about as easily removed and replaced as are the separate components making up each package. However, the packaged design is not necessarily desirable for every control system. Each case must be carefully studied. As a rule, one or a combination of the following methods is used for packaging engine control corn ponents: (1) Bank packaging: A group of similar flatsided component assemblies are bolted together in a bank or stack, with common porting through the mating surfaces from one unit to the next. (2) Subplate packaging: Attachment of two or more individually housed components to a subplate, so that all ports of the individual component housings lead into the subplate manifold, through their mating surfaces with the subplate, and on to the systems plumbing. (3) Cartridge packaging: Two or more components housed individually in cylindrical cartridges are in turn assembled in a common body with suitable manifolding to the systems plumbing. (4) Multiple-component packaging: Detail parts for two or more components are assembled in a normal fashion in a common housing or body. Figure 10-9 presents a typical pneumatic control package for a large liquid propellant rocket engine. This package combines two pressureregulator assemblies, two relief valves, a series of solenoid valves, filter units, and check valves. It controls the flow of helium gas to various engine components. When engine start is initiated, the helium control solenoid is energized allowing helium to flow through the main pres-
sure regulator to the control system. The helium is routed internally to the main control valves through a fail-safe check valve. This insures that the various engine propellant valves remain pressurized and thus open, should the helium gas supply system fail.
Packaging of Turbopump Feed Engine Systems In earlier high-thrust rocket propulsionsystems, some of which may still e in operational b use, allmajor engine components were mounted into a cage-shaped thrust mount, which was bolted to the vehicle thrust frame by way of lugs. Figure 2-4 allows several typical examples. With these systems, vehicle steering was accomplished by means of carbon jet vanes protruding into the jet (V-2 and Redstone), or by swiveling the thrust chamber (Thor, Jupiter). In the latter case, the high-pressure feed lines between pumps and injector had to be much more flexible than for misalinements and thermal expansion/ contraction alone. Most advanced liquid rocket engines are tightly packaged. All major components are attached to the main thrust chamber, directly or by means of mounting structures, as shown in figures 3-2, 3-4, and 9-1. Here, the thrust chamber serves as the principal structural member of the entire engine system. For steering, the complete engine package is gimbaled from a gimbal bearing which attaches directly to the thrust chamber dome. The other half of the bearing is attached to the vehicle thrust structure. The low-pressure propellant supply duets must be sufficiently flexible to accommodate the gimbal motions. It is noted that vehicle steering through gimbaling of a single engine or chamber is effective only for the pitch and yaw planes. For roll control, at least two engines are required. For vehicles with a duster of engines, therefore, this poses no difficulties. For single-engine vehicles, special roll-control devices are needed. These may be small auxiliary nozzles, possibly simultaneously used as vernier engines after main-engine cutoff. The use of the turbine exhaust for roll control has also been proposed. Whether the engine attaches to the vehicle thrust structure by means of a thrust frame or a gimbal bearing, either device must be designed to be capable of transmitting the full thrust
401
5 MICRON FILTERBLEED PRESSURE REGULATOR-_ \ MA,NSTA_F .......... CC1NT _\ _
fG.G._ BLEED VALVE CONTROL SOLENOID HELIUM CONTROL SOLENOID VALVE / /---'--'--MAIN PRESSURE REGULATOR / tlJ_.._/_ ,/._t_ j.---,GN,T,ON PHASE CONTROL L
VALVE
-..-1::;-_:_i'_>_!_ HIGH PRESSURE __ t HELIUM INLET
__FAIL-SAFE _ _x__LOW 10MICRON
CHECK
VALVE
FILTER
RELIEF VALVE
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
PNEUMATIC
CONTROL
PACKAGE
SCHEMATIC
VENT
PORT CHECK
VALVE
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
IGNITION HELIUM IN LET SOLENOID VALVE
PHASE CONT.
VENT CHECK VALVE VENT PORT CHECK VALVE
INSTAGE SOLENOID CONTROL VALVE HELIUM CONTROL SOLENOID VA LVE BLEED PRESSURE REGULATOR
G.G
BLEED VALVE
CONTROL
SOLENOID
VALVE
Figure
lO-9.-Typical
pneumatic
control
package systems.
design
used
in
liquid
propellant
rocket
engine
402
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
forces adequate The tolerance vehicle one
at full bolt-hole
gimbal pattern
deflection, and permit must must halves
including for side engine be designed adjustment
an loads. for and for

LU|E OIL TANK
reserve deviations. attachment
for normal
In general,
another. Figures 10-10 and 10-11 illustrate pump The the engine packsyswith
aging tem. constant engine
design
details
of a typical fixed-thrust control. of the thrust and assembly gearbox, pressure
feed
It is a LO2/RP-1, chamber package Gimbaled (thrust dizer (2)
basic sub-
consists main chamber, elbow,
following
packages: (I) chamber assembly oxiinjector, gimbal dome, mount) pumps, electric coninlet
L_N OX_OIZE_ V_LVE
Turbopump turbine, heater,
(propellant lube drive) (combustor, and turbine pump,
auxiliary
(3)
Gas trol
generator valves,
assembly regulator
duct) (4) Main oxidizer duct assembly main oxidizer valve) (5) Main fuel duet assembly fuel valve) (6) Turbine exhaust duct assembly ing heat exchanger) (7) Engine start subsystem (oxidizer and The system periphery The the main thrust (lube oil tank fuel tanks, control valves) (8) Turbopump lube subsystem (includ(10) (11) Electrical Engine (including main (including Figure 10-I I.-System the engine
packaging shown in figure
design 10-10.
detail
of
control thrust frame major installed thrust
package assembly and assembly. is attached mount. to sub-
majority packages of the thrust frame
of the are engine chamber through
component within frame
or at the
and fittings) (9) Pneumatic control package
assembly a gimbal
Mechanical Packages
Protection
of Engine
System
It is normal between gine its sider age and as and the
that date
several
years propellant
may
elapse enand conpackdirt, such to valve and
a liquid and
rocket user, must system moisture, closures, applied inlets, closures which
is completed vehicle means in transit shock. caps, flight.
accepted the engine
by the
Design,
therefore, against simple plates propellant these indicators lines, the
to protect or storage These
include cover holes, bags
plugs, openings. desiccant
and vent
regulator
to other contain Figure rocket lO-lO.-Major of engine. component turbopump-[ed and liquid subsystem propellant warn, trusion require
Frequently, and of color, Certain with
through
change
of undesired however, air ambient
inmay
packages
of moisture. communication
4O3
are many
tasks, such as sequencing nmch
which can
be accomplished cally than would means.
more effectively electri-
be possible by mechanical
It is not possible nor necessary,

FUEL
in the frame-
work of this book, to describe the physical laws and the general fundamentals cuitry. They
_CLOSURE COVER
of electrical cirin the
are covered abundantly
literature. Moreover,
in contrast with most other the rocket enavailfor his electrical members of
basic liquid engine subsystems, able "off the shelf" components system. However,
gine designer will try to use commercially
other cognizant
the design team will have to provide the basic circuit diagram (schematic) and other data in support of the installation of the required electrical components. trical system
"_'__THRUST CLOSURE CHA,_SE/_ COVE_ EXIT
Characteristically, the electo be "frozen" before producsequencing for start and
of a rocket engine is one of the
last subsystems
tion. This is because covers
stop represents one of the major engine developFigure 10-12.-Various for the engine protective shown in [igure closure 10-10. fication of the electrical system progresses. ("breathing"). equipped of dry air moved Others actually sible colors, vertently. various LR79-NAand with only. In this desiccant Some case, of the the closures to permit must to vehicle. the be as left the for the engine bright inadof is accesreadily with Electrical Schematic electrical schematic of a typimay access be rebe this process analyses Emphasis flexibilityof electrical design. (see sec. 10.2). as development More recently, is therefore placed on the ment activities, often resulting in repeated modi-
filters of engine
has been greatly aided by dynamic
covers
for installation will be left clearly operated.
in place These marked, their 10-12 closures
until must such
The complete
to prevent Figure protective 11 engine.
being shows
in place location
cal liquid rocket engine system, including its ground- and vehicle-based sizable drawing. which elements, fills a With the aid of figure i0-13,
Rocketdyne
presents a portion of an earlier engine the basic features are In ordinary wiring diaas follows.
static-firingschematic, 10.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM depend where on some type of discussed
grams, such as that of a radio receiver, all the All rocket engines electrical system true for solid systems, contacts of, for instance, a multiple switch or a tube are drawn crossovers overs would to appear in the same The location, as wire of crossthey do in reality. This requires numerous in the diagram. become number
for their operation.
This is
at least ignition is
initiated electrically, as well as for liquid systems, in which the electrical system assumes
prohibitive in a typical and may lead to
numerous additional tasks. As with any common household device, electrical circuits in rocket engines have caused sign, misapplication, human troubles, due to poor deabuse, poor maintenance, Properly applied, how-
engine electrical schematic
confusion and errors. For rocket engine purposes it has long been found preferable to draw the basic diagram separately. so as to show each circuit In this "functional flow diagram,"
errors, and wear.
ever, electrical circuits can" substantially simplify the operation of a rocket engine, and will increase its usefulness and reliability. There
the various contacts of a relay, for instance, appear in different places, and often away the circuit for the corresponding from relay coil. The
4O4
Figure
I 0-13.-Typical
liquid
rocket
engine
electrical
diagram
(partial).
drawing system also will materially simplify later troubleshooting. The diagram, of which figure 10-13 shows a portion, was drawn sequentially from left to right; i.e., circuits which are energized during test preparation and start are shown in the left portion, while those associated with the cutoff sequence appear on the right. In the schematic, connectors are shown as continuous double lines, or portions thereof, running horizontally through the diagram (J16, P16-- receptacle 16 and plug 16, etc.). Each of the contacts is called out by a letter (T, G, K, etc.). All wires are numbered, as indicated. Power buses, like connectors, are shown as horizontal lines, or portions thereof (heavy, single line = positive buses, usually shown near the top of the drawing; and double lines = negative or ground bus). The meaning of the remaining symbols becomes clear by following the circuit at the left of figure 10-13. Plug P5 is shown connected to the main power bus K101 at terminal TB1-8. If certain facility signal contacts are properly closed, such as those verifying "'Cooling water OK," "Firex armed," "Observer on Station," and many more, power returns through plug P5, contact "Z," and is applied to relay coil K31C. The "B" contact of this relay closes a circuit to lamp DS31C, which lights up. The "A" contacts of the same relay are in the chain to the coil of K34C, together with the normally open contacts of several other relays, such as K29C, "Heater Power On," and.
K28C, "Hypergol Cartridge Installed," as well as the normally closed contacts of cutoff relay KglC. If all contacts are properly closed, the "C" contacts of K34C will cause signal light DS34C to light up. Following selection of the ig-nition power source by means of switch S16C, ignition can now be initiated by means of pushbutton $51C, since the "D" contacts of K34C are now closed, and provided ignition disconnect timer K54C has not picked up (TDPU e time delayed pickup : 0.1 seo). In the diagram, several circuit elements appear which are part of other circuits not discussed. Note that in places two relays are used in parallel (e.g., K16C), if the number of contacts required is too large for one relay. The numbers shown in hexagonal frames refer to the channels of an inking sequence strip chart recorder or equivalent instrument. A special test bus K615 is provided which when energized makes all signal lights go on and thus permits spotting burnt-out bulbs. In earlier engine designs, many of the elements shown in figure 10-13 were installed in an engine-mounted relay box. The trend has been to place as many parts of the electrical system on ground as possible. This is easier with first stages, which start while still connected to ground, or even held down mechanically until released, for brief periods following start, than it is with upper stages which must start and stop, and sometimes restart, some time after takeoff. Beca_se of individual approach and of
40,5
preferences guards two
for the and
types type
of interlocks, of component engine number
safeused, may diagrams. of intercaution by themmay do is arrive
must This age, emitter as
be at a lower is accomplished V_, in the potential as
potential by V 1 volts leg,
than inserting which above current essentially off. is Q, (V_),
the
emitter. voltthe Again, through
required,
a bias raises ground. flows
designers
of a comparable different with respect to the
emitter
at substantially Specifically locks advised, selves more The lays, others, being be used are harm and
electrical
long
no appreciable base Q1 will voltage raises Q, will voltage will Vin the and
monitoring since than these good. subject
circuits circuit to malfunction
applied, elements and
R I and potential, When will
R 2, the input This combined plus the bias current
be at ground current potential, voltage, At (1b,) occurs Ix
remain
applied, base
flow. the point,
diagram well-developed in several solid-state applied
discussed types of today's
above
employed continue engines. switches function.
reto In are
until (Vbel), this when causing
base-emitter flow to turn into on. the
of which rocket a similar the
is overcome. base This
(transistorized) fulfill have parts
transistor
which switches
Solid-state quiring sensitive type is follows: no
advantage are much A circuit It functions
of reless of this as When Q,
R3(Icbol)>(Vbel
+VI)
max
(10-27)
moving
and effecLs. 10-14.
thus
to vibration shown in figure
turns
on,
resistor begins at the the
R 4 is
switched
to
ground, and current Ic, increases, the potential Q2 is the the held base emitter. in a "turned at a higher This V 2. As off" voltage by mode lowered until the it reaches of V 2 and this ing point, the current
to flow. As Ic base of Q2 is potential Vbe2. base of At voltage,
Transistor by maintaining potential inserting as long as the than a bias there base
combined
Q2 base-emitter Ib2 flows "turns load. This out
is achieved can be seen,
current transistor to the
of the thereby
voltage, is no potential emitter is held
Q2 and Vo,
on,"
supply-
appreciable will is be Vo-V 2.
current essentially Thus, off" the
flow Q2 mode base
occurs
when
in R,,
while that at the will remain off. Transistor in a similar QI
Rs(Icbol+lcbo2)>(V2+Vbe2) The the input switch switch signal, to ground lock-in voltage is removed) is turned the (to is back base off by either of Q_. output
max
(10-28)
in a "turned that here
removing static
fashion,
except
Vin , or by using
another
Switch , _
V2
maintain to the
after by through
input a
vo
signal the
accomplished input
feeding
output
diode. In this case, must be used to turn

LOCK-IN METHOD OUTPUT
shorting off the
the base of Q, switch. solid-state a module Overall are portion comparable of an diagram. with are the others connectin a herrelated, J-5 10-16. K of plug in engine
Figure switch module to those Figure is immersed

R4
10-15
shows Following
a typical compound. potting a small
L'I
DIODE
module. dimensions 10-16
assembly,
in a potting after shows
Ichor//
i t INPUT +( --------_v. R2 LOAD IM '4-" "_
of a matchbox.
engine-mounted The ing modules wiring Although the

GROUND
sequence-controller shown, and together operation, box or can. are not
required
tiN
for engine sealed the emitted would
including housed
connectors, two diagrams at pin A of plug signal emitted be suitable
metically
signal 10-13
X of receptacle to initiate in figure from pin P51
figure Figure I 0-14.-Typical switch circuit rocket or "module" engine solid-state start diagram.
at contact the
Similarly,
406
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
Electrical
Components rocket, the one engine partially electrical shown are required. cirin figure
To implement cuitry 10-13, These such as a number are: and and, are signals and
of components
Relays Relays switches command trol center
Switches more used from recently, the the usually vehicle them into solid low state current conto receive
or ground properly
to translate
sequenced actuation signals valves and other elements.
to igniters, control In combination with
interlocking relay contacts, bias voltages, valve Figure lO-15,-Assembled module be[ore and soJid-state after potting. switch position switches, continuity monitors, temperature sensors, spark plug monitors, voltage sensors, timers, and other devices, they form an engine-contained P51 relay, in the figure in figure could chain 10-13. 10-16, be used leading with to the the aid of an auxiliary readiness K34C in of relay sometimes sponse stop. changed logic which will execute a in restart and
elaborate starting sequence
to assure coil
engine
to only two external signals: In practice many between
more signals are ex-
engine and vehicle and/or
GIN[
ST*AT
Jal P_r
FO_
20m$
_l_
5,
I <D
I
s c I' _
T($1
O_'L(?( ..... , Cm,T g_BI
z Z?-','
(_smg r,_;'(_
s'rAx'r ........
CLOS*J_I[
_Z{)$-II,,.,
I_NITION
L. .................
zz_'s_
c_2_
c_SO
Figure
10-16.-Portion
of a typical
engine-mounted sequence solid-state switches.
controller
diagram
using
4O7
ground control center, for checkout, monitoring, confirmation, instrumentation, telemetry and emergency reaction systems. Also, power supply connections are required. The relays and switches, together with supporting circuitry elements such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, terminal strips, and connecting wiring, are best housed in a common box. This sequence controller is hermetically sealed and often includes temperature-conditioning provisions by means of electrical heaters (typical power requirement: 200 watts) or inert gas purges. The engine systems designer very likely will receive from the cognizant department merely a "black box" description of the sequence controller, giving external and mounting bracket dimensions, connector descriptions, and installation specifications, with all internal detail omitted. Because of miniaturization, relay boxes or sequence controllers have become very compact units. Figure 10-17 shows a typical can. Note brackets for engine attachment. In addition to approximately 30 modules, numerous diodes, resistors, timers, etc., the container shown
houses 4 exciter coils for the spark thrust chamber and gas generator. Position Indicators
plugs
of
To verify the position of a valve, or the proper installation of an igniter and similar mechanical conditions, position indicators are used. Most common types are: Switches.-These are mainly used for "black and white" indications, such as "open" or "closed," "installed," "connection OK," etc. Numerous commercial products are qualified for rocket engine application and are available as compact, miniaturized, sealed units. They are part of the individual component designs and are described in other chapters. It will be the burden of the engine systems designer, however, to assure uniform standards, specifically for connectors. Position indicators of the switch type are instrumental for sequencing the start and stop of a liquid rocket engine. Continuous indicators.-To know any intermediate position of a component, such as the angular position of a valve gate or the linear displacement of an actuator, continuously reading devices are required. Most widely used types are potentiometers and variable reluctance pickups. Potentiometers require adc power source (typical: 5 volts), while inductive-type sensors require an ac power source (such as 400 cps, 28 volts). The output of both, often in combination with a bridge circuit, is fed to a telemetry and/or ground recording system. Indicators of the continuous type are predominantly used for instrumentation. It should be a goal to decrease their number as the development of the engine progresses. Timers During engine start and stop, timing devices are required for two principal reasons: correct sequencing of valve actuations and other events, and for monitoring the correctness of critical sequence times. In the latter case, they will inhibit progression of the sequence or initiate cutoff in case of malfunctions. A degree of timing can be accomplished by means of orifices and by sizing of volumes in the pneumatic or hydraulic activation system. All other timing must be provided by timers as part of the electrical system. For engine systems starting on
Figure
lO-17.-Liquid
rocket controller.
engine
sequence
408
ROCKET ENGINES
the the
ground, ground are
these control
timers system.
are
mostly Several
located types for this devices of
in
main power should
battery.
Because
of the
relatively airborne This can
high heating be ac-
requirements be kept
for heaters
timers cation. dashpots, their external ground of minor For required stage come suitable been timers require switches
commercially springs,
available driven delaying the
applifor for If are
to a minimum.
They
may be motor or other with within the timers'
or may use
complished nents lic away pump insulation pump, fig. reduced (gasketlike between hydraulic ments
by judicious from and attached actuator center) or none areas to the isolation.
placement of extreme For auxiliary
of compocold, drive and by a hydrauof a LOX (see barrier placed in the requirehydraulic standby. must be A is apformfitted a therheater, cast is pump used, or emfor bearing. valve drastically is
function, mounted,
usually
capability and all size
instance,
adjustment importance. systems must provided). important. described
a specified weight
range.
or the 10-18,
of a cryogenic may require at all, material)
near wafer connecting system
starting be engine Here,
at altitude, mounted weight
timers
heating,
if a heat
(or at least and size do besolid-state of have these but in case of the
of suitable flanges. of an engine,
Furthermore, heating if the during heaters available. which with
Modifications above, applied. adjustable of the
through As once entire
addition circuits,
may be
completely
avoided
capacitance/resistance successfully are not replacement changes.
a rule, assembled, module
fluid is continuously For cases where applied, common plied for best mostat. a number one is the as externally efficiency, applications,
circulated electrical of types blanket a sleeve and are
heater, equipped
of timing
or cover,
Heaters Ideally, should aided tion. ment tem, The stand often Thus the some Others ing used ture firing are all components of an engine reliably however, occur, due or within those without or altogether to reduce by suitable may (external for rocket systems). usually inert vehicles gases means engines, Bulk on during system and extreme environsysunopera-
In other i.e., bedded instance, into
an immersed element metal,
be capable at all In many at high particularly development these be very
of operating
a Calrod-type the to protect
heating component
temperatures applications, altitudes, within variations
occurring
during to the an engine
a cryogenic
temperature
using able assistance
cryogenics. to withwould
of components
extremes costly
impossible. or eliminate means. For be adequate. for coolbut are temperastatic standby the r-::. -__:_ ._: __'_.:_;.:,_ig
it is much temperature areas, require rarely mere
simpler extremes insulation heating
j
!II11
required vehicle is and within
for other conditioning stands
provided
by blowing engine times may volt keeps short connect. which following airborne have
preheated
or air into certain Of these,
compartment. will this require only source, of operation Other after require dc ground them period propellant
However, individual loading. through if their warm
strategic at all some a 28-
components
heating from capacity
takeoff heat for their particularly extended supply is usually
sufficiently
relatively disthose periods from the an 28-V Figure IO-18.-Wire valve harness position installation switches. for main
following during require which
heater
components,
to operate takeoff, will source,
power
409
Power
Sources;
Batteries
For its operation, a rocket engine electrical system requires power which is almost always supplied by the vehicle or from the ground. The engine designer need not concern himself with the power supply, except for the specification of requirements and provisions for connection. Frequently used voltages are: 28-volt dc for heaters, control solenoids, relays, switches, igniter spark exciters, certain instrumentation (typical peakload: 2000 watts per engine) 5-volt dc for instrumentation (potentiometers) 8-volt dc for spark monitors (see ch. IV, spark plugs) ll5-volt, 400-cps ac for instrumentation The required power is supplied directly from batteries for dc needs, or through converters for ac consumptions. Miscellaneous Components
defines the branch points and their relative distance from the main plug or receptacle. It is usually difficult to determine the exact length of individual wires and of some of the branches on the drawing board. It is customary to finalize these dimensions on a mockup engine. For this reason, certain dimensions in the physical routing diagram are left blank and the total cable length is specified "as required." For proper design of a rocket engine wire harness, the following must be considered: Routing (minimum distance, weight, electrical resistancel interference) Secure clamping (safety, avoidance of wire chafing) Selection of attachment points (avoidance of special brackets) Adequate support (harness weight, vehicle acceleration) Moisture protection (potting, sheathing) Heat protection (routing, wrapping) Arcing protection (component selection, dryheSS)
To complete an engine electrical system, a number of standard or special components are required: resistors, capacitors, diodes, terminal strips, connectors, and receptacles. All are commercially available, qualified for rocket engine use. Connecting Wiring The various subsystems of the engine electrical system must be connected by suitable wiring, which for proper mounting and clean routing is combined into one or several wire harnesses. Figure 10-18 shows portion of a harness installed on a liquid rocket engine. For manufacture, the engine systems designer must supply certain information. This is best combined into a single drawing, which contains the following information (fig. 10-19): (1) Wire list.-This list calls out each harness wire by number and lists its length. It also specifies the wire routing between plugs and/or receptacles. (2) Harness schematic.-For clarity, the schematic repeats in pictorial form most of the information supplied in the wire list, together with additional information. It also calls out the total length of wire required for material procurement purposes. (3) Physical routing diagram.-This diagram
Flexibility (installation, stiffness versus gimbal load) Connectors must have means to secure them to prevent accidental disconnect. This has been done with the connectors shown in figure 10-18 by means of threaded sleeves, further secured by safety wires. To prevent incorrect connections and/or damage to the connector pins, "clocking" by means of key and slot, of connectors and receptacles, is highly recommended. In addition to the cabling required to interconnect the various engine electrical subsystems, other cables are required to link these systems to the vehicle systems. This includes wiring for power supply, controls (start and stop, PU, throttling, etc.), instrumentation and checkout circuits. To facilitate engine installation and line connections, these wires are combined into trunks, each terminating in connectors which must have, at the proper location, a mating counterpart on the vehicle. For the stage, a "J-Box" (junction box) is recommended, into which are plugged both the engine and the stage systems connectors. On the inside, the box permits easy and environment protected redistribution of incoming and outgoing wires to assigned connectors. Figure 10-20 shows a typical block
410
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
WIRE WIRENO EIOAI8 EIOBIe EIIAI6 EIIBIe : El2 A H_I EIZBI8 EI3AI8 EI3BIS EI4A 18 I 1LENGTH 12OO 1200 19SO 19.50 12,50 2,50 12.00 12.OO 23OO 23.00 23,75 23,75 2775 16.00 27.75 I6.O0
LIST* I FROM JIIO-A I I JIIO-B JIIO-C JIIO-D JIIO-E J O-F JIIO-G J IIO-H JIIO-J g IIO-K JIIO-L Jll0-M JIIO-N JIIO-R JIIO-P JllO-$ ] I TO PIO-A I PiO-e PII-A i IOAIB(WH] PII-B PIZ-A PI2-B PI3-A PI3-B P}4-A PI4-B PIS-A PIS-B PI6-A JIII-A PI6-B JHI-B ,._EI3AI8(WH) E]3BI8 (RD) :?'-_ EIOBtB{RD)
__PlO
l ! '
_-
EIIBI8tRD)
JIlO
-'_
EIOAtBtWH) -_ -_ EIOBIB(RD)
EI4BI8 EISAle EISBI8 " F'I6AI8
_1_
El El
I AIB(wH) I BI8(RD)
"_ "_ EIYAIB EI6BI8 EIYBI8 t
El2
BI8(RD)
"_
PP3
EI3B18
(RD)
"_
EI4BI8(RD}
EI5BIB(RD)
EI6BI8(RD}
-J
_'J
PI6
8.'25
RI_0"_ E,ZAIS<WH)_
E_.3 ;_____ j/ IEIyBIB_RD) PHYSICA-ROUTING (CUMULATIVE -_ RECEPTACLE DIAGRAM DISTANCES, INCHES PI4 _____ P[2
EI5BIB(RD) (WH) EISAIB
_._%
PI5
._PI6 ::::::((:;:'-_--J DENOTES , (WH) B (RD} DENOTES BRANCH COLOR POINT OF WIRE INSULATION RECEPTACLE
_" '_LEN_H--GT FROM
DENOTES DENOTES FACE OF
TWISTED SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR MAIfJ RECEPTACLE
PAIR (J-riO),
Figure l O-lg.-Typical [
GSE CONTAJNE!R (BATTERIES AND ELECTRICAL CONTROL DEVICES STATIC /
rocket engine wire harness diagram.

