AP Calculus Test-Based Review Unit 1 Test: Limit by Definition Continuity asymptotes, removable discontinuities f(g(x)) Using a calculator to find

the largest delta if Epsilon = a #, for lim as x goes to a # of f(x) = a # squeeze theorem limit problems, special limits Limit by Definition Proofs: Linear Proofs: Prove lim as x goes to -1 of 2x-1 = -3 Start: abs(f(x) L) < , abs(x c) < Abs(2x 1 + 3) < , abs(x + 1) < Abs(2x + 2) < , abs(x + 1) < 2abs(x + 1) < , abs(x + 1) < abs(x + 1) < /2, abs(x + 1) < End: Let = /2. Since all steps are reversible, whenever 0 < abs(x + 1) < then the abs(2x 1 + 3) < and the limit is -3. By definition prove: 1. Lim as x goes to 4 of 7x 5 = 23

2. Lim as x goes to -2 of -3x + 3 = 9

3. Lim as x goes to 4 of -2x + 6 = -2

Non-Linear Limit Proof: Lim as x goes to 1 of x2 3x + 4 = 2 Start: abs(x2 3x + 4 2) < , 0 < abs(x 1) < Abs(x2 3x + 2) < Abs(x 1)Abs(x 2) < Let 1 Then abs(x 1) < 1 -1 < x 1 < 1 -2 < x 2 < 0 if the above is true then -2 < x-2 < 2 This is the irreversible step abs(x 2) < 2 abs(x 1) 2 < abs(x 1) < /2 End: Let 1. Then abs(x 1) < 1 and abs(x 2) < 2. If we also let abs(x 1) < /2, then abs(x 1)abs(x 2) < , abs(x2 3x + 2) < , abs(x2 3x + 4 2) < . So choose = 1 or /2, whichever is smaller. Then whenever 0 < abs(x 1) < , then abs(x2 3x + 4 2) < and the limit is 2. By definition prove: 1. Lim as x goes to 4 of x2 4 = 12

2. Lim as x goes to -2 of 2x2 + 5x 3 = -5

3. Lim as x goes to 5 of x2 + x 6 = 24

Rational Limit Proofs are harder, because you can t always use 1. If x is approaching 1 and approaching 2 makes the function undefined then you must use one half. If does not work you keep halving the value of until it does