VEHICLE
TO G ROUNO I UMBIUCAL VEHELE CONNECT{ONS 1
CONNECTIONS CHECKOUT
PATCH pANEL [ INSTRUMENTATION
I
VEHICLE MOUNTE_ (ONE PER JUNCTION ENGINE] BOX
[]
TEMPERATURE
[]
=u _ _'IN o
!li
--E SECONDARY ENG_ INS TRU MENTATI0_N PACKAGE
c.,....r)_r@ c_ <
0]_ c_ <
MEASUREMENTS (SENSORs)
i
:
E.,NE I
CONTROL PACKAGE
I
I
PRIMARY ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION PACKAGE
MONITOR
_ MEASUREMENTS
Y'
LTI
PU
V_LVE
POSITION
(POTE.NTIOMETERS
AND
SWITCHES'I
L}.J
Figure 10-20.-Typical
block diagram, engine to vehicle
electrical
connections.
411
diagram for the principalelectrical onnections c between engine and vehicle. Flexibilityf these o trunksusually poses no problem in view of the relatively small engine deflection during gimbaling,but ifheavy sheathing(armor)is used, care must be taken to avoid excessive loads to the gimbal actuatorsor damage to the cables.
its significance. The engine designer must be fully cognizant of it, and must be sure to consult the development engineer and the instrumentation specialist at the very beginning of his design. Principal Types of Instrumentation
10.7 ENGINE
INSTRUMENTATION
To evaluate the qualityof his design during and aftertest,to monitorprogress, and finally to "sell"his engine to the customer,the designerneeds recorded evidence of the engine's overallperformance. These records may broadly be classified two categories: visual inspecby tion and measurements. Visual inspectionsare self-explanatory.hey T consist,oftenafterdisassembly of a component, of an inspectionforcracks, fractures, eformad tions,signs of overheating, etc. Surfacediscolorations may oftenbe a sign of fluid leaks. In fact, minute amounts of a dye have been added to a number of propellants such as alcohol- and the kerosene-type fluids, which leave qualitative evidence at the leak spot. Visua}-checks assume a particularly important role in the event of serious malfunctions. As a rule, they do not require special preparations by the designer, except perhaps written instructions (drawing callouts) and forms, By contrast, the second category, measurements, does require consideration during engine design. To make the required measurements, instruments are needed. Some of these may be simple devices such as gages, micrometers, and torque wrenches, which can only be used before and/or after test, and which will not be discussed here. However, for the majority of the instruments used for engine design and performance evaluation, particularly during test, the designer must provide adequate provisions for installation. Furthermore, the correct execution of command signals fed to the engine and the behavior of the major performance parameters must be transmitted back to the vehicle and from there to ground, either by hard wire (static tests) or by means of a radiating telemetry system (flight). The instrumentation of a liquid rocket propulsion system is a large field, and within the framework of this book we can merely point out
Instrumentation signals to the vehicle are generated by engine-mounted end organs or transducers, with typical applications as follows: Temperature gages.-Thermocouples or resistance bulbs are the principally used types. Their main application is for fluid-temperature measurement at the pump inlets for the determination of mass flow rates in combination with volume-reading measurements flowmeters. Also, temperature are made in other critical metal or
fluid areas, such as at the gas generator, at the turbine inlet, at the gas storage vessels, and at solid propellant gas spinners, if such are employed. Pressure switches.-A typical application would be a signal from the engine to the vehicle when thrust (chamber pressure) reaches a preset value during decay to initiate start of the next stage and separation of the spent one. Pressure transducers.-A variety of types is available: strain gages, capacitance types, variable reluctance types, potentiometer types, piezoelectric types. Table 10-2 lists, among others, important pressures which can be expected to require monitoring and transmission to the vehicle and its telemetry system. Accelerometers.-It is often important to measure the vibrations occuring in various locations of the engine system, and how these vary between static (tiedown) firing and flight. Accelerometers are used for this purpose and also, instead of pressure switches, to sense and signal thrust decay for staging. Tachometers and flowmeters.-Small magnets mounted in a suitable manner to rotating parts of flowmeters or turbine wheels will induce periodic voltage pips in stationary coils. By counting the pips as a function of time, turbopump speed or volume flow rate can be determined. Depending on the type of transducer used, a certain amount of signal conditioning will have to be provided at or near the transducer. Some of the latter give relatively weak signals (thermoelements, capacitance-type gages, tachometers, and flowmeters), which must be amplified
412
prior to transmission. In other cases, it may be desirable to convert a digital signal into an analog one, prior to transmission (tachometers, flowmeters). Small though the electronic (solid state) signal condition packages may be, room in a compatible environment must be provided for them on the engine. Under adverse conditions, it may be necessary to mount the conditioners on the vehicle near the engine. Some transducers generate their own electric signal, such as the thermoelements, piezoelectric elements, and many of the flowmeters and tachometers. Most others, however, require an external electrical input which they modify as a function of the quantity sensed. Potentiometers, capacitors, inductances, and resistance temperature bulbs are examples. Resistance types can use ac or de; capacitance and inductance types require ac. Typical instrumentation power supplies are 88 volts and 5 volts de, and 115 volts ac, 400 cps. Certain transducers with built-in electronics receive 28 volts de, chop, use and rectify it, and then return 5 volts (maximum) signals (de-to-de transducers). Strain gages and variable reluctance gages are typical examples. Table 10-2 presents the basic static-firing measurement list for an engine of an A-1 stage. In practice, particularly during early development, this list may be expected to be augmented by special measurements, requiring additional instrumentation such as flowmeters, temperature gages, high-accuracy pressure gages, vibration pickups, and strain gages. Instrumentation Installation
TABLE
lO-2.-Basic Engine
Liquid Propellant Measurement List
Rocket
(A-1 Stage Engine) Parameter Thrust ......................... Thrust chamberpressure (injector end) .................. Fuel pump inlet pressure ......... Oxidizer pump inlet pressure ...... Fuel pump outlet pressure ........ Oxidizer pump outlet pressure ..... Fuel injection pressure .......... Oxidizer injection pressure ....... Heat exchanger outlet pressure .... Gas generator chamber pressure... Turbine inlet pressure ........... Turbine discharge pressure ....... Stored gas container pressure ..... Fuel pump inlet temperature ...... Oxidizer pump inlet temperature... Cooling jacket inlet temperature... Cooling jacket outlet temperature.. Turbine inlet temperature......... Stored gas container temperature .. Fuel flow ...................... Oxidizer flow ................... Turbopump speed ................ Electric bus ,,Jltage ............. Spark igniter OK ................ Miscellaneous valve positions .... Range 0-1 x 106 Ibs 0--1200 psig 0-50 psig 0-75 psig 0-2000 psig 0-2000 psig 0-1500 psig 0-1500 psig 0-1000 psig 0-1000 psig 0-800 psig 0--30 psig 0-3500 psig Ambient-100 F Ambient to -300 _ F Ambient-100 F Ambient-150 F Ambient-l,500 F -I00-+100 F 0-10000 gpm 0-15000 gpm 0-10000 rpm 20--35 volts dc On/off On/off
thermocouple well proposed by B. N. Bose (ISA Journal. Sept. 1962) designed to offset this effect. Carbon deposits.-In systems using kerosenebased fuels, carbon deposits may cause erratic thermoelectric and grounding effects. While certain electrical connections are possible to minimize this, regular cleaning and sometimes replacement of the probe is required. The engine designer must consider this need for easy accessibility of the instruments. Installation of resistance thermometers or "bulbs" is governed by similar consideration.
Some basic design considerations for correct installation of instrumentation end organs (pickups, sensors) will be briefly discussed. 1. Temperature Sensors The most widely used temperature sensors are thermocouples. In rocket engine application, thermocouples are subject to certain measurement errors. Among these are: Velocity errors.-Fluid friction may cause an excessive temperature reading, particularly at high fluid velocities. Suitable protection which does not affect the true measurement may have to be provided. Conductive errors.-A heat leak may exist from probe to support. Figure 10-21 shows a
2. Pressure Gages Two principal types of pressure measurements are usually conducted during rocket engine testing: static and dynamic. As a rule static measurements are employed to record, with high accuracy, steady-state conditions or parameters varying only very slowly. Dynamic measurements are used where rapidly changing conditions
413
cant
levels. with
A transducer a good a full inking span
thus
mounted,
in com-
bination gage, about nect For combine response. instance, flat cases
recorder response be pointless it may
or precision time of to conto
may have 1 second. such certain accuracy
It would parameters with
a transducer
to an oscillograph. be desirable some line setup of the frequency to, have In these defor a at least the
By shortening 18 inches, response be the it will
length may engine
a given burden
frequency
up to 25 cps.
signer to provide the transducer. length appear attempts filling from is not sure pressure
INSULATOR
for means to mount and connect It should be noted that it is tube response, while effect. to improve with result bends Occasionally response Apart unpractice a prestn engine from 100 by
which to have have the
affects
a negligible been made line may installed responses
connecting
a liquid. severe and the shows
operational oscillations recommended. transducer taps. frequency cps, a spark For
inconvenier;ces, Figure 10-22
damped
and connected in the mounting transducers, screwed It is 10-23). of the directly (fig. range
to 2000 ducer bling
close-coupled Typical are boss cavity plug,
of the transreseminto the importan_ tapthat
is required.
instrumentation that the resonant and-transducer
frequency should
combined above
be well
Figure
l O-2I.-Properly well (installed
designed in a 4-inch
thermocouple pipe).
(transients) but sired at some Because transducers controlled tion, ured
must of the are boxes and
be recorded, higher
with
rapid usually
response de-
sacrifice
in accuracy. accuracy the sensitive
for static
measurements, often mounted
in environmentthem against and of the They distance structure feet below vibrameasare away or on Figure I O-22.-Pressure to engine transducers pressure taps installed (lower and right). significonnected of tubing,
to protect (both other mounted on the end
temperature medium), usually engine at the
ambient influences. some of several response
therefore from the which the vehicle,
test-stand
reduces
frequency
414
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
BRAIDED
CABLE
of the frequency range of the measured parameter. Figure 10-24 shows two typical installations and associated equations to determine in. Figure 4-28 shows a typical tap arrangement for injector-end chamber pressure. For still higher frequencies, above 2000 ops, transducers are installed so as to leave essentially no cavity at all (flush mounting). This poses problems with hot-gas measurements. Special water-cooled transducers have been developed for these applications. Needless to say, an effort toward high-frequency response at the pickup point is lost if the recording system is not capable of using it. Flowmeters Turbine-type flowmeters appear best suited to rocket engine installations. They are well developed and, as a rule, can be mounted in a simple fashionbetween available flangesin existing
INNER
SURFACE
Figure
lO-23.-Typical installation of a chamber pressure transducer.
thrust
._-----TRANSDUCER
F
BOSS_
3
ADAPTER -_/
T-T
I I1 !l
/---TRANSDUCER
L/.---DIAPHRAGM
_.--ENGINE COMPONENT ENGINE COMPONENT WALL TRANSDUCER _--- DIAPHRAGM WAll INSTALLATION TRANSDUCER INSTALLATION
JL-s
fn =
2"/r WHERE: n -" ANY WHOLE NUMBER (I,2,5...etc) FREQUENCY n = I FOR THE FUNDAMENTAL WHERE : C = ACOUSTIC VELOCITY AREA OF TUBE IN SQUARE IN. S = CROSS-SECTIONAL
C = ACOUSTIC VELOCITY OFTHE MEDIUM 03,550 IN./SEC FOR AIR AT 68 F} L= LENGTH QFTUBE iN INCHES
V = VOLUME OF CAVITY AT THE END OF THE TUBE IN CUBED IN. IJ= I_= EFFECTIVE L +l.7a WHERE: L: ACTUAL o=RADIUS EQUIVALENT {B) LENGTH OF TUBE LENGTH OFTUBE IN INCHES
ACOUSTIC
EQUIVALENT
ACOUSTIC
(A) Figure 10-24.-Acoustic equivalents of pressure transducer
mounting
cavities.
415
"_"_
ELECTRIC PICKUP
For both large or small units, reliability is not a fixed value, but is a function of development time. A realistic analysis considering all factors may determine the appropriate choice. The absolute truth, however, may never be known, since the cost of going both routes for a given mission and of comparing final scores would be prohibitive. Clustering other words, of liquid subdivision rocket engines or, in of vehicle thrust into
FL
smaller units may be accomplished in a number of ways. The choice for the most part will be based on vehicle considerations. Depending on the method chosen, however, engine design will be directly affected. ROTOR Figure I O-25.-Turbine-type [lowmeter. Some of the basic considerations of this topic which are specifically related to engine clustering and as they affect engine systems design and integration, are briefly reviewed. There are no hard-and-fast rules which can be applied to determine optimum cluster configurations. With the aid of liquid engine clusters actually used in practice, however, we will present a number of considerations which may serve as a guide for future designs.
ducting (fig. 10-25). Turbine flowmeters are very sensitive to changes in upstream duet configuration. Once calibrated as installed, however, they exhibit a high degree of precision. Accelerometers and Strain Gages
These are almost always applied externally, in connection with special measurement programs. At the time of engine systems design, special consideration is usually required.
no
Earlier
Cluster
Configurations
10.8 CLUSTERING OF LIQUID ROCKET ENGINES The idea of obtaining higher expeditiously through combination
PROPELLANT
thrust levels of several
smaller rockets probably is as old as rocketry itself. To today's liquid rocket vehicle and engine builders the topic of clustering still causes spirited debates, which reached a peak in March 1952 when Collier's published an article by Dr. yon Braun in which a space vehicle was described as having a first stage powered by a cluster of 51 turbopump-fed rocket engines. The debates invariably hinge around the deceivingly simple question: is higher overall reliability obtained through combination of a number of well-developed smaller engines, or through application of one large, specially developed unit. The answer is not simple. The failure probability of the smaller units may be low, but it increases with the number of units clustered.
Figure 10-26 shows the cluster of two experimental LOX/alcohol engines for a planned but discontinued ballistic missile. It consisted of two units of 120 000-pound thrust each. Both subunits included a tubular-wall, gimbaled thrust chamber, and a geared turbopump. The turbines were powered m parallel from a single, common gas generator. The control system was also common for both units. Thus this propulsion system was not a true cluster, since it was not possible to develop and fire each unit independently. Several successful experimental flights were achieved with this engine. Figure 10-27 shows another experimental cluster consisting of three units which, although never flown, achieved a remarkable reliability record during static firings at thrust levels up to 500 000 pounds. This cluster, too, used a common control and gas generating system for the three subunits. Most of its components were essentially the same as those used for the twoengine cluster, except that propellants were RP-1 and liquid oxygen.
"
416
Figure
10-26.-Dual-engine
cluster.
Figure
10-27.-Three-engine
cluster.
Still another approach for ballistic missiles is the combination (clustering) of a pair of booster engines with a large-expansion-area sustainer engine. During flight, the booster engines may be jettisoned following the boost period, while the sustainer continues, fed from the same tanks. These configurations are also referred to as "One-and-one-halfstage vehicles."
Recent
Cluster
Design
Trends
The first clustered engine vehicle, signifying the modern trend toward multipurpose engines, is NASA's S-1 first-stage booster for the Saturn I. It is powered by 8 LOX/RP-1 engines, the basic elements of which were transplanted with relatively minor modifications from earlier engines. The S-1 is noteworthy for its tank arrangement. Eight tanks from an earlier missile are clustered around a central larger tank. This "multicellular" design, which in the case of the S-1 permitted early availability of large tank capacity without major retooling, has been recommended by some vehicle designers for still larger vehicles. The eight engines of the S-1 are grouped into four fixed inner and four gimbaled outer engines. Except for the outer-engine actuators, all eight are identical, independent units, built and tested singly, and combined for the first time on the vehicle proper. In the S-1, the number of engines was, no doubt, almost entirely governed by the availability of existing major engine components and tankage. For subsequent vehicles, such as the Saturn V three-stage vehicle, greater freedom existed, particularly with respect to the optimi-
zation of thrust and total impulse (propellant load). To examine some of the considerations which govern engine cluster arrangements, we assume that payload and mission of a multistage vehicle are defined and that stage propellant loads (total impulse) and tank geometry (diameter) have been optimized. We further assume that engines are available and will not be redesigned, and that the optimum thrust for a typical stage suggests a range of from four to six engines. An analysis has shown that payload performance probably increases with the larger number of engines (fig. 10-28); however, there are other considerations. One of the most influential considerations is "Engine Out Capability" for increased vehicle reliability (also see ch. II, "Thrust Level"). Specific engine provisions for engine-out (EO) are summarized in section 10.9. Capability of a vehicle to complete its mission with one engine inoperative always entails some performance losses. However, these losses decrease with increasing total number of engines, because less performance reserve is needed, and because less correcting thrust vector trim is required from the operating engines. Trim from engine-out is further affected by the diameter of the enginemounting circle. The contribution to mission reliability by EO capability is substantial, with cluster failure potential reduced by more than half. In addition, absolute reliability values are a function of the number of engines in the cluster. This is most evident with no engine-out. Figure 10-29 illustrates this at two points of time of engine overall development status. As the latter progresses, the difference between
417
NO
ENGINE D_JT
load for a substantially higher cluster reliability at any single-engine reliability level. Another important consideration is cluster diameter in relation to vehicle diameter. As witl be discussed in section 10.9, it is mandatory that all engines fit into the interstages from which they must separate without interference. This restriction is not valid for the first stage, where engines may protrude beyond the tank profile. The degree of p['otrusion, however, must be balanced against drag losses. Specific considerations for each chosen number of engines follow (fig. 10-30). &Engine Cluster This configuration provides the lowest total thrust in the established band of 4 to 6 engines, but it is optimum for engine interehangeability. All four engines will be gimbaled. Only one installation is required: all inlet ducts and other engine to stage connections can be made id.. _tical. The thrust vector control mode is simplest: all engines deflect in pitch and yaw, and all actuators participate equally in roll control (fig. 10-80(a)).
_- 0NE
ENG,NE OUT
/ L
4. NUMBER OF ENGINES
I
5
i
6
Figure 10-28.-Stage-payload weight as a function of number of engines in cluster.
..____E_IEONE 1,0
ENGINE LOPMENT
OUT
( ADVANCED )
ENGINE
PHASE
NO ENGINE
OUT
_ ADVANCED
ENGINE
-'-"--
0.9--
I
F-
08
YAW
--
--0_
ACTUAT
E
4 NUMBER
I
fi OF ENGINES
i
6
I a.
b.
Figure 10-29.-Typical cluster reliability prediction as a lunction ol number ot engines in cluster and of development time.
engine-out and no engine-out narrows (see also table 2-2). It may be stated that for a given number of vehicle flights, the benefits of engineout capability are the greater, the lower the single-engine reliability. Figure 10-28, in combination with figure 10-29, shows that simultaneous addition of one engine and inclusion of engine-out capability retain about the same pay-
_L
Figure
lO-30.-Typical
engine ments.
cluster
arrange-
418
5-Engine Cluster This number provides greater thrust, but complicates matters in other respects. Two basic arrangements .are possible, as shown in figure 10-30(b) and (c). The arrangement with center engine is preferred. The center engine is mounted fixed; i.e., stiff arms are installed in place of gimbal actuators. It is advisable to install the engine with complete gimbal bearing for standardization and ease of alinement. With the remaining four engines gimbaled and grouped as in a 4-engine cluster, the same benefits are derived as with the latter. However, because of the center engine, two installations are required. Furthermore, two sets of inlet ducts are needed, their different length affecting pressure drop and fluid velocity profile (engine turbopump NPSH), water hammer from closure of valves (valve timing), trapped propellants, and possibly insulation requirements (weight penalties and complexity). Figure 10-31 shows a typical 5-engine installation with fixed center engine. With all five engines arranged on a circle, the basic engine package may become more uniform, since all will be gimbaled. However, three different installations are required (fig. 10-30(c)),
and systems thrust vector control response is seriously affected, due to roll and yaw coupling, particularly under malfunction conditions. As to mounting-circle diameter, the two 5-engine clusters are about equal. 6-Engine Cluster This combination provides the highest thrust, at the expense of a larger mounting circle. This in turn increases the effects of one-engine-out on trim required and may compound interstage and interengine clearance problems. The control mode is comparable to the four engine cluster in simplicity. The 6-engine cluster requires two installations, with inlet and other effects similar to those discussed with the 5-engine configuration. This cluster offers the potential of removing (not installing) 2 engines and still retaining a satisfactory 4-engine combination, which provides added flexibility at minimum scar weight (i.e., weight of components that cannot readily be removed along with the engines). If at all possible, the engine designer should specify that the engine intended for cluster use be tested under conditions closely simulating vehicle installation. It may be expected that the vehicle builder will conduct a firing program of his own; however, this must be devoted to cluster behavior and performance evaluation, and should not deteriorate into continued single engine development. A major difference between single engine and cluster firing is in the base conditions, i.e., the heat and pressure environment of the engines, particularly at altitude. Flame radiation effects, backwash of combustion gases, and impingement may create much more severe conditions than are present during singleengine firing. The pressure environment produced by several engines firing together may create moments on the engines which must be accounted for in the design of the gimbal system. The engine designer should be familiar with these conditions so that his claim that the engine can be clustered remains valid after delivery. Awareness by the engine designer of the considerations governing engine clustering, as presented here, will enable him to complete his systems integration with a broader view to application.
ENGINE {FIXED) Figure ]O-3].-Typica] figuration. Center engines gimbaled. five-engine cluster conengine fixed, four outer
419
10.9
ENGINE-TO-VEHICLE Throughout this book, purpose
INTERFACE references of rocket have engine interpneumatic, have been section, been
vehicle design "Engine during mented
builder details Design engine as the
is source
in need
of numerous of his stage infonnation It should and at a later Necessary
engine design. is an be started be augthe date,
in support Manual." initial design progresses. design and,
An excellent
for this
made design Some faces, fluid,
to the and of the such electrical
ultimate production: principal as thrust and
propulsion engine-to-vehicle mount, propellant chapters. of vital the and
of a vehicle.
should
lines,
development must an each
revisions
discussed we will vehicle should
in preceding summarize interfaces, also
In this
be disseminated important Control
promptly. is the early generation This sides, defines on one of Document. mating
a number of which
engine-todesigner
Equally Interface
engine
be cognizant.
interface,
for both
drawing. Space design of the data, engine vital into for a by data drawengine and vehicle not Envelope installing necessary thrust no other vehicle an that engine it can but in a vehicle, be properly it is parts compartment engine envelope equally interfere. must when aft, range possibe the engine This where in is it is bolted
Design
Documentation mechanical integration must
Adequate the physical system, vehicle the are
When only
be properly designer. general The
documented following
to the important Space not
vehicle that in the
mount, vehicle engine the
engine considered (1)
systems system
minimum drawing envelope of various points, or gimbal actuator and
requirements: arrangement defines and such the as agreed-upon mount attach inlet points flanges system conconseals the locations
Engine ing.-This space detail connect Thrust
only
accommodate
in the neutral position, but when fully deflected well. from bility taken Typical 4 to 7 . of faulty into maximum For
i.e., pointing straight in all directions as engine deflections the must limited, between apparent. clusters must
clusters, Since is
moreover, of engines space usually in the
deflection of vehicles
Gimbal Fuel
account.
engine
oxidizer and and
compartment need and for the vehicle
Hydraulic nections Electrical nections (2) Mechanical (if (3) Engine shown gine gravity, basic (4) (5) Engine Engine III) (6) Engine ment, tenance (7) Engine handling needed any),
pneumatic instrumentation
closest designer true area
cooperation becomes stage nozzles structures.
especially large minimum
for upper
expansion interstage
be housed
dimensions, fasteners, connect system in figure mass 2-6, gimbaled moment including data and points
tolerances, loads listed as include center at the
vehicle
Connect are enof All
Panels engine-to-vehicle or more for each but firing all panels designed on For the certain to have (or stand) apart, pairs per in the stands to define lines (fig. vehicle lines, er_ ine, static as in one 10-32). test (or test installations matching and engine. will A possible permit panels Alined jumper rapid this which must may amount be reliably not It has only and been clearly terminal panels, may or on be adbe the
properties, which
weights, and engine, functional
mass, of inertia
to a dozen connected in the acceptance found by combining
for the
engine
installation, development well. interface or several These locations, stand), it may
accessories (as in fig. (as 3-1) in ch.
vehicle beneficial
performance
description
procedures for installation
and
equipand main-
connecting uniformly mounted engine.
for all
servicing
needs in the which will accompany
As a rule, this information is compiled detailed handbooks, engines when However,
vantageous vehicle distance tween able
on both: a short lines and bereliof
delivered to the vehicle contractor. become available, the
standardized
several years before the engines are
of panels
delivered and handbooks
connections.
disadvantage
420
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
TEST STRUCTURE
STAND ,ul TA,
ENGINE
CONNECT Lax IEL_O_-.o= pu_ -Lox ,_c,c_,- c, _, _,.o_
PANEL
Figure
*: ,= 'q
10-33.
-Closed-loop and
coupling
of propulsion vehicle
system mode.
parameters
longitudinal
acceleration, as a function of thrust, a powerful feedback exists. It has been demonstrated that the system Figure lO-32.-Typical experimental line liquid connections rocket engine. on an ing of structural members, and by other means. for the engine Itis difficultif not impossible can be detuned or uncoupled, through stiffen-
manipulation of propellant duct volumes,
designer to predict analytically and prevent this the the as panel panels compared method is that routing routing and close builder, and in most a line line of each through length, line. problem, particularly since the vehicle configuration may shows not yet be firm. He may however, be called upon later for changes, if the problem
may result careful engine location, design and
in additional
to individual vehicle
Through between optimum the panels,
coordination considering orientation cases, far of
tipduring flight.
subdivision will,
Malfunction In chapter and failure
Reaction
Systems discussed as certain reliability preventive
advantages disadvantages.
outweigh
II we have modes, as
well
Dynamic The system, may lead manifested oscillations Effect," Effect") 20 cps. to vehicle contributing 10-33 analyses extremely not It is
Interactions close coupling between system, as and interactions. longitudinal to as from led, "Pogo propellant vehicle These feed structure have vehicle Stick 10 to instance, of the in figure vehicle. oscillations since any one they of the The are canfirings. con-
measures. interfaces,
In the framework some additional
of engine-to-vehicle detail follows.
propulsion to undesired themselves (also "Accordion at frequencies They have
Engine (EFSS) These early tion.
Failure systems
Sensing have of liqmd
and been
Shutoff
System the applicaengine
in use
since
referred Motion,"
beginnings They are
rocket important
engine during
or "Spring-Mass approximately one
specially
in at least The is illustrated
destruction. parameters and correction
relationship
BURNOUT <..j..1
for a typical
single-engine of these
complex,
particularly during that modulate vehicle time;
be reliably believed, factors at which levels
reproduced however, can the (flight
captive
FLIGHT Figure ation IO-34.-Typical of a vehicle
TIME pump inle$ by pressure vari-
tributing quency tain tank
thrust is resonant fig.
at a freat cerThrough
affected
longitudinal
10-34).
oscilla$ions.
421
and later tion ch.
early systems II).
cluster (EDS)
development. of flight engine-out list which and
Part
of it may detec(see systems enginenecessarily
Heat
Protection in our technology to be handled propellant the need as these areas low rocket as -423 had lowest so close engine. and high-
become
a portion
emergency
Rarely est as tain
temperatures in a liquid temperatures
together Earlier to maincomposame prohigh and the thrust usually occurs however,
The
following
of major is not
oriented complete,
malfunctions, should inlet
we discussed ducts, nents
for insulation, to protect sensitive
be considered: pressures overspeed bearing turbopump overheating leaks below safe minimum
_ F in certain At the the the process of the level, engine, very
Pump
or for heaters against in other must gas The a major the flame vacuum are
Turbopump Turbopump Excessive Turbine Combustion Abnormal Ignition Premature Electrical Pneumatic Improper Fires Because effects, of their many gas
temperatures. at or around against as jet, cooling at sea At higher pressures, by first flight,
time, tection
be provided of the jet, exhaust problem, deflector. or near-vacuum such
overtemperature instability pressures depletion failure
temperatures emerging chamber. is not from with which the last portion sideways
combustion
injection failure propellant power pressure valve
unless
blowback
altitudes
failure positions
experienced of their thrust the
even chamber nozzle the
stages expands
for
portion of the from back Surface
a substantial gas jet
exit, engine and
forming and
a plume, radiating compoIn Also, A dia10-35).
potential
sudden
destructive will be sensed autocreate
creating powerfully This nents. may some ink-
considerable into both heat endangers
backwash engine
of the
malfunctions
compartment. vehicle
and the signals matic cutoff. an emergency it is able ing not minimum recorder during of the cutoff For parameters matic case, system and sense These the engines, the may engine if the were flight flight,
used to initiate For others which within, and/or chart test. marked a few say, to simply maximum which If the
immediate would not
temperatures be too
of 1000 F or more is provided. to provide component. may be effective from incurred. (fig. cumbersome
fractions mark values
of a second, their allowon an
result cases
unless it may insulation weight heat may may then
protection for each
uncommon
individual excessive protective phragm, This shield
is watched recorder the highly
by an obneedle observer critical for autoIn this shutoff an engine, logic actions. must goes initi-
penalties shield, be more
server outside ates
forming
a closeout
margin, selected may or mission failure upon
manually.
be supported if available,
a stationary a supporting
of the cutoff engine called is
EFSS
be retained abortion. and down the
(center) structure.
engine,
or from
sensing to shut with take
continued and
remaining
a vehicle-mounted shutdown include: of emergency defunct
electronic certain
Closure
shutoff engine,
valves but not to the
in the those defunct timin
A FLEX CURTAIN
ducts to the the others. Disconnection engine Resetting ers, will Locking gimbal since consume only.
of electric or disarming the reduced the
power of backup number
cutoff of engines
SECTION A-A FULl. CLOSE-OUT PARTIAL (CURTAINS CLOSE-OUT OPTIONAL)
available engine
propellants in the
over Figure neutral cepts gimbaled). l O-35.-Typical (center engine base beat [ixed, protection outer conengines
a longer
period of the position.
of time. defunct
422
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Design and installation of the base heat shield requires closest cooperation between engine and vehicle designer. It must be determined, through special model tests, whether a partial or a full closeout is required. In most designs the shield connects to the engine nozzle. Suitable brackets must therefore be provided. During gimbaling the heat shield will resist the engine motion. The forcesencountered must be considered in the power budget for the hydraulic actuators. Here it must be taken into account that the heat shield flex curtains may be quite cold prior to engine start and still remain relatively cool at the far side, as planned, during stage operation. In addition to backwash and radiation, which are generally not harmful to the internally cooled engine nozzle itself, mutual gas jet impingement between engines may occur from extreme deflection during gimbaling. Unless a major control malfunction occurred, this should affect the nozzle only for very brief periods near the exit. However, the heat may affect chamber structural elements, such as stiffening bands, which are not internally cooled. A heat-protective strip, a few inches wide, of ablative or other suitable material applied to the nozzle should suffice in most cases (fig. 10-36). Obviously, this type of protection is not required for single-engine vehicles.
CHANh
REFRACTORY SHI
CHAMBER TUB ES INSULATI(
CHA_
EXIT
RING AND FLANGE
Figure
JO-36.-Center-engine shield.
flame
impingement
Engine
Prestart
Conditioning
and Start
Functional conditions required within the engine to assure its readiness to start have been discussed earlier. When installed in the vehicle, the engine also requires external conditions which must be met by the vehicle builder. Provided that prelaunch checkouts have ascertained readiness with regard to absence of leaks, correct valve positions, etc., prestart conditioning of the engine essentially refers to temperature and pressure levels around the engine and at the pump inlets. For both, early cooperation between engine and vehicle designer to arrive at a mutually feasible solution is essential. Without it, the optimistic note in engine drawings "to be supplied by vehicle contractor" will accomplish little. Certain engine subsystems, components, control systems, such as hydraulic and valve actua-
lion mechanisms, can function properly only if they are within a specified temperature range. Engine systems not employing cryogenic propellants may be dependent on heating or cooling only if prolonged coasting times in space are involved. Engine systems which do use cryogenic propellants almost always need at least some heating. The cryogenic propellants within the engine following start of tanking, and the heat absorption of tank surfaces and lines may rapidly lower the air temperature surrounding the engine to several hundred degrees below 0 F. Since most vehicle systems will specify an allowable hold period following tanking to allow for adjustments, checkout of other systems, to wait for optimum launch times (rendezvous missions), etc., severe subcooling of engine components may occur. The temperature environment can be substantially improved by the vehicle builder through engine compartment purges with warm gases (fig. 10-37). If an inert gas is used, this has the
423
80
80 4C _ _SKIN BELOW THRUST MOUNT /--SKIN BELOW THRUST MOUNT
40 _" -40 (_ _ /_-SKiN ABOVE THRUST MOUNT
WL,._--SKIN
At3OVE
MOUNT
g
_:_
o
-40
\
j_,,_.NITROGEN AMBIENT E'XTERN_L TO MOUNT _%,_ _--ENGINE TEMPERATURE _. "N_'-THRUST i( MOUNT TEi'I RERA'FURE
_. I'-
-ao
-120 -160 _
/_
N_TROGEN
AMBIENT
EXTERNAL
TO MOUNT
I.U_''1l_1 F-80
ENGINE
TEMPERATURE
-200
I_THRUST m_-NITROGEN
MOUNT
TEMPERATURE INTERNAL TO MOUNT -16( I i ,2 HOLD I 2 TIME
_NITROGEN
AMBENT
INTERNAL
TO
MOUNT
AMBIENT
-2,o.
2
HOLD
,
TIME
_,
FROM
_,
i ,_
I 4 FROM
I 6 PROPELLANT
l 8
l I0 LOAI_NG
I 12 (HOURS)
PROPELLANT
LOADING(HRS)
Figure 10-37.-TypicaI interstage temperature environment for an uppei space vehicle stage using cryogenic propellants. 565 SCFM, (-I00 F) nitrogen purge. additional advantage of counteracting the accumulation of combustible gas mixtures from minor leaks. However, the vehicle builder's possibilities of heating through use of compartment gas purges are definitely limited. Some of the limitations stem from the engine designer's own specifications, which require avoidance of elevated temperatures around components containing cryogenic fluids to minimize boiloff and to prevent formation of gas bubbles. Also, certain structural members must be kept below maximum temperatures because of their strength characteristics. Another limitation is established by the purge gas requirements and necessary heating provisions which would become prohibitive if it were attempted to raise compartment temperatures to above 32 F or even to 0 F. Figure 10-38 shows the effects of increased purge flow and temperatures over those of figure 10-37. The analyses on which the graphs are based have shown that a further increase of the purge rate to 12 000 SCFM (standard cubic feet per minute)and 250 F barely raises the interstage temperature above 0 F. At the same time the propellant boiloff rates in exposed ducts increased tenfold over those under conditions of figure 10-37. The locations quoted are identified in figure 10-39. For most applications the purges to the various areas are supplied from a ground source. Once preconditioned, affected components can
Figure 10-38.-Typical interstage environment for an upper space vehicle stage using cryogenic propellants. 4170 SCFM, (260 F) nitrogen purge. be expected to maintain their temperature within an allowable band after vehicle liftoff during the relatively short boost periods. Only stages with prolonged cruising times may require an onboard purge supply system which imposes payload penalties.
UPPER
STAGE,
LOWER
TANK BOTTOM
(LIQUtO
OXYGEN ]
INTERSTAGE
l ..... _ \
/ENG, NE\
/ ENO, NE
Figure
10-39.-Multistage
vehicle
interstage.
424
Literally a few inches away from the components requiring protection against low temperatures are others which must be protected against warmup due to influx of heat. Here again noncryogenic propellants pose few problems. By contrast, cryogenic systems, in particular those including liquid hydrogen, are very sensitive to heat influx. The effects on pump NPSH, which includes the vapor pressure of the fluid pumped, were discussed in detail in section 8.5 in connection with tank insulation. For engine start, which involves the cryogenic fluids stored in the ducts immediately upstream of the engine and within the engine itself, insulation may become prohibitively complex. Continuous removal of superheated cryogenic fluids from the engine system and substitution of fresh liquid, therefore, has been widely used. This can be accomplished through continuous overboard bleeding or through recirculation back to the tank. In both cases, the liquids are tapped off at a point farthest away from the pump inlets and routed to the stage for overboard dumping or return to the tanks. A small auxiliary pump is often required to obtain the minimum flow rates required for adequate bleeding. During engine development, vehicle static firing programs, able prestart conditions exist: interstage is not in place, hold better control, cold lower stage are absent. There is thus the worked faultlessly under these and even during relatively favorthe enclosing periods are under tank surfaces danger that what conditions will
conditions, and remoteness from ground stations can only crudely be simulated in ground tests. Therefore, until first flights of a new vehicle have been accomplished, the engine in-flight start sequence, which is closely interwoven with the stage separation sequence, must be planned based largely on analytical work. Neither vehicle builder nor engine designer can do this without consideration of, and consultation with the other. The following principal relationships must be considered: Starting of the upper stage engines while the lower stage is still at full-thrust level is difficult, mainly because of the problems of flame impingement and exhaust gas dissipation from the interstage. Therefore, engine start following stage separation is preferred. However, in this case propellant settling from acceleration effects of the lower stage is no longer assured. Auxiliary propellant settling (or "ullage") rockets (usually solid propellant type) are required instead during engine starts. These add weight and drag and reduce payload. The size of the weight penalty, in turn, depends on engine-start characteristics (thrust-buildup time). For engines with relatively protracted buildup times, advanced initiation (with respect to lower stage thrust decay and separation) of upper stage engine start may substantially reduce the penalties. A secondlopped off the ullage rocket burning times may save hundreds of pounds of stage weight. The same amount of time added may not only reduce payload weight but pose serious control problems to the space vehicle which floats essentially "rudderless" after separation and prior to the start of its own engines. From the foregoing the need for thorough mutual understanding of this important vehicle-to-engine interface becomes apparent.
fail in vehicle flight. A realistic recognition of this situation and close coordination between the two design teams in the early phases of engine and vehicle design and development is therefore vital. For first- stage applications, the engine builder is relatively independent regarding start characteristics and sequence. The vehicle will not take off until thrust exceeds vehicle weight, gravity holds the propellants at the tank outlets, and all parameters are closely monitored from the ground control center. If a holddown period prior to vehicle release and takeoff is included, an additional safety margin exists. For upper stage engine start, conditions become considerably more complicated. Absence of the propellant-settling effects of gravitation, the surrounding vacuum, altitude temperature
Vibration
Environment
Even a normally or "smoothly" operating rocket engine generates a vibration pattern which is transmitted mechanically through the thrust mount, or acoustically through the ambient atmosphere, if present, to the vehicle structure. Neglect of these vibrations by the vehicle builder may lead to serious structural weakness or malfunction of vital control organs mounted to the vehicle structure. Means of reducing the normal engine vibrations are limited and hard to analyze.
425
Rather, itis important that the engine developer establish as accurately as he can the existing acoustic and vibration pattern and inform the vehicle designer of his findings. Since the tiedown firing measurements cannot reliably predict exists. of
interstage pounds. weight performing Stage When cle, three 1. the
length Thus, required nozzle Separation separating basic
will here
cost too,
approximately the added the
40
interstage better gains.
to accommodate may void
a longer, theoretical
free-flightconditions, a serious handicap However,
through his thorough understanding
the
stages
of a space exist: with the lower
vehi-
the potential problems, and through specification in cooperation with the vehicle designer of static test and flight measurements, of serious problems. Nozzle From may Expansion his own Area Ratio analyses, the engine designer area ratio beengine the engine designer can materially assist in reducing the incidence
possibilities the interstage the during
Leaving
stage.-This interstage If the may the 10-40). and means tween a control
requires cylinder clearance wall be required separating system
engines between
to pull engine complicated collisions
out (fig. skirts be-
of
separation
interstage
is marginal, to avoid stages. the
These engines
may
include and
to tuck
inward,
have selected a nozzle expansion appears to be an optimum
then swing them. Any
them out upon such system
separation and start adds complexity, lowers A shorter noz-
which tween
compromise analyzed
engine weight, engine performance,
reliability,and may size, and producibility. When larger framework selection may in the the In of vehicle performance, lesser performance, 2. stage.-To it may Leaving avoid the the
add weight. may
zle skirt, of lesser diameter although somewhat be better overall. with of the stage upper collisions, this adds interstage problem
turn out not to be optimum.
reviewing the various influences, we gard single-engine firststages which
will disreare least be
appear attractive to leave the interstage However,
affected. For stages with engine clusters, in particular, upper stages, the following must considered:
attached to tileupper stage.
inert weight to the upper stage. This penalty may be considerably larger than the performance shorter nozzle. Also, a loss from a somewhat
Gimbal
Angle control problem may be incurred in that the enIn joint determination of the maximum gimgine nozzles, in their outward gimbal deflection, stillmust clear the interstage wall. optimization studies between engine and vehicle be considered. the upper stage this separation as with side a comguide is Also, a serious The with neutralize means this
Following
bal angle required for safe vehicle guidance, including consideration of actuation malfunctions, the nozzle exit diameter will determine the attachment point distances (mounting pattern)
designer, the possibility of leaving part of the interstage with either stage may 3. but several mounted for proper gimbal capability, If of the engine cluster must be in Leaving seconds the interstagewith it in a second a/ter first the sequence, of shedding possibly method, in addition the interstage problem to overcome method reliability performance method of the engines in a cluster. Vehicle When Diameter
dropping
separation separation.-In the second interstage
maneuver
dual-separation may consist plete rails, For ring, either
the envelope
proper relationship to the vehicle diameter. the cluster envelope vehicle dimensions larger permitted plane even expansion area may
in combination it off to the some form
is too large, the increase in void all gains from a If engines the projected position, are not vehicle an ratio. beyond
or of blowing
in segments.
of actuation timing.
required while base-heating required separation and reduce
to accurate is still may any again and gains. is applied, spent the lower develop.
to protrude in neutral and/or
attached,
in gimbaled exists.
more
stringent Length
situation
difficulties may increase partially
complexity
Interstage When of the length of the upper of the Saturn
mounted stage
to the engines
lower will interstage. each
stage, For
the
length the
nozzle Whichever
determine inch
required V class,
a vehicle of
thrust-decay stage engines
additional
characteristics
of the
426
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Shutdown
of lq_er stage
engines (from propellant depletmn
signal)
Upper Engine
stage start
ullage
I I I
rockets
ignited
1 I
sequence
initiated
Separation
timer
started
Physical (from timer
separation
begins
or accelerometel
Lower
stage
retro
rockets
f_e
I
Upper stage engine nozzles clear interstate
I
Tuner allows engines to gimbal Engines i_nlte
Engines reach full thrust
t
Tm_e (Seconds)
Figure
10-40.-Typical
stage-separation
sequence.
greatly affect the separation sequence and the clearances. To optimize these, the vehicle builder needs from the engine designer accurate information on thrust-decay characteristics and tolerances. This may be in the form of a graph, as shown in figure 10-41.
stands and for various servicing functions, the engine builder requires numerous fixtures commonly referred to as engine GSE (ground support equipment). Some of these fixtures can be used by the vehicle contractor as designed, others could be used if only a few minor changes or additions were made. The funding required for GSE in a typical vehicle program is substantial and approximates that of the flight hardware. Common use of as many of these fixtures as possible by engine and vehicle builders is strongly advised. To assure this the two must work together from the earliest design inceptions.
Flame Deflector
Size
Although this is not entirely an engine-tovehicle interface, it is pointed out that enginenozzle size and arrangement on the vehicle, together with maximum gimbal angles, strongly influence the design of required flame deflectors on engine and stage static firing test stands, and of launcher flame deflectors. Here the problem is not so much one of optimizing vehicle performance, but of minimizing cost and of assuring the adequacy of these indispensable development tools.
Standardization The task of mating engine and vehicle will be substantially facilitated if the designers of both work to the same standards. This applies to national standards, Government standards, company standards, to terminology, mathematical symbols, and to the measuring system (metric or English, decimals or fractions, tolerances). Since several avenues are open, it is necessary, at the very outset, to agree on which one shall be pursued. This requires close cooperation and full documentation.
Engine Handling, Fixtures
Installation,
and Servicing
For handling engine parts and assemblies during engine installation into development test
427
too
\ \
\\
7s
\
\
\
\ \ \
\ \
ILl
\
so
I&.
[
0.S
t
0.6
I
0.7
CUTOFF SIGNAL
TI_E
SEC ONDS
Figure
10-41
.-Typical
engine
thrust
decay
deviations.
Delivery For on time, latter leadtime. tracted negotiated manner.
Schedules the vehicle builder and engine to deliver with with is to him builder contractor, however, his stage the conbe
Maintenance Until veloped rocket which model scribed usually duration. includes of the sudden must drawing engine needs. runs, attempts more. it most collapse time is is
and reliable
Logistics and economic refurbish only firings. include the of the methods rocket once are de-
complete If the by the
equipped
engines, sufficient
to recover engines will and will
and
vehicles, in flight, number
must
be available
be used
directly this can
be preceded acceptance will
by a reasonable The total
vehicle cases,
of checkout run
engine preflight
and followed In most
up in a straightforward particularly
specification capability A factor a reserve typical. to assure Although unlikely shortly exceeded, that after expressed
(lifetime) in multiples of, for instance,
of the
engine, rated
with large liquid engines, to the vehicle contractor equipment fore, the engine make release, delivery may detail (GFE). not vehicle The needs. and his
these will be supplied as Government-furnished engine supplier, case, there-
6, which of checkout stringent engine but weight design no
for repetition Because of the vehicles, life
necessarily
be fully In either
cognizant
considerations
in rocket this reasonable the the
designer sure that are
developer, of his development, with the schedules
to avoid schedules, for design, and vehicle
expectancy, safety factors would
unexpected
compression manufacture, in accord
make run of
engine
completely maximum
allowable
the
statistical
probability
428
some engine part failing does increase. For this reason most engine specifications prescribe overhauls of a stated scope whenever this limit is exceeded. Similarly, upper limits are set for storage times. If these are exceeded, routine replacement of certain engine parts will be made, notably of gaskets and seals. Rocket engine preservation and packaging methods are well developed, permitting storage periods from 3 to 5 years without overhaul. During shipping, handling, installation, servicing, checkout, static firing, and launch preparation, damage of various types may be incurred by the engine because of parts failures, mishandling, oversights, or accidents. All incidents must be corrected by repair and/or parts replacements. Any or all of the described maintenance action may be required while the engine is still with the engine builder, or following _ts delivery to the vehicle contractor. An accurate and effective maintenance or logistics plan must be worked out between the two contractors, or with their contracting agency, considering all handling needs at all test stations. This includes consideration of under what conditions engine return to the factory for overhauls, repairs, and parts replacements should be made. If return is not required, the correct handling fixtures and tools must be provided for each location. Above all, an adequate stock of spare parts must be planned. The engine designer will frequently be consulted for his advice in an effort to avoid both time losses overstocking. due to lack of parts and costly
ing blocks, such as turbopumps, injectors, combustion chambers, gas generators, valves, gimbal blocks, and high-pressure ducts. Peripheral equipment, such as instrumentation lines, servicing lines, inIet ducts, and wire connections, should be left flexible enough to adapt them to each vehicle without compromise. It is tempting to procuring agencies to warehouse just one engine model and ship "from the shelf _ to wherever the need arises. This convenience, however, may cost substantially more than the expected savings: In mission compromises, reduced reliability, increased coordination effort between engine builder and vehicle builders, substantially increased possibility of oversights and communication gaps, and cost- and time-consuming retrofits. As always, a joint thorough and unbiased analysis considering all aspects, including that of the long-range future, will readily yield information about the point of diminishing returns.
Reserves
and Safety Margins
In his negotiations with the engine user, i.e., "the customer," which quite likely is a Government agency, the engine designer, like the vehicle builder, will frequently find himself under pressure to compromise. This may be to cut weight, to accelerate schedules, or to maintain reliability with dwindling funds. It is then that he will be most in need of his top management's understanding and support. But it is here also where he will be most criticized if it is found that his analyses were incomplete, superficial, not optimized, or heavily biased by safety factor upon safety factor. To strike an optimum balance between high performance and adequate safety factors and reserves is one of the finest arts of engineering and is directly translatable into the degree of success. Once the designer is certain that he has achieved this balance, or if he is concerned that he may lose it, he should so go on record. If he does, he should also remember Edmund Berkeley's observation: "Thoughtful and tolerant disagreement is the finest climate for scientific progress. "_
Multiple-Engine
Use
In view of the cost of rocket engine design, development, and procurement, common usage of a given engine for several vehicles, or for several stages of the same vehicle, is very desirable. Also logistics, handling, checkout, launch preparation, and instrumentation requirements can be substantially reduced or simplified. Caution must be exercised however, not to go "overboard," lest engine-to-vehicle interfaces become considerably more complicated. Effort should be concentrated on the common usage of the major cost items and engine build-
_Edmund C, Berkeley: John Wiley, 1949.
Preface
to "Giant Brains,"
Chapter Design of Liquid Propellant Space Engines
XI
Liquid propellant space engines embody the same operating principles and general characteristics as the liquid propellant rocket systems previously discussed. However, their specific missions for the use in spacecraft require special design considerations, which will now be discussed.
Spacecraft
Main Propulsion
Systems
II.I PRINCIPAL SPACE APPLICATIONS
ENGINE
By definition,pace engines supply all s those forms of rocket propulsionwhich a spacecraft requires for various maneuvers in space. This may include attitude control and stabilization, coplanar and interplanar orbit changes, trajectory corrections, rendezvous maneuvers, lunar and planetary landings and takeoffs, and retrofiring (reversed thrust for deceleration) during reentry into the Earth's atmosphere. The thrust of a space engine may be a fraction of a pound or many thousands of pounds. Besides a few solid propellant systems (used mainly for single-start, retrofiring rockets) and stored gas systems (used only in applications for thrust levels less than 1 pound, and for a total impulse of less than 5000 lb-sec), the great majority of the space engines are of the liquid propellant type. Because of their inherent operational advantages, liquid systems most likely will continue to dominate the space engine field, even when advanced nuclear and electrical propulsion systems become available. Liquid propellant space engine systems may be divided into two basic groups: vehicle main propulsion systems and reaction control systems. These differ not only in function and thrust level but also in the type of propellant they use, the degree of required controllability and thrust variation, and system components. Common to virtually all of them is the requirement that they be able to start and operate reliably in the cold vacuum conditions of space.
The main propulsion systems for most spacecraft are pressure-feed, storable hypergolic propellant systems, such as the A-4 stage propulsion system, with thrust levels upto about 25 000 pounds. These systems include propellant tanks and their pressurization system, control valves, main thrust chamber assembly or assemblies, and a gimbal mechanism or some other type of thrust vector control. Most main thrust chambers are ablatively cooled, while attached nozzle extension skirts are radiation cooled. In a few cases, turbopump-feed systems have been used, such as the 50 000-pound thrust (sea level) turbopump-feed liquid oxygen/ammonia rocket engine produced by the Reaction Motors Division of the Thiokol Corp. for the North American X-I5 research plane. As space missions become more ambitious, requiring increased total impulse and higher-energy cryogenic propellants, turbopump-feed systems will undoubtedly play an increasingly important role in spacecraft propulsion. Most space missions require multiple starts and a certain degree of thrust throttling. These requirements usually account for the principal differences between the main propulsion systems for spacecraft and those for booster vehicles. Reaction Control System
These systems deviate more drastically from other liquid propellant rockets, because of their design arrangement and their thrust levels, which run from 1 pound up to 500 pounds, with most systems probably failing within the 1- to 100pound range. The thrusts of these systems may be used to provide attitude control to properly position a spacecraft, to aline a spacecraft for a midcourse corrective or terminal maneuver, and to stabilize the vehicle after separation from another stage or during Earth reentry. As a rule, attitude-control engines are used in opposing pairs to produce pure couples about 429
x._.
ii--
430
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
an axis. They plify plumbing
are mounted
in clusters to sim-
and wiring. Parallel pairs of along the vehicle axis, as in maneuvers. are or
1
engines, or individual units, are used for translational movements rendezvous

tNS'_U_NT "9
-Off EN,_,kWE
_
_ _EACT,O_
and docking
The reaction control engine systems
usually pressure fed, using monopropellants storable hypergolic propellants. In all cases thrust level and duration must controllable. The the application. Application The tems ples, tem sists total Example
be very closely may be ablaon %t71 ..... .

G[ RO_E1 $ :
thrust chambers
tively cooled or radiation cooled, depending
L___@_A_
Figure 11-1.-The V [or the propulsion U.S. manned systems Apollo of flight the to of various space by typical for the space the the 1.15 stages consists lunar U.S. vehicle Saturn S-If engine examApollo sysV, conengines(five J-2 million 2 (fig. 11-1). of the comThe three-axis Earth's command attitude atmosphere module control and requires during to assist thrust reentry the only into separamodule sepaservice for the sysSaturn _he Moon program. spacecraft The aloft, F-1 pounds), thrust, (one pounds) itself and the J-2 Apollo (five
application best as such the the S-1C
may
be illustrated program.
Moon-landing to carry of the thrust,
LO2/RP-1
7500000
LO2/LH pounds),
2 engines-total and the S-IVB 230000 spacecraft service,
module's reaction control tion of the two modules. reaction rate, engine completing engine control interconnected systems, the systems either Earth are Each of a 9-to-1 lunar excursion systems, and command engine throttled a rigidly which portion system
system during The command is made
LO2/LH
up of two
engine-thrust The mand, modules. The thrust Its ratio control This course escape abort escape The service restartable Apollo the
pressure reentry located system nozzle module one the into
feed is mission. in the consists thrust,
N20_/MMH capable These equipment of six chamber area has two to the fromthe aft of
of which
excursion
module
has
a 21 900-pound, feed N_O4/50 propulsion expansion for thrust
fixed(UDMH)system. area vector device.
compartments. pulse-modulated, assemblies ratio. The main Moon's Moon vous The thrust
pressure as has is its
91-pound,
50 (N2H4) thrust
engine chamber
main a nozzle gimbaled
expansion (LEM)
of 60 to 1 and by a redundant engine from, system, system service system as lunar correction
electromechanical provides well as orbit. the It also after jettisoned. reaction and systems control the thrust serves the for entry into,
engine surface, and with LEM level
for the
descent
for midand an as
other lunar and
for takeoff orbit service has a 10:1 as pounds,
injection the descent and is engine, early
for rendezmodules. a nominal which range. 3500-pound, an abort The All mission. can The
if necessary, has of four engine as the been module's
launch system same The skin
system over
of about
10 500
be gimbaled takeoff engine engine in the fixed-thrust
is composed pressure-feed propellants
separate main
interconnected system. forward Each
mounted, doubles of the
utilizing
propulsion
systems are mounted of the service module engine 100-pound 40-to-1 vide craft orbit, the system thrust nozzle three-axis Earth docking consists
external to the at 90 intervals. of four area
LEM also carries an attitude which uses 16 thrust-chamber are pressure fed, using
control system assemblies. (UDMH)-
pulse-modulated, with These for the from the a prospaceratio.
a N20_/50 combination.
chamber expansion attitude orbit, and
assemblies control lunar
50 (N20 _) propellant
11.2
GENERAL Prior to the it
DESIGN actual
CONSIDERATIONS design of a space the en-
during LEM
injection,
lunar
separation
command
module.
gine
system,
is necessary
to examine
DESIGN OF LIQUID PROPELLANT SPACE ENGINES
431
basic engine parameters to determine their influence on the spacecraft's ability to perform its intended mission. Here, again, an overriding consideration is reliability. Typical space missions include the establishment of an orbit around a planet following a transfer from Earth which may last several months or years. The ability of a propulsion system to coast in space for these prolonged periods and then fire reliably is typical for many contemplated missions. It is one of the foremost considerations in the design of space engines. Based on mission, trajectory, and payload requirements, the following major design areas must be examined for the optimization of one or a group of propulsion systems: (1) Propellant type (2) Vehicle system operational requirements (3) Mission environmental effects Several different designs (assuming various propellants, feed systems, chamber cooling methods, etc.) may be conducted simultaneously for a given space mission. These designs must be carried far enough to evaluate their relative merits such as reliability and performance, and to establish the advantage of one design over the other. An optimum system design should thus emerge. Selection of Propellants of liquid rocket propellants in section 1.4. Here we
mass (limited by the payload capability of the launch vehicle) and required mission velocity increment, the mission payload capability is a function of the main engine system specific impulse and the spacecraft inert weight, as indicated by equation (2-1). Similarly, for a given spacecraft initial mass, inert weight, and payload, the mission velocity increment capability is directly proportional to the main engine system specific impulse. The specific impulse of a reaction control engine system affects directly its system package weight. A higher specific impulse will result in a lower system weight for a given total impulse requirement. 2. Operating temperature.-In an overall vehicle optimization study, the criterion of specific impulse must not be used as the only hardand-fast rule for propellant selection, because the problem of maintaining the propellants at temperatures that permit effective use of the propulsion system after coast is an additional, major consideration in spacecraft design. The requirement for thermal control of the propellants during coast affects the selection of the propellants and the vehicle configuration. Heat transfer between propellants, and between propellants and other vehicle components, must be considered, as well as heat radiation out to space, in from the Sun, and between vehicle components. Studies have indicated the feasibility of insulating the propellants against excessive temperature changes, even during long coast periods in deep space missions. However, for the cryogenic propellants more insulation weight is required than for Earth-storable propellants. This difference becomes greater the longer the mission coast periods. 3. Density.-The bulk density of a propellant combination has a pronounced effect on vehicle payload. This can most easily be seen in the case of the LF2/N2H _ combination, the specific impulse of which is comparatively low, as compared to LF2/LH 2 or LO2/LH 2. However, its bulk density advantage may result in a higher ideal velocity increment for certain space missions. 4. Ignition cflaraczeristics.-Hypergolicity the propellant combination used in space sions is always considered very desirable effect a simpler and more reliable engine tem, particularly for multiple starts. of misto sys-
Various aspects have been discussed
will discuss the characteristics which are pertinent to their selection for space engine application. The reliability and performance of a spacecraft will depend greatly on the propellants used. This is of paramount importance in establishing the optimum design criteria and final operational capabilities of a vehicle. For any planned space mission, the projected program time periods, as related to the anticipated state of the art and operational reliability of the propellants to be used, should be the first criterion for their selection. Propellants with undesirable characteristics and those that have no advantages over similar, more desirable types should be eliminated early in the studies. In addition, propellants are selected on the basis of the following: 1. Speci[ic impulse.-The criterion of specific impulse is, perhaps, the most commonly used basis for comparison in nearly all propellant evaluations. For a given initial spacecraft
432
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
5. Cooling and other characteristics.-Some propellants are excellent coolants (for regenerative or film cooling), while others have little cooling capability. The propellant combination will determine the combustion temperature and the gas constituents, which vary widely as to their compatibility with chamber materials, especially with ablative or refractory materials which are frequently used in space engines. If possible, all propulsion systems in a spacecraft should use the same propellant combination. However, in some applications the reaction control engines are also used for propellant settling in the main system tanks. Thus they must be supplied by separate tanks equipped with positive expulsion devices. Different propellants may have to be used in this case. Characteristics of various propellants suitable for space engine applications are summarized in table 11-1. Characteristic trends of relative payload capabilities versus mission coast duration, for various propellants and engine systems, are shown in figure 11-2. It can be seen that for coast periods up to about 4300 hours (6 months), there is no significant change in payload capability.
--
FI/_
PuuP
Fem_N
px[ssu_
%_1%_4
PUllS
r WEEK
_ kq:_TM 1.000
$ blONT_tS
:AR i0,O00
I0
YEA_ t_.0
COAST
I_UI_TIO_,
_*OUl_
Figure ll-2.-EHec$ of mission coast duration on relative payload capabilities o[ various propel1ant engine systems for a given mission velocity increment.
Vehicle
System Operational
Requirements operational established requirefor a
After the vehicle system ments have been analytically
given space mission, many design parameters and special considerations for the engine system or systems can be derived. Principal areas of consideration, in addition to propellant selection, are:
TABLE
ll-1.-Comparison
aSpecific
of Various
Density impulse, sec-gm/cc 241 143 424 357 551 451 303 254 340 409 407 401 408 407 of nitrogen, CH_ of hydrazine equilibrium are
Liquid
Propellant
and boiling oxidizer/fuel
Combinations
points C'F,
[or Space
Mixture ratio, O/F 9.3 4.7
Engine
Applications
Freezing
Propellant combination
impulse, seconds 474 456 430 420 419 417 408 402 375 341 341 338 339 339 =Mixed oxides
Combustion temperature, F 6440 5110 7010 5910 7285 670O 5960 4085 5710 5513 5330 5370 5175 5290
Remarks
(FP)(BP)/(FP)(BP) (-364)(307)/(-435X-423) 135) 135)
_2/H2
............... ...........
Hypergolic Nonhypergolic Hypergolio Hypergolic Hypergolic Nonhypergolic Nonhypergolic Nonhypergolic Nonhypergolic Hypergolic Hypergolic Hypergolic Hypergolic Hypergolic
_O2/H 2 .............. 3F2/B2H6 3F2/B2H 6 ........... F'2/N2H 4 ............. 3F2/CH 4 ............ 32/B2H 6 ............. _2H4/B2H_ .......... _20,/B2H6 .......... _N:O_/N2H _ ......... _MON/EMHF ......... bMON/MMH ........... bN_o4/50-50 bN_O4/MMH Notes: . MON MMH abased sion area .........
(-362)(-298)/(-435)(-423) (-371)(-299)/(-_65X(- 371X-299)/(-265)((-364)(-307)/(35)(236) (-371)(-299)/(-300)(-260) (-362)(-298)/(-265)(-135) (35)(9.36)/((11)(70)/(-265)((11)(70)/(35)(9.36) (-23)(29)/(-76X144) (-9.3)(29)/(-63)(189) (11)(70)/(18)(170) (11)(70)/(-63)(189) 85% N204-15% N_H_, 50-50= NO. 50% UDMH. 265)(135) 135)
3.5 2.15 2.4 5.6 2.0 1. 2.9 1.23 2.2 2.4 2.1 2.3
=Monomethyhydrazine, mixture shifting and
(H_C)_N_H_-50%
N:H_. pressure and 40:1 nozzle expan-
EMHF = Eutectic upon theoretical ratio in the vacuum. technology
fuels = 87.6% MMH-19..4% N_H,. at 150-psia nozzle stagnation chamber well established.
bpropellant
application
.,a======
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
SPACE ENGINES
433
I. Engine system
total impulse, design thrust are determined and
tion. trol
This
may
be and
expected, involves actuations. that time each
considering a minimum Multiple each it is called
that of constarts, upon. longer
level and run time.-These optimized by analyses
continuous
operation
of the mission trajectory, Typical liquid propellant in figand
components other hand, perfectly
considering spacecraft operating limitations such as acceleration loads. for various space ure 11-3. Required the choice between feed system. 2. This thrust repetition thrust Engine includes as rate, vector system engine cutoff control are for the one operating thrust of time, impulse requirements. determined maneuvers. same engine characteristics.throttling number and range, of starts accuracy, Most by various It may system also and and of these probe
on the responds
require
component
rocket engine total impulse, thrust, and run times missions are presented
In addition, multiple starts require much periods of absolutely minimum pressurant approaches component considered 4. mission below), components craft location the space nozzle even tions radiation design Engine leakage. toward in the environmental the detail are design directly or subsystem design. component effects of the affected For (internal the thrust affect expansion type. affords (to system Therefore, improved
propellant and more reliability, rigorous such must as be
mission total impulse
engine thrust level influence, to a large extent, a pressure feed and a pump
redundancies,
design.-Besides be discussed system spacethe to by the instance, in or external feasibility chamber. the area of Engine choice ratio, applicahigher of or
a function
engine
configurations. system determines for the limitations allowable system feed system
characteristics jected desirable more than spacecraft
of the cooling envelope type, the feed a pump
spacecraft)
to fulfill reused are has as required severe
type
of maneuver, Typical spacecraft 11-4.
or to be maneuvers
on subsequent histories presented 3. shown by most effect that
missions.
thrust-time
for various in figure Engine system multiple-start engine
(In some
a much
design.-Experience operation systems than has has
space
a more continuous firing
on a rocket
engine
steady-state
operation
of comparable
duraCONSTANT
TIME THRUST, (LUNAR VARIABLE LANDING) IMPULSE
10,000
TIME VARIABLE THRUST, VARIABLE (RENDEZVOUS) IMPULSE
._
.CIO
X
l THRUST - THOUSAND | I0 LB"; 100
TIME PU_LSE ROCKET-(ATTITUDE DISCRETE CONTROL) IMPULSE BITS
10 0.i
FI/
T IME (LUNAR TAKEOFF)
Figure engine
11-3.-Typical total space lot I, impulse,
liquid thrust, missions. Space Cra/t," 1964.)
propellant and run [or Spacecra[t (Coulbert, J.
rocket time for C.D., Liquid and
Figure engine crait
ll-4.-Typical thrust-time maneuvers. Techniques CraIt," 1964. )
liquid histories (Coulbert, [or
propellant for various C. Liquid and D., Rockets Rockets
rocket space[or 1, "Selecting
various "Selecting Rockets Rockets
Cooling 129-139,
Techniques
Cooling Space 129-139,
J. Spacecralt
434
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
expansion area ratio for a given envelope.) The structural design of the system components is influenced by the maximum vehicle acceleration and by vibration loads.
planetary emitted radiation. Direct solar radiation is the largest external heat source. It is therefore advantageous to orient the spacecraft for maximum protection from direct solar radiation to the vulnerable subsystems such as propellant tanks. The quantitative evaluation of thermal radiation in space indicates that damage to some components may result from the excessive absorption of radiant energy, unless protective means are applied such as reflective surfaces or coatings. A very real problem with the prediction of the thermal properties of materials in the vacuum is the lack of knowledge about the effect of the ever-present oxide-metal surface film on heat transfer mechanisms. 3. Nuclear radiation.-The two most important effects of nuclear radiation in space on metals are the production of internal heat, and dislocation of the atoms within their crystalline structure. The nuclear particles of interest are fast neutrons, lower energy protons, alpha particles, electrons, and gamma rays. The fast neutrons present the most severe problem. It is known, however, that they do not exist to a great extent in space. Generally, the total radiative flux from all nuclear radiations is not sufficient to cause any appreciable damage to metals over a period less than 2 years. 4. Meteoric bombardment.-Spacecraft will be exposed to the impact of meteoroids ranging in size from microscopic dust particles to bodies of asteroid dimensions with a wide distribution of kinetic energies Collision of the spacecraft with these materials would result in surface erosion,punctures,or totaldestruction the of vehicle. The idealprotection forpropulsion system components would be to locatethem entirely within the vehicle. This, however, is usually not practical for parts such as the thrust chamber nozzle skirt. Therefore, adequate consideration must be given to the design of these parts with respect to the cited effects. 5. EHects ol gravity.-The absence of acceleration forces, as well as the presence of large acceleration forces, should cause no mechanical design problems if proper provisions are made in the design phase. The main problem will be with the propellant feed system. This can be overcome by positive expulsion or by providing propellant settling rockets (which themselves would require a positive expulsion feed system).
Mission Environmental Effects Afterthe propellants have been selected and the basic propulsionsystem design established, with preliminary considerationsof mission environmental effects, itis possible to examine the various engine subsystems in detailto determine which components or phase of system operation is still affectedby the projectedmission environment in space. The characteristicsf this o environment include the following: 1. High vacuum.-The low ambient pressures experienced in space missions may cause vaporizationof metals and partial complete removal or of filmor adsorbed gas layers at the surfaceof the material. Principal problems associated with high-vacuum conditions are: (a) Reduced ability of a component to perform its function, due to mass loss through material vaporization or bulk property changes. (b) Changes in the radiative heat transfer properties of the material, which could increase, to a destructive level, the bulk temperature a radiation-cooled (c) of a component nozzle skirt. such as
Possibility of condensation of metallic vapor on electrical components, resulting in short circuiting. (d) Changes in tile fatigue, frictional, and creep properties of materials, as well as the possibility of self-welding of metals. Design remedies against high-vacuum effects include material selection and proper location of the components within the vehicle to take advantage of nonvacuum environments. 2. Thermal environment.-The thermal environment encountered in space missions, such as in Earth orbit or during the transfer phase in interplanetary flights, is an important consideration in the design of space propulsion systems, especially for the storage of the propellants. Three external sources of radiant energy must be considered when evaluating the thermal environment of a spacecraft. These are direct solar, albedo (solar energy reflected from a planet), and
435
11.3 DESIGN OF PROPULSION System Design
SPACECRAFT SYSTEMS
MAIN
The reliability requirementsforspace missions have led to simple, storedinertgas pressure feed main propulsion systems (fig. 5-1), using conventionalhypergolic Earth-storable propellants and redundantcontrolcomponents. For tube connections, the trend is to welded or brazed joints, with flexibility provided either by braided metal hoses or metal bellows. Integrated engine packages are preferred, consisting of thrust chamber and injector assembly, integrated propellant control valve package, and flight instrumentation. Besides meeting thrust and performance specifications, principal system design requirements for a spacecraft main engine are: (1) High reliability and crew safety (through redundancy in the control system; use of proven design concepts, materials, and fabrication techniques; and extended life and overstress testing) (2) High combustion stability rating with respect to perturbations during start and throttle transients (3) Capability of numerous starts, with repeatable cutoff impulse (4) Capability of deep throttling (optional, not required by all missions), with simple controls (5) Capability of propellant utilization and tank blowdown (ullage expansion) (6) One signal each, for start and cutoff (7) No purge, bleed, or lubrication equipment required (8) Effective isolation of the propellants from the system during long coast periods (use of propellant isolation valves) (9) System growth potential and flexibility to mission modifications (10) Sufficient protection against of heat, nuclear radiation, bombardment. the effects and meteoric
tioncould be providedby severalindividual pressuranttanks of different size,each of which remains sealed by explosive-actuatedvalves (fig. 7-72) untilneeded. A sealed pressurization system would not requiregas venting during any partof the mission, thus eliminatinglosses due to intentional venting,or because of leakage past the vent valves. In some applications, the propulsion system can be operated on a propellanttank ullage gas blowdown principle during the latter portionof the mission. This could reduce the required amount of pressurant (and pressurant tank volume) by as much as one-half of that for a regulated, constant pressure system. Ignition of the main thrust chamber is critical with any multiple-start space propulsion system. If hypergolic propellants are used, ignition devices such as spark plugs of ASI units are not needed. However, hypergolics suffer from ignition delays at low temperatures (such as are encountered in space). Under the peculiar conditions of vacuum starting, irregular transients may occur upon ignition, such as violent chamber pressure surges. These may not be destructive, but they could place a severe burden on the control system. For nonhypergolic propellants, spark plugs or augmented spark igniters (ASI) may be used. Spark plugs have the disadvantage of coronaarcing and electrical leakage, even in a partial vacuum. However, injection of unburned propellants into the thrust chamber or ASI with attendant vaporization usually builds up sufficient chamber back pressure to allow the plugs to function. In some systems, this process may be augmented by purge gases. Certain propellant combinations tend to ionize the gas around the plug and thus quench the spark. Various schemes have been considered and developed for the deep throttling often required by spacecraftmain propulsion systems. For instance,the Apollo LEM descent engine is requiredto vary thrustcontinuously over a range from 1050 to 10500 pounds to permit hovering, selectionof a landing site,and the landing itself.Two alternate approaches to throttling are being pursued. One calls forvariation the of thrustlevel by main propellant line throttle valves,combined with aerationof the propellants with helium gas, as shown in figure4-47(b).
For missions involving intermittent propulsion system operation, during periods of more than a few months, the pressurization system design calls for special provisions, such as a completely sealed pressurant system. Pressuriza-
436
ROCKET ENGINES
Such aeration requires a surprisingly small proportion of gas by weight. The alternative approach is to vary combustion chamber injection area, as shown in figure 4-47(a). Other potential space engine throttling methods include use of throttlable propellant gasifiers or precombustors, or the subdivision of the injector manifolds into segments, each of which can be shut off by simple on-off valves. Figure 11-5 presents the schematic of a typical pressure-feed spacecraft main propulsion system using hypergolic Earth-storable propellants. A smaller and a larger pressurant tank satisfy pressurization requirements before and after a long coast period. The propellant tanks are equipped with positive expulsion diaphragms and remain pressurized to mission completion. An integrated main valve package contains main propellant throttling and isolation valves, including redundant features. This redundancy is obtained by series-parallel connection of the mechanically linked main propellant valves and increases system reliability, virtually eliminating critical failures (see also fig. 2-8). Aeration of
propellants for deep throttling is provided by separate helium lines and redundant valves. If the system throttle requirements were removed, the main propellant throttling valves could be replaced by simple on-off types. Propellant filters are provided in both main propellant lines to minimize system line contamination with foreign particles. The package design layout of the pressurefeed spacecraft main propulsion system schematically illustrated in figure 11-5 is shown in figure 11-6. The integrated main valve package is mounted directly to the main thrust chamber assembly, immediately upstream of the injector. The integrated engine assembly can be either rigidly mounted, or gimbal mounted, depending on requirements. Lightweight spherical propellant and pressurant tanks are secured by simple frames. An all-welded and brazed construction is employed for system assembly to prevent external leakage of pressurant gas or propellant. In a complete space vehicle system, performance gains of the spacecraft stages will effect increasing weight savings for each succeeding lower booster stage, as indicated by equations (2-1) through (2-5). When planning future spacecraft missions, high-performance liquid propellants, such as LO2/LH 2 and LF2/LH_, thus definitely should be considered. For high mission total impulse requirements, these propellants, when used in turbopump-feed systems, tend to provide a considerable performance edge over pressure-feed systems (fig. 11-2). A turbopump-feed system for these applications must reliably supply high-pressure propellants to the combustion chamber, under vacuum and zero gravity conditions, and following extended coast
=__-'_'_ =_ ._,-
CHECK
VALVE
FtLTE_ _w{} PRES_E REGULATOR PROPELLINT FILTER
Figure ll-5.-$chematic of a typical pressurefeed spacecraft main propulsion system using hypergolic Earth-storable propellants.
Figure ll-6.-Package design layou( ol a $ypical pressure-feed spacecraft main propulsion system using hypergolic Ear_h-s_orable propellan$s.
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
SPACE ENGINES
437
periods. starting in pump require main sion
All of the buildup ullage
pumps engine and settling start,
must
be
fully
primed This
prior delays may
to
LFz/LH thrust
2 propellant chamber is
combination. regeneratively
The cooled
main by the
system
to prevent
overspeeding. rockets, before
and
during
fuel to a nominal nozzle 44:1. A radiation-cooled may be overall added for certain area
expansion area ratio of nozzle extension skirt missions ratio of 75:1. main resulting turbines combustion 6-13). in fig. controls level. the turbine nozzle. at the (fig. shown inlets thrust to yield The an proby two
engine devices. The
or positive
propellant
expul-
expansion are thrust compact bled supplied
well-proven operating engine chapters, design propulsion must energy, and to vary over be able booster to the
turbopump concepts systems, should systems. to start from as
subsystem established and as
designs for discussed spacethe numtank de-
pellants separate to the gral,
to the assemblies body, The the main
chamber
and large
their
turbopump chamber engine. from
which
are mounted in an inteare driven chamber A hot-gas 7-31)located tile turA Y-type exThe entire
in preceding applied craft systems ber pressure vices) main of times
be effectively In addition, an unlimited available starting (for Major some problem
of turbopump-feed
by gases in a parallel throttle upstream bine hot-gas hausts engine mount power,
arrangement (such and the thus main can as the of the'turbine
valve
(if possible without the
auxiliary thrust level
duct into
is used
to route chamber be gimbaled
applications areas associated environmental considerations, (1)
a wide
range).
with turbopumps under space conditions other than material are as follows: and radiations bearings pason
package by linear
gimbal
gimbal
actuators.
Vacuum, effects and
temperature, on exposed seals
high-speed
Main
Thrust
Chamber to the
Design design elements presented for thrust systems
dynamic
In addition of fluid of gravitation in chapter chambers are: (1)
(2) (3)
Micrometeorite sages Absence pump of the operation presents
penetration effects
IV, primary of spacecraft
requirements main propulsion
Figure out main engine
11-7
the
package
design spacecraft or
lay-
Optimum with space due
steady-state consideration
cooling
methods, in
of a hypothetical system
turbopump-feed using a LO2/LH2
of application postrun and soakback, storage
(2)
Ability space
to withstand operation, environment to enter velocities
intermittent (3) OX;D;ZERTUR_O_U_ F_:!__/_ _AO_AT'ON-COOLEO

NOZZLE EXTENSION SKIRT
in the at
Ability high
planetary
atmospheres
GI M_L
MOUN_
_-
"_
Many described engines. chambers, simplicity, propellant
of the
thrust-chamber-cooling IV are the offer the applicable inherent
techniques to space cooled advantage of pressure life and thrust of
in chapter Especially which ruggedness, coolant and thus heavy
ablatively and
independence their total limited suitable systems
flows offset weight,
(including their are
EXHAUST
drops), 44 - 75 relatively
oucr
/ / -THRUST C HAMIER
i.
for most using Earthof abla-
pressure-feed storable less tive a hypothetical engine system comthan cooling (i) (2) (3)
space propellants 150 psia. of the
engine In some
/
/-'--FUEL
L
TURI,
HOT-,GAS OPUMP
THROTTLE
,o::'Z':
VALVE
at chamber by
pressures applications, one
is supplemented following throat inserts nozzle cooling
or a com-
Figure
ll-7.-Design
layout spacecraft 2 or LFJLtt
of main
bination
techniques: extension skirts
turbopump-feed using a LOJLtt bination.
Refractory
2 propellant
Radiation-cooled Propellant film
438
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
One of the problems due to erosion. Nozzle
associated change
with ablative of the chamber
coated with molybdenum
disilicide (MoSi2) to
cooling is the dimensional
prevent oxidation, are frequently used for nozzle skirt extensions which (for skirts starting at _ = 8 to 12) around operate at sustained temperatures
throat erosion, if confor some
trolled and pre2ictable, is acceptable engine systems and becomes significant in larger thrust chamber
proportionally less units. For
2600o-2800 F. For nozzle skirts of higher expansion ratios (starting at _ = 40 to 45) Hastelloy-X is sometimes used at operating temperatures One potential disadvanaround 2000-2200 F. ment to "see" space.
fixed-area injectors and fixed propellant supply pressures, propellant flow and engine thrust. would increase with time, while specific impulse would decrease, due to throat enlargement. However, for a 40:I expansion vacuum, nozzle operated in be only
tage of radiation-cooled devices is their requireA radiation-cooled skirt should face outboard and should not radiate undesirable heat to vehicle components. Radia-
the specific impulse loss would
0.5 percent, for as much
as i0 percent increase characteristics throat erosion
tion cooling appears unsuitable for clustered engines. For exclusively ablative-cooled chambers used in LO2/LH 2 or LF2/LH z systems, analyses to be a
in throat area, ifthe aerodynamic One remedy against excessive
of the nozzle contour did not deteriorate.
is the use of a refractory throat insert. A ceramic, silicon carbide, has been used throat inserts in space extensively for It engine applications.
and tests have proven liquid hydrogen
very effective throat film coolant in low chamber pressure applications (less than 100 psia). As low as 0.1 percent of the total propellant flow used as the throat film coolant greatly reduces throat erosion for extended tem performance glected. firing durations. The
has a high melting point (4400 F), excellent thermal shock characteristics, relatively high thermal conductivity (115 Btu/hr-ft2-F/in), low coefficient of thermal expansion high abrasion resistance. denum backup (2.4 x 10 -6 a molybin/in-F), excellent oxidation resistance, and Sometimes,
effect of such a small film coolant flow on sysis so slight that it can be newith their throat be Ablative chambers
sleeve is used when
the silicon
film-cooled by liquid hydrogen, therefore, may
carbide insert cannot conduct
heat sufficiently.
considered excellent prospects forfuture pressurefeed spacecraft main propulsion systems LO2/LH 2 or LF2/LH _. Following using
Another potential problem is the danger that the high-silica glass in the ablative material of the combustion chamber section becomes sufficiently fluid to be swept downstream deposited in the throat section. thrust variances may and promotes velocity profil6 in this area. and to be
the firing of an ablative thrust
This causes
chamber, the heat stored in the charred phenolic and silica reinforcement or in the throat insert refractory material soaks material. This into the unburned virgin propagates might also be
an unsymmetrical This phenomenon (45 percent
postrun soakback
be prevented by a liner of JTA
further thermal degradation, which affected by the vacuum or more, until the mean
graphite, 45 percent zirconium diboride, and I0 percent silicon) inserted in the combustion The liner is usually segmented, zone.
conditions, for 100 sec temperature of the char The weight of gas charring is
to provide a path
is reduced to about 500 F.
for the gases from the pyrolyzed ablative (and reduce the Ap across the liner),and to prevent cracks that would seg[;ented liner. Exclusively radiation-cooled thrust chambers by the would be subject to large stresses caused high temperatures attachment points. in combustion develop in an expanding un-
generated and expelled by soakback
about 15 percent of the weight of ablative material charred. mum It could cause a postrun residual the desired minithis effect is impulse undesirably exceeding cutoff impulse. However, small for larger systems. space
For long-duration
zone and throat
missions, the temperature effects from cause vaporization of the material during coasting and ifpossible. the design of a typical spacecraft hypergolic
by the thrust transmission, and at the injector By contrast, the radiationto accept and
solar radiation may ablative chamber should be prevented Figure thrust main 11-8 shows
cooled nozzle skirt is designed panding gases, and some by thrust transmission.
emit only the heat flux transmitted by the exof the loads imposed Molybdenum alloys,
chamber propulsion
for a pressure-feed system using
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
SPACE ENGINES
439
ings culate ;,, i',.'_ ,_, .............. _ iS.- j
should the
not (4-36) char
affect and depth. chambers psia, the be used
total (4-37) For
chamber may Refrasil
duration. to calphenolic at pressures
Equations ablative around zine tions type
be used
thrust 100-125 fuels, may also the For the
operated using
and
N204 empirical
and char
hydradepth,
following
equa-
to estimate of charring zone
including (1)
effects
due to soakback: and liner the throat
combustion (with
section insert): I
or without
and/or
a=0.0415t Figure tails pulsion l l-8.-Typical [or system using thrust chamber spacecraIt bypergolic design main depro(2) For nozzle sections a pressure-[eed
-s
(11-1)
Earth-storable
downstream
of the
throat:
propellants. a = 0.0335 Earth-storable of 125psia. propellants Refrasil-filled, at a chamber pressure where a = char t --thrust sec e = base =nozzle made of including thickness the outer calculated. For of wall. operated bers thrust An intecomunder Once (heliAn the of natural expansion consideration char depth insulating required space high based on design is layer required duration, the to keep can be logarithms. area ratio 2.718 at the section depth, in cumulative firing duration, t as e -024;e (11-2)
phenolic-impregnated tape wrapped on a manchamber and nozzle secratio insert section outer of 42. are and A JTA provided throat, is hoop
ablative materials are drel, at the combustion tions, liner up and to an expansion a silicon
chamber
carbide
for combustion respectively. fiber-glass stresses, cally)
chamber The filament,
chamber wound wrapped with
wall
to accept longitudinally
and
then
effects of the wall
of soakback,
determined,
to contend
meridional
stresses.
insulating layer, another ablative alumina ablative silica, layer
consisting material is wrapped and cured structural skirt is tape to provide ratio is attached and is
of the basic or such as asbestos or around to reduce the the basic rate
at the
temperature engine chamber from heat
turbopump-feed at relatively cooled more
systems pressures, thrust chamfor time may be valve Relocatwould introduce with the is transfer
heat flux to the A radiation-cooled Hastelloy-X chamber from grated bustion alloy an sheet nozzle expansion injector chamber forging.
fiber-glass outer made of 0.030-inch wrapped the of 42:1 to the made of an nozzle end to the
regeneratively appear considerations. space from located ing engine start signal upstream
tubular-wall
suitable A possible
disadvantage is the response which propellant jacket. jacket would of the but shutdown, jacket. are the
extension of the
application to full of the increased
to 80:1.
thrust, if the coolant
substantially
aluminumfixed-orifice, type. engines, be designed of a speci400must to
It is a conventional, unlike-impinging thrust chambers 11-8, At the (design fiber-glass insulation and temperature values: ofttimes during doublet for space should end
it to a point the
downstream problem, after in the problems during susceptible walls. design cooling may with
single-ring, Ablative such fied 2000 remain limit Any the heat as total sec),
reduce
response problems trapped
heat-_ransfer propellants Other walls than optimum ing adding are are
shown many firing
in figure restarts. duration char wall
to permit
potential more solid overall
heat-transfer Also, tubular damage an combinand skirt.
values: material shell
characteristics
throttling. In some
sufficient outer value
to meteoritic applications, result film from cooling, extension
between
to a specified 400-700 between F). fir-
maximum
(design
regenerative
soakback
a radiation-cooled
nozzle
44O
Design
of Control
Components
seals,
and hermetically
sealed
solenoids
or
The various aspects of control component design have been discussed in chapter VII. Pertinent considerations for the design of space main engine control components, in general and for propellant valves in particular, are: (1) Maximum reliability (2) Use of bellows for dynamic sealing in view of the need for long-term operating lifein a vacuum environment (3) Combination hard and softvalve seats, forminimum leakage (4) Provisionof a minimum of two seals and a vent between different ropellants p (5) Avoidance of slidingsurfacesin components operatingin a vacuum environment (6) Where possible,mechanical linkage of the propellant valve actuatorsby a mechanism thatensures positive, consistent, and synchronized opening and closing forsmooth, repeatableignition and thrusttermination (7) Minimum electrical nergy requirementfor e actuations The basic design detailsforthe various controlcomponents forspace main engine systems, such as pilotvalves,regulators, and ventvalves, are quite similar those forbooster-stage to applications. The mechanically linked,poppet-type dual-propellant valve arrangement shown in figureIi-9 is typicalformain-propellant or propellant-isolation valves of space main engines using hypergolicEarth-storable propellants.In the valve shown, linked actuationis accomplished by locatingthe valve poppets in series, thus causing the oxidizerpoppet motion to simultaneously move the fuelpoppet. Complete separationof fuel and oxidizeris achieved by welded bellows seals locatedat both ends of the fuel poppet and at the connection end of the oxidizer poppet. Since valve actuationis provided by oxidizerfluidpressure,no bellows is requiredat the actuationchamber. The center vent chamber between valves sectionsis the critical area where propellant mixing must be prevented. However, both bellows would have to failto cause this failure mode (reliability throughredundancy). The design also incorporates allwelded static sealing joints, all-metal construction except for the Teflon dynamic poppet valve
torque motors. The valve is spring loaded normally closed, and additionally pressure unbalanced closed when inlet pressure is applied. Actuation to open is achieved by allowing the oxidizer fluid to enter the actuation chamber at nominal oxidizer valve inlet pressure which, in turn, overcomes the closing forces on the poppets. For on-off and isolation valve applications, the full open or closed valve positions are effected by a three-way solenoid pilot valve which, when energized, pressurizes the valve actuation chamber to open, and which, when deenergized, vents the same chamber allowing the pressure unbalance and the springs to close the poppets. In the applications as a dual-propellant throttling valve, the position of the linked main poppets is controlled by a servo pilot spool valve which meters the control fluid flow (oxidizer) to the main valve actuation chamber. The pilot spool valve, in turn, is proportionally positioned by a servo torque motor, as a function of the command signalcurrentand itspolaritysupplied from a servo amplifier.By means of properly shaped valve poppet contours,the main throttlingvalves controlthe flow of oxidizerand fuel to the main thrust chamber at constantmixture ratio, and thus regulatethe main chamber pressure (thrust).
System Design Missions
of Propellant
Storage
for Space
As previously mentioned, the storage of propellants for space-system propulsion represents an important design area. Cryogenic propellants require protection against high temperatures, particularly for extended storage periods. Earthstorable propellants, by contrast, require protection against low temperatures, because of the danger of propellant freezing. There are two basic design approaches to propellant storage for space missions, the vented and the nonvented systems. The selection of the optimum system design depends on mission, propellants type, and type of engine feed system. In a yen-ted storage system, propellant pressure and temperature are maintained at a constant value. This system is mainly used for cryogenic propellants. Any heat input to the
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
SPACE ENGINES
441
propellants centage widely propellant integration such as
is absorbed of boiloff. Since the
by allowing conditions net heat
a small will input by
per-
divided skin ering orbit heat
into
a number and and are
of intervals. net heat fluxes
Equilibrium (considto the the rate net for
vary to each path, be
temperatures both internal tanks
during tank
travel, may
external
sources) adding heat input
be computed for the orbit. specific This
a numerical vehicle can
propellant inputs
then the
determined net
for each
process a complete
location.
By algebraically for each,
path
OUT i SOLENOID_ II] E/\ PISTON SEALS OUTLET /_ FUEL OUTLET
_OXIDIZER
I_
_ -t_"
_Y__NNDSEE_L_
VE %NT _/
TEF(LBONDSEEA_ /--'---WELD
ACTUATING FLOW
ox,o,z
VENT f SERVO TORQUE-- 7 MOTOR _ . A
o.-O FV W
WELD'_
ACTUATINGPISTON_
/__?-_
_',_
-- A_..:._
I I/
//// t \\\X'I
I_ _j \ "IROTTLING POPPET VALVE ONLY
--%'j_ONTOURED(TYPICAL) T__ OXID
I',,,
1 _
SERVO I,_--':1 VALVE /

WELD
/_ v
I _
AS A PROPELLANT THROTTLING VALVE
---- A SECTION AFigure 1 l-9.-Typical spacecra[t
THERMAL RELIEF (TYPICAL)
THROTTUNG VALVEONLY
A
mechanically linked, systems poppet-type, using dual-propellant hypergolic on-oil or throttling propellants. valve, [or
main
propulsion
Earth-storable
442
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
one complete amount
orbit can then be obtained and the without venting, any heat input
jectory correction maneuvers, be oriented properly. Another example be imparted which orientation. Ideally, when This, however,
for which
it must
of propellant boiloff per orbit calculated.
In a system
is spacecraft separation from momentums may require correction for proper
to the propellant results in a propellant temperature rise and a corresponding pressure. allowable maximum This system increase in vapor The the
the launch vehicle, during which
can be applied to both
cryogenic and Earth-storable propellants. pressure rise, and consequently
a spacecraft is oriented at some is not the case, because the
attitude, it should remain there indefinitely. spacecraft is continuously subjected to small will cause it
heat input, is dictated by the allowable In this case, the storage analysis on initialconditions. This
tank pressure. assumes
an allowable vapor pressure rise during
external and internal forces which
the mission, based
to driftoff the desired position. An attitude control system must function to counteract all It could be of either a conPractical considdisturbing torques.
permits determination of the final propellant temperature, expected pressure-dependent pellant experiences The maximum changes in propellant For
density and ullage volume
requirements, and that the proby
tinuous, or of an on-off type.
propellant tank weights.
erations tend, in general, to favor the latter. The attitude control system itself contains certain nonlinearities and nonideal conditions. In actual operation these inherent nonlinearities cause the vehicle to settle in a periodic motion about a reference point. This motion is represented by a closed curve in the phase-plane is termed the "limit cycle of operation." The problem of attitude control, then, becomes twofold: (i) what is required to rotate the new attithe can be and
cryogenics, it is usually assumed
a uniform temperature rise.
storage time is then computed
dividing the propellant heat capacity by the average rate of heat input. In this system, the storage weight penalties are composed tank weight required to accommodate allow for thermal expansion and the time-dependent of extra the pres-
sure increase, the extra tankage required to of the propellants, For insulation weight.
vehicle through a given angle to some tude, and vehicle calculated, to accomplish and (2) what these total space is required The two basic attitude mission the total occur. control most in this attitude. energy control can number
Earth storables, sufficient insulation is also required to prevent freezing.
to maintain maneuvers
requirement requireof times
11.4
DESIGN ENGINE
OF
REACTION
CONTROL
ments by that
for any these two
be computed,
SYSTEMS
simply
determining maneuvers
Spacecraft Spacecraft cation pitch, center implies cle two about main (1) and
Attitude attitude
Control control the problem
Requirements requires three axes the the (yaw, control vehiof vehicle's of the consists appli-
Of the reaction vide They craft are and
various systems range universally in large
attitude are the of torque, applied unmanned
systems, and
the pro-
versatile up to high to manned
of torques roll) of mass. rotation these phases:
about passing The and/or axes.
a wide
levels. space-
through stabilization Its
of attitude
vehicles.
operation
Operational Modes If any reaction
of Reaction control system,
Control the
Systems amount preand of
Rotation within
of the
vehicle time
over
a given
angle,
thrust cisely
delivered controlled,
on command if overshoot
must
be very
a specified of the within
or undershoot Three basic opera-
(2)
Stabilization position, limits
vehicle
in a required tolerance
acceptable
hunting are to be avoided. tional modes are available: 1. On-and-off, start" as necessary command
or "bang-bang" system operates at its rated
control.-This intermittently thrust are given level. as a If
"multiple The may not its main position be the of a vehicle, one required system. have to perform if left uncontrolled, use a of traof as the long
for efficient For example, a series
on-and-off
signals
propulsion may
spacecraft
function of sensed position error only, tem would tend to be unstable because
the sysof the
443
timelags that are present in all real systems. This situation can be corrected through the use of control systems which utilize both position error and rate of error change to time the on and off command signals. 2. Proportional control.-The operating thrust of th(sreaction control system is varied according to the sensed error signals. 3. Repetitive pulse control.-This type of system needs only position error sensing and uses a system which delivers thrust in a continuous series of accurately reproducible impulse bits to assure orientation and stabilization of the vehicle. The optimum thrust pulse outline should be a square-wave. Control may be achieved by modulating pulse width, or the frequency of a fixed pulse width, or by combining both methods. Selection of Reaction Control Engine Systems
For reaction control engine systems, both liquid monopropellants and bipropellants have been used. The selection of an optimum system for a given mission is based primarily on total systems weight (including propellants) versus total impulse. As mission time increases, so does the propellant and tankage portion of the total systems weight, while the weight of nozzles, valves, and plumbing remains fixed. A comparison of two reaction control systems of different fixed weight and specific impulse may show the lower fixed-weight system to have an overall weight advantage, despite a considerably lower specific impulse. However, sometimes the lower fixed-weight system cannot be used, simply because it has not enough thrust or cannot be operated more than a specific number of cycles. If total impulse is the variable and total systems weight the evaluating criteria, a plot of total systems weight versus total impulse can be used to compare competitive systems. If thrust and number of restarts (operating cycles) are also factors, added dimensions in presenting the comparison are required. Based on the selection criteria of minimum total systems weight, the three major factors to be considered as independent variables for different space missions are total impulse, thrust level, and number of cycles. Selection of a reaction control engine system is largely dependent on these three requirements, in addition to reliability considerations. Other important factors are performance
tolerances, maximum impulse per cycle, space storage and environment, systems integration, and logistics. For monopropellant reaction control systems, the system vacuum specific impulse varies from 140 to 165 seconds for 90 percent H202, and from 200 to 230 seconds for N2H4. For bipropellant systems using Earth storables or cryogenics, the system vacuum specific impulse may be estimated by applying an efficiency factor ranging from 90 to 94 percent for steady state, and from 80 to 86 percent for transient operation (less than 25 milliseconds pulse width), of the ideal specific impulse values given in table 11-1. The 90 percent H202 systems are applied up to a maximum total impulse of about 50 000 lb-sec and the N2H4 systems to the same or somewhat higher values. Beyond this level, the hypergolic Earth-storable bipropellant systems, which are in the majority, take over. Optimization of Reaction Operating Parameters Control System
For most reaction control engine systems, a pressure-feed system using stored inert gas as pressurant is employed because of its simplicity and reliability. After the propellants and their feed system have been selected, parametric analyses of all engine system design variables are performed to establish the minimum weight system, within mission requirements, which still satisfies other important considerations. Major operating parameters affecting systems weight are: chamber pressure, pressurant storage pressure, mixture ratio, and nozzle expansion area ratio. Chamber pressure and nozzle expansion area ratio are foremost optimization parameters, since the weight of major system components is directly related to and defined by them. Component weights considered in the analyses should include the pressurant and its storage tank, the fuel and oxidizer tanks, and the thrust chamber assemblies. Optimum values for chamber pressure range from 50 to 200 psia, and for nozzle expansion area ratios from 25:1 to 60:1. The optimum mixture ratio depends on propellant type and thrust chamber cooling method used. Optimum design values for inert gas pressurant storage pressure range from 3000 to 5000 psia (using 6 A1-4V titanium alloy forgings as tank material).
....
444
Basic System Engines
Design
for Reaction
Control
For N2H 4 and 90 percent H202 monopropellant systems, the propellant tanks can be pressurized by a stored inert gas system, as shown in figure 5-1. The propellant valves are located downstream of the propellant tanks and are used to control the propellant flow to the thrust chamber. In an H202 system, each thrust chamber has its own silver-mesh catalyst, similar to the one in the H202 gas generator shown in figure 4-50. When H202 comes in contact with the catalyst, a hot-gas mixture of steam and oxygen is produced, the temperature of which is a function of H_O 2 concentration and its liquid temperature. For N2H 4 monopropellant systems, some kind of ignition source is usually provided because the catalyst life with N2H4 is limited. The ignition source could be either an electrical heating element, or a continuously operated nuclear energy device. Frequently, to simplify ig'nition requirements in a N2H 4 system, a common gas generator feeds several nozzles. Since the liquid H202 is cool until it decomposes, the components upstream of the catalyst do not require high-temperature materials. However, feedback of heat from the catalyst chamber and the nozzle to other components must be prevented, since it would not only damage these components but could also initiate vaporization or even decomposition of the stored propellant. The H20 2 system has a temperature advantage (maximum temperature 1500 F) over a system using N2H 4, although the latter has a higher specific impulse. In the N2H4 system, the high operating temperature of 1S00 F requires suitable materials all the way from the generator to the nozzles. Figx_re 11-10 illustrates the basic schematic of a typical reaction control system using hypergolic Earth-storable bipropellants and helium gas pressurization. Two redundant subsystems are provided, each of which is physically and functionally independent. Each subsystem is activated independently by an electrical command signal to the explosive-actuated pressurant-start valves located in the helium pressurization line, and to the various solenoid isolation valves. After passing through a micronic filter, different pressurant-isolation valves, pressure regulators, and the "quad" check-valve assemblies, the
helium at the required pressure level pressurizes the positive expulsion bladders in the oxidizer and fuel tanks. Opening of propellant isolation solenoid valves allows the pressurized propellants to flow through micronic filters, distribution lines, and line isolation solenoid valves to the normally closed injector solenoid valves which control the operation of the individual reaction control thrust chambers. The system is shut down by removal of the start signal. This closes the propellant-isolation valves and disconnects the reaction-control injector-valve solenoids from the command system. A relief valve sealed with a burst diaphragm protects the pressurant tank against overpressurization. A high-pressure transducer monitors helium-tank pressure. In a hermetically sealed system, it could also be utilized to indicate the amount of propellants remaining in the tanks. A low-pressure transducer is located downstream of the helium pressure regulators to detect regulator malfunctions. Relief valves sealed with burst diaphragms are also provided for the propellant tanks to protect them against overpressurization.
Systems
Redundancy
in Reaction control
Control Systems engine operation,
For reliable redundancy three areas:
reaction
may be provided
in the following
1. Redundancy within a subsystem.-Several typical examples of redundancy within a subsystem are shown m figure 11-10. Two explosiveactuated pressurant start valves are used in parallel. Similarly, two pressure regulators are used in parallel, pilot selected by a three-way solenoid valve. In each propellant pressurant line, a "quad _ check valve assembly is used to insure that propellants which may have permeated through the positive-expulsion bladders will not reverse-flow into the common pressurant line downstream of the pressure regulators. A similar "quad" check valve assembly is installed downstream of each propellant tank to prevent reverse flow of propellants from the other propellant subsystem, or from the main propulsion system. 2. Redundancy between subsystems.-Refer again to figure 11-10. Here, redundancy between two independent subsystems is provided by normally closed solenoid intersubsystem-propellant
--
--
--
--
---
I III I
ii
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
SPACE
ENGINES
445
_oo_ _,oo_ _O_T_O_ ---_ --_U_NT,_?L_O_
NoR SSU
ACTUAT_O P_ESSURANT \ N.c. EXPLOSIVE-..
START VALVE
NT,SOLAT,ON , /T NS OCE
_" _
\
F----"
\J
_
_
_"
_
_
I__ 'o
3 WAY LOW ' i, PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
i MODULAR CONTROL------X ! _ _
VALVE
', _
II I
l _ I CONTROL
MODULAR
CONTROL__ ._ FUEL TANK
PACKAGE SOLENOID ISOLATION_----_
_ __._ .._-----_-,,mI.---MODULAR PACKAGE l_ _ I "----SOLENOID _SOLATION CONTROL
VALVE ouc_ HEC_ E C _
I__ : _r _
I I
VALV OUAD CHECK VALVE
IDENTICAL
--_"
ISOLATION VALVE FUEL SOLENOID
SUBSYSTEM
--Z_Z
PROPELLANT rm
OXIDIZE iSOLATION
SOLENOID VALVE
SUBSYSTEM VALVE
ASSEMBLY THRUST INJECTOR
(iNCLUDING CHAMBER VALVES) TYP
PITCH
YAW
ROLL VALVE
[]
@
MICRONIC
FILTER SERVICE
BURST CONNECTION
DIAPHRAGM
RELIEF
Figure ll-lO.-Basic
schematic
ofa typical reaction
control system.
446
valves. If one propellant subsystem should fail, these valves open and connect to the propellant lines of the other subsystems. The distribution line solenoid isolation valves can isolate a group of thrust chambers (pitch, roll, or yaw) shouid an individual thrust chamber in the group malfunction. 3. Redundancy outside the system.-Redundancy outside the system may be provided by connecting to the pressurant and propellant system of the spacecraft main propulsion system, which must be capable of supplying one or both subsystems with pressurant and/or propellants.
Packaging and Installation Engine Systems
of Reaction
Control
systems are pressure fed and use a N204/MMH propellant combination. The tasks of the Gemini reaction control engine systems built by Rocketdyne are high-altitude abort trim, attitude control in orbit and during reentry, and rendezvous and docking control. In addition, four solid propellant engines built by Thiokol are used for highaltitude abort and reentry retrofiring. The reaction control engine systems for the Gemini spacecraft (fig. 11-11) consist of(1) Sixteen 25-pound thrust chambers for reentry control (also see fig. 11-14), consisting of two complete propulsion systems, with a pulsing requirement of 6 cycles/see and a minimum impulse bit= 0.25 lb-sec (2) Eight 25-pound thrust chambers for orbital attitude control-pulsing requirement: 6 cyclessee, minimum impulse bit = 0.25 lb-sec (3) Four 100-pound thrust chambers for translation control in rendezvous and docking maneuvers-pulsing requirement: 2 cycles/see; minimum impulse bit = 26 lb-sec (4) Two 100-pound thrust chambers and two S5-pound thrust chambers for longitudinal propulsion-pulsing requirement: 2 cycles/see; minimum impulse bit = 25 lb-sec The Gemini control thrust chambers are all located inside the vehicle, with the nozzles trimmed flush with the outer skin. Thus, no radiation cooling can be used. All thrust chambers are ablatively cooled.
As with spacecraftmain propulsionsystems, the controlcomponents of a reactioncontrol engine system can be modular packaged. The modular packages will incorporate related control components within the same housing (forging or casting), as shown in figure 10-9. Typical modular control packages for reaction control systems are indicated schematically in figure 11-10. The thrust chamber injector propellant valves are frequently designed as an integral part of the thrust chamber assembly (fig. 11-13). All-welded and brazed construction is preferred to prevent pressurant and propellant external leakage. Figure 11-11 presents the installations of the reaction control engine systems used on a typical manned
10('_._ IM_'LI5 _ _NAMB[I_
spacecraft,
12
the Gemini
capsule.
All
Design
of Reaction
Control
Thrust
Chambers
For systems using hypergolic Earth-storable bipropellants, the reaction control thrust chambers may be effectively cooled by one of the following methods: (1) Ablative cooling (2) Radiation cooling (3) Ablative cooling with radiation-cooled nozzle skirt (4) Ablative cooling supplemented by regenerative or film cooling Other methods, such as regenerative cooling and. film cooling, can probably be used successfully to a certain extent. However, none can compete
Figure
11-11.-Reaction for the Gemini
control engine manned spacecraft.
systems
447
with ablative or radiation cooling in overall system simplicity, minimum system pressure drop, and minimum performance loss (film or transpiration cooling requires extra propellant flow). Also, the advancement of the state of the art of materials, and of analytical and design techniques, has made both ablative and radiation cooling, rather reliable and practical cooling methods for reaction control thrust chambers. The design and construction principles for ablative-cooled reaction control thrust chambers are not basically different from those for main propulsion systems. However, the small physical sizes (from 1- to 100-pound thrust), and the operational modes (such as the pulse mode) of reaction control thrust chambers, require some special considerations. For example, a typical roll control thrust chamber is designed to produce thrust ranging from 1.6 to 2.5 pounds at chamber pressures from S0 to 130 psia. The design throat area is 0.0120 in 2 (0.124-inch diameter). This throat diameter should be produced accurately and remain unaffected by erosion during firing. Generally, in small ablative rocket motors, the internal geometry remains essentially unchanged as ablation progresses. The thermal protection in this case is provided by the internal change from the pyrolysis or decomposition of the plastic resin. This yields a porous char layer without any significant dimensional changes. The transition zone between the virgin ablative and the char is referred to as the _char front." The ablation rate, in this case, is not governed by a surface regression, but rather by a regression of the interface between the virgin ablative and the char. However, if highest accuracy is required, throat inserts made of refractory ceramics, such as silicon carbide, and combustion chamber liners made of graphite or ceramics, will further reduce throat-size changes due to erosion and will prevent ablative fluid from being swept downstream from the combustion chamber and deposited in the throat section. Silicon carbide can be machined to rather close tolerances by grinding. The diameter of a throat can generally be maintained with a tolerance of _+0.001 inch. The methods of determining the char depth of ablativereactioncontrolthrustchambers are similar those of the largersize chambers. to Semiempiricalor empiricalequationssuch as
equations (4-36), (4-37), (11-1), and (11-2) be used. However, in the case of reaction trol thrust chambers designed for repetitive
may con-
pulse, o; for intennittent operation, the heattransfer conditions may be quite different. Many studies and experiments have been conducted in this area, and theoretical and empirical correlations have been generated. A study by Lee and Hahn' indicates that for repetitive short-pulse operation, the char-front region in an ablative-cooled thrust chamber does not experience appreciable temperature fluctuations, because of the attenuating effect of the low thermal diffusivity of the char layer. The char front region therefore stays at the pyrolyzing temperature during the entire period of cycling. The char regression under pulse operation can, therefore, be treated as a case of continuous firing with effectively reduced gas-side heat transfer. The results show that the char depth based on equal cumulative firing time is a function of percentage of the firing time over the elapsed time. It increases with the decrease of the percentage of firiug, to a maximum value several times that obtained with continuous firing. At low percentages of firing, i.e., below approximately 5 percent burn (pulse width/pulse cycle), the char depth drops again, because of the increasing p_oportion of radiation or convection losses from the outer skin surface of the chamber, to heat influx from the combustion gases. In fact, at some critical pulse mode, the char regression ceases after an equilibrium char depth is attained. During intermittent, on/off, i.e., multiplestart firings, with off periods in between fiLings of relatively long durations, the temperature at the char front does not remain at the pyrolyzing temperature all the time. The char-depth progression for a typical multiple-start system is shown in figure 11-12. The ascending straight line represents char-depth progression for a continuous firing (100 percent burn). Assume that the first firing cycle was terminated at "a." Since the char layer at this time is at a higher temperature than the pyrolyzing temperature,
LLee, J. C., and Hahn, J. R., "Regression Rate of Char Front in Ablative-Cooled Rocket Motor Under Pulse Operation," AIAA Preprint 64-262.
448
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET ENGINES
eratively cooled jacket is provided for extra-long durations (up to 30 minutes). Fuel is used as the regenerative coolant to supplement tive cooling. A segmented 3TA the abla-
graphite liner is
used in the combustion chamber section; the throat insert is made of silicon carbide. Ablative materials are oriented at 90 and 0 ,respectively, at various regions according to structural requirements. Asbestos-phenolic is used for the
outer insulation. The

TIME, SECONDS
injector propellant valves forms an intethrust assembly.
are brazed to the injector, which gral part of the thrust chamber char depth
Figure
II-I2.-Combustion
chamber
Figure 11-14 presents the 25-pound chamber assembly
versus cumulative firing time of ablative-cooled reaction control thrust
a typical chamber.
for a reentry control system, by Rocketdyne. no auxiliary Rather,
also designed ber shown
and manufactured
Its design details are similar to the thrust chamablation continuous (point "b"). When until the temperature at the the pyrolyzing temperature constant during warmup, through shutoff at "e. _ be projected onto the The line char the next cycle starts at _e," in figure 11-13. However,
char front drops below the char depth remains
regenerative cooling jacket is provided. combustion chamber section.
a ceramic liner (silicon carbide) is used in the The nozzle exit is trimmed flush with the vehicle outer skin. Total radiation cooling applied to reaction control thrust chambers problems: (1) Difficulties when the (2) (3) thrust chamber may pose the following
until pyrolyzing resumes The various events may
100-percent burn line for convenience. depth following the second cycle.
d'-e' in this case represents the soakback
Subsequent
inboard-installation of is required for comchamber construcapplications when low chamber
cycles can be treated similarly. Note that in the short second cycle, soakback tiple of the it can usually ablative firing time could time charring from does Even during figure a large not be seen consumes and time. is gained hardly which charring is a mulIn general, soakback of virgin useful (4) it the reof burning. 11-12 that percentage to the char loss
Thermal ponents
shielding surrounding
requirements the of the thrust chamber
Recrystallization tion Need metals
contribute some for the been
in multiple-start thrust chamber, at a relatively
though the
preheating firing, of burn had In this
for a larger
during compensate have
subsequent available
operated pressure
would fired
chamber spect, of the soakbacks,
been it is virgin
continuously. to minimize toward the
desirable particularly ablative.
the last
number portion
Combinations tiple starts can above, gradient
of repetitive be treated except of the
pulsings in the same "on" will curve, instead curve. design
and
mulas
manner cycles effect a based of the
described composed different the particular Figure typical tion golic
that pulsings
the
of repetitive percent-bum firing 11-13 or 100 presents
ablation value, percent the
on
/' t INJIfCTOll J SILICON CARBIOE --f /
continuous
details
of a reac-
Figure
II-13.
-Typical
I O0-pound-thrust, control thrust chamber
ablativeassem-
100-pound-thrust, control thrust chamber
ablative-cooled, assembly
cooled,
reaction
for hyperdesigned and regen-
bly for hypergolic designed generative and cooling
Earth-storable manufactured jacket optional).
bipropellants, (re-
Earth-storable
bipropellants
by Rocketdyne
manufactured
by Rocketdyne.
An optional
DESIGN OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
SPACE ENGINES
449
INJECTOR PROPELLANT VALVE$--?_ MOUNTING
_-_GLASS X _
WRAP _ PARALLEL
10 percent
\WRAP
tungsten could
alloy,
electroplated and 5 percent also zirconium chamber. for the
with An
(STRUCTURAL) ,_---ASBESTOS
cermet diboride, alloy coated
coating
of chromium be used and
/_
CAN
__WRAP
"_BLATIVE
of molybdenum with
titanium,
MoSi 2, may presents reaction
be used.
Figure 11-15 radiation-cooled
a typical, totally control thrust chamber combustion throat bolted radiant valves. section. as shown, chamThe or
,.:
",Z
PARALLEL ABLATIVE
WRAP _
Lgo"
L A90/L;TIVE
assembly. ...... \ ....NSER, and ber

ORIENTED CERAMIC LINER (SEGMENTED)
It has nozzle, plate to the
an integral a thick
with can
injector Figure system ll-14.-25-pound thrust chamber by thrust assembly Rocketdyne. reentry designed control and welded aft of the
be either to reduce
chamber.
A heat
shield heat The
is mounted transfer shield is
injector
manufactured
to the chamber, the if properly simplest, The as reshaped chamber. structure spacers. The bers are orifice, pattern. improve
injector
propellant
A radiation-cooled designed lightest, quired thrust and and working chamber applied, relatively
thrust is
to minimize reflection back to the thrust The shield is attached to the mount and injectors is thermally for reaction with insulated control a conventional by ceramic thrust chamfixeddoublet utilized to
probably most reliable.
temperature wall could
of a radiation-cooled be as high 3400 propellants mixture ratio, operated and at refrac-
using usually
hypergolie designed
Earth-storable unlike-impinging plate is often
propellants
3700 F for Earth-storable at or near chamber tory their pressures such optimum of as 100 the
single-ring, A splash performance.
psia.
Advanced
materials
90 percent
tantalum-
FUEL INJECTOR
VALVE
OXIDIZER
INJECTOR VALVE
INJECTOR FUEL INLET WALL THICKNESS
COMB.
CHAMBER DIA THROAT DIAMETER
OXIDIZER'-_INLET
POLISHED REFLECTING TYPE HEAT SHIELD -FITTING MOUNTI NG STRUCTURE Figure 11-15.-Typical total radiation-cooled reaction control thrust
INTEGRATED RADIATIONCOOLED THRUST CHAMBER
chamber
assembly.
450
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Design of Control Components Control Engine Systems
for Reaction
The various aspects of control design for reaction control engine
component systems are
similar to those for spacecraft main propulsion systems, except that propellant and pressurant flow rates are at much lower levels. For instance, the propellant flow rates of a typical roll control thrust chamber may be 0.0041 to 0.007 lb/sec (oxidizer), and 0.0021 to 0.0032 lb/sec (fuel), to produce a thrust range from 1.6 to 2.5 pounds. Besides the propellant injector valves, all other control components, such as pressure regulators, check valves, and vent valves, are similar to those of other systems. In addition to high reliability and suitability for the space environment, pertinent design requirements for the injector propellant valves of reaction control engine systems are: (1) Fast (as short as 2 milliseconds) and precise response when opening or closing (2) Tight shutoff, with no afterdribble (3) Low power consumption Most injector valves are solenoid operated. The needle-type propellant valve design shown in figure 7-43 is suitable for integral injector valve assemblies, with both valves actuated by a common solenoid. Figure 11-16 shows another typical injector propellant valve, designed and manufactured by Rocketdyne. It is used with the reaction control
--lr"--*.o o,,. Figure 11-16.- Typical used with reaction pulsing applications, tured by Rocketdyne. injector propellant valve control thrust chambers in designed and manufac-
thrust chamber assemblies shown in figures 11-13 and 11-14 for pulsing applications. The valve is a fast-acting, solenoid-operated, directactuated type. The propellants flow through the solenoid core at nearly constant velocity, resulting iu low-pressure drop. The valve incorporates a hermetically seaied electrical coil, and a metal-ball-type seal. The latter is crimped soiidly into tl_e nose of the armature and engages a conical metal seating surface. Positive seating is obtained by lapped fits. The inlet port contains a filter to protect against contaminants. The valve is capable of operating reliably in the temperature environment of space.
INDEX
A-1
stage engine, 109, 110, 129, 224, 392, 249, 393, 250, 395, turbine design 378 in pump, pressure product sequence,
64, 130, 261, 397, layout, design,
65, 193, 295, 398,
66, 67, 68, 86, 96, 201, 217, 218, 219, 296, 399, 257 4I_ 303, 364,
102, 222,
A-2 stage starting steady system thermal thrust venting, A-3 stage chamber engine 75 general helium preliminary system thrust thrust A-4 stage 154,
engine sequence,
(continued) 72 data 103 95, 96 for, 166
378,391,
alternate assembly bellows, C* centrifugal chamber chamber cutoff design engine general ignition impulse influence
state operation, operation, 70 conductance, chamber 199, 166 engine, product and
261 398-399 395 85, 86
configuration, 389, 392
turbopump, performance, 224 vs. gases 68 diagram, 64, valve, 67 303 250 397-398 ratio, 129 130 295-297 222, 750K, 364 67 391 66 engine thrust, of, values,
correction
72, 73, 74, 75, 76. 86, gases, values for, 86 system 72, layout 73 for 48K, 95, 76. 163, 77, 268, tank, 121 for, 75 97 78, 269, 344 86 95, operational
97,
156, sequence,
167
propulsion
values, 393 performance description, monitor turbine, 249, coefficient,
description, system, 156 design operation, chamber load, 156, 76 74, 159, engine, 158,
73, 74 configuration, 75,
injection momentum injection velocity, main oxidizer valve, oxidizer packaging, preliminary propellant pump,
97, 270,
121, 324,
144, 325,
217-219, for
399 layout flow
338, 342, 344, burst diaphragm chamber nozzle chamber comparison 158, 159 and engine engine estimated product of
392 on oxidizer extension, gases, various tank
values
design
characteristics, list, 102 96, 109, 110 392 412
pressurization 78
systems,
starting sequence, 67 static-firing measurement system thermal thrust A-2 turbopump, operation, conductance, chamber, 193, 95, 199, 67
propulsion
schematic,
mixture ratio pressure 320 description, system, 156 configuration thrust 64 parameters sequence, tank, 154 control mixture system, design pressure valve,
control loop, 269 drops in oxidizer tank, 76 for thrust control 77 chamber, loop, 268
158
feed general 111, 238, 112, 269, helium internal
system,
201,
249,
stage engine, 129, 131, 154,
37, 38, 39, 68-72, 76, 96, 165, 166, 199, 233, 236, history, 269 72 236, 238 68-70 ratio, 131 76 69 129, 131 37, 38, 111, 39 112
97
389, 392, 399 accessory weight coaxial control cutoff fuel general injection injection injector nozzle operating packaging, payload preliminary schematic sequence shell sequence, pump, 233, description, momentum velocity, data, 130 of propellant,
main-stage omission, operating operational oxidizer propellant propellant propulsion relief storage
throttle
chamber
design,
for 7.5K, 79 system, 268 ratio control 78, data 338, on, 392
loop, 324, 159 325
269,
270
requirement,
expansion area ratio, parameters (150K), 399 weight of, 38 layout for tank diagram,
system operation, 76 tankage, 342 thrust chamber configuration, Ablative cooling, 118, Acceleration, isentropic of propellant, 165 Accelerometers, Accordion motion, 411, 420
95 13
for 150K, 71 pressurization 71
119, 448 and nonisentropic, 415
451
452
DESIGN
OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Acoustic Actuators Additives Aerodynamic
chamber for for thrust spike
liners, vector nozzle,
149, 19 93 Co.,
150 272.279
C* correction, Calculations of, 63-79 Catalysts, Catalytic 134 Catastrophic Cavitating Center Centrifugal Chamber,
398-399 for 141 bed of failure, inducers, data 4 stages of Alpha vehicle, samples
control,
propellants,
AirReseaxch Manufacturing ALBM, 26 Alloys, 61-62 aluminum, cobalt copper base. magnesium, nickel-base, special, Alpha Altitude Altitude Alumina, Aluminum Aluminum Ambient Apollo Apollo 61, vehicle, control thrust 61, base, 76, 62 62 61 high 62 4-stage, 63, temperature, I18
349
monopropellant definition 210 sheet 177, 149, for 196, 200 of,
gas 44
generator,
133,
of gravity,
typical, 220-225
39
pumps, 176, 4, 13, 14, 15, wall cooling control, 51 447-448 analysis, reaction 146 mixture of liquid 120
61 95 442 17 141 bend radii for, 360
Chamber Change Char Char-rate Chemical Chugging, Closed-loop Clustering 14 Coaxial Coaxial Cobalt Colburn ficient, Collier's CoIumbian, Combustion baffles, design
system,
demands
on,
34
front,
requirements, coefficient, tubing,
products,
systems
using,
167-171
palladium-impregnated, minimum 76 liner, effect program, 118 on alloys, 61, on ablative air LEM, pressure, 435 U.S.,
Aluminum-alloy
ratio control, 269-270 propellant, 415-419 109 heat-transfer coef-
performance 430
of,
1,
injector, 127 shell thrust chamber, base alloys, calculation 100 magazine, 62 chambers, 149 as factor 150 wall 5 gap, 149 4 5 123 propellants failures, 144-147 toward 144 145 146 146 gases, 122, 12, 147, 415 4. 5, 62 of gas-side
moon-landing
AR systems, 141 Asbestos on ablative liner, I18 ASI (augmented spark igniters), 140, 435
Assurance of reliability, 43 Astronautics magazine, 127 Atlas ICBM, 329 Atlas Mercury, spark 64 evaluation igniters multistage, of, 131 (ASI), 177-178 140, 435 Atomization, Augmented Axial pumps,
123,
148,
149,
150 148
in preventing
triggering,
disturbances, divergent function, gas gas heat shape, flow flow 5 of
processes, through,
protection, liquid devices,
B- 10 life, Baffled Baffles,
258 injector, 122 combustion-chamber, 149
velocity Combustion Combustion design German
at injection definition, 47 control, 147
plane,
instability, approaches type,
Ball bearing centrifugal load DN limits, 259 Ball-type valves, 298, 299 Bung-bang control. See On-off type control Bartz Bell Bellows, Berkeley, Bernoulli's Beta angle, Bipropellant Bipropellant Bipropellant Bipropellants, calculation, nozzle, 292, 90, Edmund 91 375-379 C., 428 293, 100:101
high-frequency, intermediate-frequency, low-frequency, types, 144 Combustion product Combustion injector, limits, rating, stability, 122 147 150 timelags, redundancy,
197 150
energy equation, 280 definition of, 128, 129 combinations, gas generators, injector, 19, 132, 126 138 propellant, 64 141 of engine, 326 294-298 35 356 25-27 134, 171, 181
Combustion Complex Components See also
146 46 interconnecting, components to reliability, 42 and 353-381. mounts
Bleed lines, cryogemc Bootstrap, 67 Breadboard British Buddy Burnout plan, weight engines, systems, 45
and mounts, Interconnecting relation 90
Conax Corp., 327 Confidence level, Conical Connectors, Conservation Conservation Control of nozzle,
terminology of energy,, of matter, manufacturing
for, 404, principle principle and
405 of, 4, 5 of, 5 defects, 48
Burst diaphragms, Butterfly valves,
material
INDEX
453
Control checkout
systems, 266 and
263-327 test, 263-265 for fluid-flow components, design 267
De
Laval
nozzle, impulse pressure type change Check-Off
6, 8,
89,
239 additives, (DPQ) 51 of, 50 dynamic analysystems, of, 50, seals, 150 51 290 20 valves, 273-274
calibration, closed-loop, cutoff, 265 dynamic for,
Density Derivative Derivative Design Design Design sis design for, of, 307-309 315-321 design of, Design 280-294
of propellant feedback 264 sheets, purpose engine control, checkoff Sheet, of
seals 289- 294
engine thrust fixed-area-type fluid gas flow pressure
level, 267-268 regulators, regulators, and pressure
integration for, 384-390 quality,
importance 49-50
components,
design
designof, regulators,
Design reviews, Diametral-squeeze-type Directed Discontinuity Divergent DN value,
O-ring gas 339 chamber, flows,
liquid flow 321-322 main stage miscellaneous
nonexplosive stresses, wall 258 gap,
duration, valves, and valve,
265 325-327 sizes, for, ratio design and of, 309-315 272-279 105, 106, 107 98-99, 100-102, 266 301-307 for, 322-827 utilization, 294-301 268-272
149 regulator, 3 19-320
open-loop, 263 orifice locations pilot pressure propellant safety, servovalves, start, thrust Coolant Cooling 104ablative, circular coaxial 265 vector side valves, relief valves, 265 design
Dome-loaded gas Doublet injector.
pressure 125, 127 35
Dry weight of engine, D.S.D. Co., 367 Du Dual Dual Dual Duct Dump Pont, 383 gas 181 bipropellant combustion, shaft
propellant-mixture
design of,
generator 182
system,
172
design actuators, heat
turbopump, 373, 374 114 in
design, cooling,
transfer, for thrust
system 121 119 tube shell,
chamber,
Dynamic tion, Dynamic Dynamic
analysis 384-390
engine
system
design
integra-
seal, design, 258 stability, 148
wall of regenerative, 109 in selecting, transfer, variation 99 105 across
108
considerations coolant side-heat correction 101 dump, 114 film, 115 gaseous gas-side film, heat factor,
E-D EDS. boundary layer,
(expansion-deflection) See Emergency rings, failures, detection 366 definition systems
nozzle, detection of,
92, system 47, 48
93
Eiastomer Electrical Electrical Emergency
hydromechanical
component (EDS), pump operation, Newark, N.J.,
analogies, 45, 421 194-195 141 45 96-97, chamber 181,
275
116, 117 transfer, schematic 115, 116
i00 for regenerative, 104
heat transfer liquid film, radiation, regenerative,
Energy losses during Engelhard Industries, Engels, Engine D. A., 275 components,
120,
121 104- 114 selection, 98 of carbon wall 117, 118 62 50 44 between 19, 331, throat and chamber, 6 187, 356, 68, 165, 166, 167, 332, 336, 345-348, deposit, 102
failure 16, stage, in quality,
modes, 28, 31-62,
Engine design, 419-421 A-I, areas burnout departures detailed A-2, tions for
1, 3-4,
416,
techniques and thermal resistance transpiration, Copper base alloys,
A-3, A-4 for, 96-97 increase 50 weight, 35 from basic procedures, 35 run, duration, 32-34 4_
thrust 51
configura-
Cost of vehicle design, Coulbert, C. D., 433 Critical Critical failure, pressure definition, ratio
availability,
simplicity, 51-55
28
Cryogenic propellants, 271, 279, 288, 291, 422-424, 429, 440 Curtis Cutoff turbine, impulse, 180 34
dry weight, duration of envelope flight gas run exhaust
(size),
33 sea 3-4 31-62 of, 16 of altitude, 32 32 level and in space,
velocities,
sample calculation, manual for, 419 Damping devices, 149 427 definition of, 44 parameters, parameters, performance performance major, ranges
Decay deviations, Deferred failure,
as function parameters,
454
DESIGN
OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Engine design (continued) quality, importance of, shape, simplicity, stress thrust thrust tools typical wet wet most used 32. 48 56 sample laws
Error, 50, and 51 formulae for, 1
human.
49 13
EWF (equivalent-weight factor), 187 Expansion of gas, isentropic and nonisentropic,
analysis, in space, level, for 31-32 improving sequence 37
calculation 51 55
to determine,
3-4 Failure, 44-48, 51, 44 devices, 59 44 44 47 58, 59 47 catastrophic, combustion criteria, critical.
quality. diagram, 87 and
gimbaled weight,
weight, sensing
Engine failure 420-421 Engine Engine Engine Engine 148 A-l, basic Out (EO)
shutoff 416
system
(EFSS).
deferred, electrical,
capability,
out, definition, 44 out source, 181 system, A-2, A-g, elements, 9.8 1 1-30 steels. 60 equation, 3 in prevention of, as 144 function of altitude, 2 of triggering, 1-30, 42, 43, for 55, 59, 60. 63-79 63-79, 144,
fatigue, 46 functional, 45, 46 mission, 44
modes of, 44, 58 order of, 44, 45 reports, unexplained, Failure Fatigue FBM, Feed Feed Film modes failure, 26 system system cooling hydraulic perturbations, filament-wound of thrust holding characteristic, propagation velocity, capacitor, 150 propellant chamber, 115 146 146 tanks, 348-349 149 51 classification of engine definition, of, 48 definition, 45 components, 46
A-4 stages 21
Alpha,
components, function, introduction, low model operating 148 oscillations, pressure reliability selection size, thrust thrust effects alloy
of thrust
characteristics effects environment of design, of materials, of, 42 nozzle, (general),
Fiber-glass Flame Flame
42, 43 59 specific 2 theorem 28 in basic equafunction of, 2
Flange joints, design, 360-370 Flexitallic Gasket Co., 367 Flow areas, (of propellant), computations 9 computation computation computation 271. 411, basic A-3 1, 7, of shape 8, and on 7, 8 flow stage 18 prediction thrust, Co., 13 300 speeds, of gas 184 184, 45 185 190 flow, 21 of engine behavior, 1 in for, 414-415 engine, for, 19 of, 280 for, 9 9 9- I0 for, 10
chamber equation
thrust generation, tion for, 1 typical typical typical Engine pressurized schematic, turbopump systems
momentum gas 55 feed, design feed, 29
computations, 10 specific volumes. static velocities, Flowmeters, Fluid, Fluorine, ideal, pressures, temperatnres,
integration, 883-428
characteristics 72
calibration, 390-394 clustering of hquid dynamic electrical, propellant, 415-419
Formula(s), design effect ideal Fox
analysis, 384-390 403-411 interfaces, 411-415 development, characteristics, 383-384 interfaces, and installation spring rate, and 277, 278 279 279 56 358 277 alinement, 276 383-384 399-403 394-399 actuator systems. 276-
engine-to-vehicle instrumentation, mechanical performance simplicity, Engine-to-vehicle 278 crosstalk engine
of pressure gas flow,
Valve
Development
Franms-type Frozen vs. Fuel Fuel Fuel Fusible additive
impeller, specific shifting composition blender unit. 183, 182, 35
additive subsystem, characteristics. 34, failures, wire links, 142
Functional
definition,
hydraulic system, loads, 276-277 performance secondary Envelope, Environmental Enzian Ermeto injection definition, effects 140
evaluations, 42 on
Gas Gas Gas
of matter, stress,
constant, 15, 34 feed flow, systems, 4-8 for
effect 151,
on
performance
of
engine,
14,
167
missile, flareless
tube
fitting,
combustion formulas
chamber, 4 ideal, 7, 8
INDEX
455
Gas
flow
(continued) and terms applicable in calculation, 5 ideal 309 devices, 132 conditions, 131-136 in 4 thrust chamber, 4
parameters terms used
Hydrogen drawbacks, gas tapoff Hydrogen Hypergolic Hypergolic Hypergolic Hypergolic Hypergolics, and
(continued) 68 systems, peroxide, 136 133, 138, 138, 140. 139, 432 19. See also Noeggerath See 140 also Catalysts
thrust chamber, Gas flow orifices, Gas-generating classification, design solid Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas objectives, propellant,
fluid, 167 ignition, 136, slug, vs. hypergolics, 139 nonhypergolic, definition 138
131-132 132 138 171, 172 operating characbipropellant, 132-136, liquid
of,
generator generators, generators, teristics,
igniter,
136 Iacobellis, 32.2-323 thrust chamber, 116, 117 ICBM, Igniters, Ignition Ignition 260-261 302 141, 139 142, 143, 156, 181 augmented hypergolic, hypergolic igniters, optical, to thrust, 36 26, S. 27, 136, detection, devices, spark, 138slugs, 137 142 143 143 140 pump, stator, definition, 236 226 204-207, 230-231 177 F., 33 137 141 136-143 140 140 139 93
law, perfect, 4 pressure relief valves, film 361 for cooling of 300-301 of 446 pilot valve,
Gaseous Gaskets, Gate-type Gears Gemini General German German German German GFE. Gimbal Gimbal
valves, turbines Controls capsule,
turbopump,
A-4 engine (V-2), efforts, Peenemunde, systems, V-2 See (1942), 141. ratio See
138, also
indirect, ].43
Catalysts weight equipment
of engine
pressure- sensing. pyrotechnic. 137 resistance wires. spark plugs, designs, 142 centrifugal rotor rotor, and 139 special visual, Impeller, Impeller
Government-furnished 425 379-381
angle, mounts,
Government-furnished equipment Gravity, effects of, 4.14 Greenewalt, Crawford H., 383 Ground Growth GSE. support factor See equipment (GSE), of single stage or support
(GFE),
427
267, 426 multistage
vehicle,
40
Impeller Impellers Impellers, Impulse, Inducer, Inducer, Influence
ope[ation,
Ground
equipment
for centrifugal turbopumps, specific speeds, 190- 191 specific, 10 definition, centrifugal pump, typic_l, 211
176
Hahn, Hart,
J. T.
R., J.,
447 338 equation, chamber, propellant stage engine, systems, systems, nozzle, instabilities, 116 protection, evaporation 73 156-158 162 92 145, of, 146 434 123 system, 165
coefficients for engine. 397-398 nitric acid (IRFNA). 343, 344
Hatch and Papell Heat combustion Heat Heaters, Helium Helium Helium H-F exchanger 408 in A-3
Inhibited red fuming
Injecting methods, throttleable, 128 Injection pattern, 131 Injection pressure drop. 128 123
in stored gas thrust chamber
Injectors. 83, 113. 121-131. baffled-type, 122 bipropellant. coaxial-type, concentric 126 127
(horizontal-flow)
High-frequency
ring. 124
High vacuum, characteristics Hilsch separation tube, 349 H-Q curve, 189 H-Q, efficiency, and 196 feed required trifugal pump, Human error, 49 Hydraulic Hydraulic Hydraulic Hydrazine, Hydrogen, coolant critical capacitor, capacitor, qualities as
configurations, 124- 127 doublet. 125. 127 experimental evaluation, 131 chamber, 123 curves of cen-
power
heat protection in combustion hydraulic qualities, 123 impingement
patterns, 125. 127
system of
for, 123 133,
149 type, 149
schematic of injector, 188, 141
isolation 171
integral face plate, 125 manifold, 113 objectives in design, parameters, 127- 131 premixing-type, 121-123
a monopropellant, 136, 167 107 considerations,
Hydrazine-hydrate, 68, 107, properties, pressure
127, 128
quintuplet-type, 125, 127 ting-slot-typ e. 127 167 self-impingingotype, 125, 127
456
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Injectors
(continued) 125, 127 123
Liquid-hydrogen-fueled pumps, Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid flow Liquid See propellant 264 and mounts, 353-381 Combustion tanks, instability elements, 345-348 48 additional 226
engines,
operating
regions
of
showerhead-type, special requirements, splash plates, 127 throttleable-type, thrust chamber, triplet-type, Instability, Instability Instrumentation Insulation Integral-type Interconnecting assemblies, brazed joints, for
hydrogen tanks, 345-348 monorepellant gas generators, propellant, propellant through, Rocket Engine definition, rocket 5, 9, 10 Design of 131, turbine, 146 134 Check-Off 244 18 combustion
133 chambers, Sheet, gas 52-54
127 83
125, 127 146, 147 of combustion. of cryogenic control, engine,
Lip seals, Loads on Low-frequency L-star(L*),
291, 292 rotor blades 86, 87,
instabilities,
components 357 370-371 bleed
cryogenic propellant ducts, 372-379 flange gimbal, hydraulic pneumatic propellant purge seal thrust, tubings joint, 360-370 379-381 lines, supply supply 357
lines,
356
Magnesium alloys, Main propellant system, Man Rating, 172,
61 tank 173
direct 44
injection
pressurization
definition,
lines, ducts,
356 353 lines, 355-356
Manufacturing and material areas defined, 48 Mark III turbopump gears and Mark V turbopump, Marman Division Materials for Messerschmitt 186 of Aeroquip
engine bearings, Corp.,
defects, 184 374 of. 59, 60
control
propellant-tank-pressurization lines, 356-357 drain lines, 356 357 and tube fittings, hot other, 425 red process, fuming
engine part, selection Me- 163, 141 rocket fighters, with 434 140 liquid 432
358-360 hot-gas 357 ducts, 357
Messerschmitt Metals, Meteoric Mission Mission Mission
turbine-drive, turbine-exhaust, turbopump and Interstage IRBM, IRFNA Isentropic points length, 26, 27 (Inhibited flow in, 5
high-pressure, gas ducts, 357
criteria for use bombardment, coast failure, success,
hydrogen,
60
duration, effect, definition, 44 definition, 44
nitric
acid),
343,
344 any two
relationship
between
Mixed-flow type impeller, Mixture ratio of fuel, 34 Moment Momentum Monergols. Monopropellant of inertia, theorem, See gas F., data 1, 2 Propellants, generator 18, diagram, design, use, 416 428 growth 19, sheet
specific for
speeds, typical, 39
190,
210
monoschematic, 133, 284 171 133, 181 132, 283,
J-Box,
409 438, and Rockets, 439, 448 400 433
Monopropellants, Moody, L. Multiceilular Multiple-engine Multiple Multistage
J. Spacecraft JTA liner. Jupiter
rocket,
start, 442 vehicle,
factor
equations,
40
Kaplan Kinetic
method energy,
of
error
triangles, from
210 thermal energy, 1 NASA, S-1 first stage booster for 282 76 138 Saturn I, 416 Needle-type valves, 301 Newton' s law of viscosity,
conversion
L*, L*,
(characteristic See also L-star effect J. on c*
length value predict of
of thrust rocket
combustion chamber, behavior, 430 134-136 87
table),
87.
Nickel-base Noeggerath
alloys, and
61,
hypergolics,
Laws, Lee, LEM Li quid
design and C., 447 excursion bipropellant
1-4
Noncomplex Noncryogenics, Nonmetallic Nonpropellants, North
redundancy, 46 167, 271 materials, uses, systems Aviation, X-15, 429 6, 7, 8, 13, 239, 307 93, 94 spike, 94, 95
62 167 Division, 89, 90, 92, 93, 136 94, Rocketdyne 14, 15,
(lunar
module), gas generator, 136 thrust
evaporating,
American
operating characteristics, valve assembly, 134 Liquid Liquid Liquid film cooling of
North American Nozzles, 2, 4, 115, for use 116 with, 60 95, 97, 98. aerodynamic annular, 92,
chamber, metals
flow regulators, 321-322 hydrogen, selection of
INDEX
457
Nozzles area
(continued) expansion ratio, 98
effect
on
performance,
15
Performance. Performance correction measurement
injector, parameters factors and
122 for
engine,
10, 15.
15-18 16
bell, 90, 91, 93, conical, 89. 93 convergent De Laval divergent E-D gas expansion flow incorrect 7 liquid flow
and magnitudes, dimensions, 10 16, 17, 18 system, 150 flight design. regulator, 420 284 109, 110, rating 301-306 317
section. 13, 14 type. 6, 7, 8, 89 section, area through, length througb, 6, 7 comparison, losses at inlet, 6 and (R-F), in out-flow, 92 thrust chamber, head). 2 166, 176, 188, 19292 ratio, 4. 6 and jet 307 94 6 separation, effect on thrust, 14 93 89
sample calculation, Perturbations, feed PFRT. Pilot Pogo Pneumatic stick Poiseuille's Poisson's Poppet-type Position Postwax See valves, control, pressure effect,
Preliminary
tests
(expansion-deflection),
equation, ratio, 108, valves, indicators. engine, 36 299 407
163,
209,
343,
375
overexpanded, performance pressure prime radial reverse specific turbine, functions, in-flow flow 239
Potassium permanganate, Power sources, turbine, Prandtl-Meyer Prandtl Preliminary Pressurant Pressurant Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure, Pressure Pressure variations, number, flight turning 100, rating 106,
141. 181 angle, 118 tests, 158 impulse injector, as function valves. types inlet, 94
See
also
Catalysts
function
32
NPSH (net-positive 194, 210, 346 Nuclear Nusselt radiation, number,
suction 434 100, 106
requirements. use factor, drop, effective environment feedback formula gages, losses (PQ)
152- 156 turbine, 180 2 thrust of, 13
Pressure-compounded
131 of altitude, 273 effect of. 6 on 412-414
demonstrating principal at nozzle
Off-design Off-nominal 396 Offset
characteristics conditions, 182
of turbopump, engine performance
203
Pressure-sensing Pressure switches Pressurized-gas 170, 171, A-4 stage,
devices, 143 and transducers, propellant-feed
411 systems, 166-167,
turbopump,
One-and-one-half stage vehicles, On-off type control, 264, 442 Open-loop mixture-ratio 142 definition, 44, 45 control, Optical detection, Optoline. 140 Order of failure, Orifices, O-rings, flange friction,
416 procedures, 268-269
173-174 174 166-167 selecting, 173, 174 167 reactions, 167 270
applications, criteria for
evaporating nonpropellants, liquid propelled, 170. 171 using 300, 303 products gas mixture of chemical Pressurizing Pro rained Pro Jellant
liquid flow through, 307 45, 83, 289-291, 292, 298, in design, 366 289, 290 joints, 290
correlations
turbulence, 152 ratio control (PMR), 129, 148
combination,
poppet-type, seal failure selection,
291 in. 45 290-291
Pro)ellant Pro)ellant Pro)ellant Pro)ellant Pro)ellant Pro _ellant 291 definition, 215 47 Pro)ellant Pro)ellant nition Propellant Propellant
evaporation systems, 165-167 feed system, triggering prevention, feed system, centrifugal pumps, 150 feed 35 vehicle, 440-442 176. engine, 177 feed system perturbations, flow design, pressure fraction, definition of, management system, mass fraction of of, 11 storage, tanks, system 329-352
148
squeeze-type, 291 surface finish, 290 valve seat, seals for, Over-stress Oxidizer and pump over-strain, inducer,
391
270 complete for,
defi-
design
Packaging, Pancake
399-403 turbopump, 182 system, impulse symbols, effect factor, 28-29 on, 11 40
cryogenic, 345-348 design, basic, 329-331 design, expulsion ing, fiber-glass pressurant storable structure, general, under 349- 352 filament-wound, diffusers. liquid, 336, 343-345 343 349 348-349 332-336 zero gravity or oscillatory g load-
Parts list, rocket Payload, specific
Payload weight vs. growth Peenemunde, 139, 140 Perchlorate-type Perfect gas law, fuel, 4 138
458
DESIGN
OF
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Propellant 336, Propellant Propellants, additives, bi-, 19,
utilization 393
(PU),
268,
269,
270,
272,
311,
Reliability, definition, design
42-49 42 reviews, for 49 obtaining highest, 42, 43 443 for 92 fluid-flow control com43
vaporization, 152 18-20, 22-23, 188, 19, 26, 27 characteristics, 20
203,
431-432
implements pointers Repetitive
for obtaining, pulse control, pyrolysis, 118 coefficients 286 nozzle, 138 127 general, 448, AR-1, Atlas 449, 141 ]CBM, 68, injector, thrust,
cooling and other cryogenic, 19, 24 density, flow fluid ignition mono-, operating 431 of, engine properties, 18, 25 temperature,
432
Resins, Resistance ponents,
start, 188
203 431 431 additives, properties, 431 speeds, 443 28 191 19, 20 20
R-F RF Ring Rocket
(reverse-flow) signals, slot
characteristics,
equation 450 295
and
model
for,
2,
optimum mixture performance and selection, 18-20 specific storable, impulse 19,
ratio for physical
Rocketdyne, Rocketdyne Rocketdyne Rocketdyne Rocketdyne Rocketdyne Rotor blades 141
in evaluation, specific 264,
Division of North America, LR79-NA-11 engine, 403 Naflex, of assembly, 64, 109 32-34 368-370 main loads, 244 pumps, centrifugal turbine,
37
22-23 impeller, control,
Propeller type Proportional-type Propulsion Pulses, Pump, Pump Pump Pyrolytic Pyrometers, Pyrophoric Pyrotechnic 150 cavitation,
system,
definition, 192 189 189
Rotor-stator RP fuel, RP-1 Run fuel,
176,
177
duration,
developed head, head coefficient, graphite, 142 fluid, igniters, 19 119
Safety Safety 137, 138
features, margins
disadvantages, 43 in design, 334-335, See samples (S-I) 425,
428 for 416 50 4 stages
Sample calculations. of Alpha vehicle, Saturn Saturn I first V, 329, stage 416,
Calculations of for, in,
booster 430 of design 140 vector 127
Qualification Quality Quintuplet control,
tests, areas, injector,
32 48 125, 127
Scheduling, Schmetterling Sealing, 361 Secondary 279, 280 Self-impinging Servovalve Servovalves, Shepard,
availability AA rocket, injection injector, flapper, 319 309-315 Cdr., 141
thrust 125,
control
(SITVC),
Radial-flow 208 Radial Radial Radial-type Radiation 121 in-flow out-flow
impeller, nozzle, nozzle, of 118 91 150 process, system, impeller, cooling
minimum 92 92 specific thrust
basic
design
elements,
Showerhead Sieder-Tate speeds, chamber, 190 schematic, 120, Simplicity Single Single 171 gas gas of
injector, equation. engine generator-helium generator
125, 106 design,
127 32. See also 172 injection cooling, yon Karman
system, system with
Rannie equation, Rao, G. V. R., Rating Rayleigh Reaction Reaction Reaction Redstone Redundancy, Refrasil-filled Regenerative Regulating Regulators, Regulators, Relays and stability, flow control Motors turbine, rocket,
Single-geared Single-stage 6 429-430 of 64, the 141, Thiokol 142, 400 Corp., 429 SITVC. Skinner Solid Space general main 307-309 principal reaction Space Spark Special Solubility See pilot propellant engines,
turbopump, 182 vehicle, growth factor Secondary injection valve, 302 gas design, systems, generators, gas, 429-450 430-434 435-442
equation, thrust 132, vector 133
40 control
Division 180 33, 34,
of pressurizing applications, propulsion
152
46, 142, 444-446 chambers, 119 cooling, devices, 105-114 fixed-area,
applications, 429-430 control, 442-450 operational requirements, 433
gas pressure, 315-321 liquid flow, 321-322 switches, 406-407
system
plugs, 139, 140 alloys, 61, 62
INDEX
459
Specific effect values Specific
heat
ratio,
9,
15 of, 15 of, 9 11, 12 engine gas design generator quality, 51
Thiokol,
446 193, 400 system, 127 33. 34, weight increase calcula194, 211
on performance for functions impulse, 10,
Thoma parameters, Thor rocket, 64, Three-stage tions, Throttleable Thrust, 7, coefficient, decay, effect 7 34 of incorrect ambient 41 12,
vehicle injector, 15, 31, 12
Specifications SPGG. See Spike Splash Spool-type Spring mass Squeeze-type Stage burnout tions, 39, nozzle, plates
improving Solid propellant 92 injector, servovalves, effect, O-rings, velocity 40 420 291 of 127
81-83,
1S1
313,
314,
315
nozzle pressure, 31
length 15
and
jet
separation,
single-stage
vehicle,
equa-
optimum, total Thrust
Stage separation, Stainless steel Stainless steel Start Stator, Stay (thrust primary time of
basic possibilities, 425-46 in pressurant storage vessels, on ablative liner, 119 characteristics, 33
requirement, chamber 82 cylindrical elements. 181
162
assembly, basic basic bleed,
buildup),
combustion 81-83
in.
88
functions of, 177 burning gas in combustion 60, 61, radiation mixture propellants, 76, 119, 132, heat transfer 34 19 156-157 157-162
chamber, 162 constant,
34 121
Steels, stainless, Stefan-Boltzmann Stoichiometric Storable Storedgas commonly design of requirements Strain gages, Stress analysis, experimental, failure modes selection typical working Structural steps, loads integrity liquid
characteristic coaxial shell, coefficient, combustion configuration cooling, deposits designs, film-cooled, gas tapoff 84 data
velocity, 83 107, 109, 110
ratio,
(theoretical), 86 101. 102.,
84,
85
layout, 98- 121 on walls, 13, 14 I17
systems, 156- 165 used configurations, components, of 415 162 calculations, 56-59 58, and 56 and speed, environmental 59 criteria, and 59
103,
104
systems,
136 88
geometrical shapes, heat exchanger, 162 ideal, data, 8 58 effects, 56, 57 injector, 82 dimensions,
of materials
injector design, 121-131 L*,effect on c* value, 87 model nozzle of, 3 expansion area ratio, 89
of injector, 192
123
Suction speclhc Sweeteners, 141 Swing-gate-type Symbols for System Systems parts, using
check valve, 326 system parts, 28, 29 symbols, chemical 28, 29 reaction products, 167-171
nozzle, specific function of, 2 nozzle shape, 89 performance performance pressure, recommended for selecting 144 combustion 87 method, 11, 13, vs. control, 209 121, alloys, 163 62, 12I, 162 83 14 bell nozzle length, 91 99 cooling 87, 131 impulse, generated, wall, 107 efficiency vector characteristic length (L*) calculation, 84 parameters, ,3
propellants,
Tachometers, Taifun rocket,
411 140 152 345-348 See 180 additional steels, 21 60 elements required, 48 Propellant tanks
shape, specific thrust tubular Thrust Thrust
Tank wall temperature, Tanks, liquid hydrogen, Tanks, Tantulum, Tapoff Telemetry Temperature effect on low-alloy chamber, calculation, gages, sensors, steels, Thermal Thermal Thermal 411 412 low-alloy, energy, propellant. 62, 121 system, of 136, engine,
274-275
Timers, 407-408 Timosheuko, S., Titanium Titanium-base Topping Topping alloys,
flow cycle, 200 systems, 181 chamber, 139 of, 117-118 148-149
effect, conversion
60 from caused in measuring chemical by energy, release by 412, of, 413 1 1
Transpiration cooling of thrust Triethyl aluminum and oxygen, Triggering Triplet Tubing, Tungsten, processes, injector, 358-360 119, 125, 121 prevention 127
energy, momentum environment, 434 errors
Thermocouples,
46O
DESIGN
OF LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
ENGINES
Turbine Turbines, Turbopump
gas
flow 178-181 systems, design,
rate,
186 175, 225-238 181-189, 191199, 200-261
Valv_ir Valves, Vapor
four-way 294-306 condensation,
solenoid 152
pilot
valve,
3q4
axial-flow, balancing booster calibration cavitating cavitation, centrifugal,
axial engine. and
thrust, 223-225 182. 183 off-design 210-219 characteristics. 202, 203
Vasco_et, 246 VDt orifices, 307, 308 Vehicle, definition, 21 Vehicle, design, cost, 50 Vehicle diameter, 425 Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle tions, Velocity, Venting, Venturi-type performance, reliability system, 41 and deviations, flight safety, weight 12 impulse 299-300 34 63. 415 turbine, 180 35 44 increase calcula-
inducers, 192 204-225
range, effect, 35 three-stage,
cycle efficiency, 199, 200. 201 description of developed, 182-186 design design layout, parameters, 261 187-202 181- 182
characteristic, 166 valves,
drive arrangements, elements, 176 envelope, gear heads inlet 175 design, 260 and flow rates suction pressure ranges, performance flow coefficient, 202
Velocity-compounded
developed, head. and 189 175 186 operating
189
Vernier cutoff system, Von Braun, Wernher, Von K_rm_n, 82 V-2 rocket, 400 efficiency, 196,
operating overall 197 pump range resistance specific trimming turbines, variation variation chamber
of operation, and speeds, pump 190
\%'asserfall curves, 189 Weatherhead Weight Wet Wet with weight speed, and 175 195 flow ratios with
antiaircraft Co., 358 of payload,
rocket, effect, 35-37
140
characteristic
effects, 202 238-257 of efficiency of engine pressure
gimbaled weight weight of engine, connective,
of engine, 87 409
37
Wiring, Working WorldWar
change,
loads. 56-58 II guided missiles,
140,
141
Ullage
gas
compression,
152
Zucrow
and
Sellers
equation,
115
NASA-l.,angley,
1968
$8

Design of Liquid Propellant Engines Textbook

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d

_';""_"'-7 <._.,:>;, 77:7> _,

LIQUID ROCKET PROPELLANT ENGINES

Scientific OFFICE NATIONAL

Matshall_pace Flight Center, NASA

81 83 86 98 121 131 136 143

151 156 165 167 167 173

329 332 336 343 345 348 349 349

353 358 360 370 372 379

383 384 390 394 399 403

429 430 435 442 451

Chapter Introduction To Liquid Propellant

THE GENERATION OF THRUST BY A ROCKET ENGINE

it becomes rate, thrust

for a with in is which states the on

where lute gas equation

Pe (lb/in2 pressure assumes propellants of gases i.e.,

psia) the the all

static flow and is

absoThe the gas velocity that one-

in the that can

injection exit plane

vehicle, engine, (1-3b)

through that lines. to as

environment, Equation of a container, forces is equal of the is such

dimensional; move on parallel

of altitude. is flowing and

The the thrust.

g and thrust in indiavailenergy a refor speto

momentum The term gas

container out thrust plane,

pressure form presence all

momentum propellant of tile

flowing rocket exit

a desirable The that have the not been

of thrust of the pressure into

generation AePe kinetic words, by the used the forces

rocketry. cates able inside portion lease the cific convert,

of the nozzle. pressure energy

In other generated has not been

of chemical generation function

momentum. thrust chamber efficiency, gas for a given

nozzle available and

at maximum pressure maximum into thrust

that pressure The

ambient condition). acting no effect these

on the on the pressure

outside gas forces

pressure the net

Pa = 0 (high-altitude force acting on the

thrust with A e, the to it.

Since in the not Pa thus

chamber Aep a. the

Tile acts hicle.

The standing pose movable ber and pressure),

following of the equation cylinder vehicle a piston

model nature (1-6). ,nass),

extend terms the

the which thrust gas

undercoma gas mass), concham-

(representing a spring (representing rack (representing

a stationary (fig. 1-2).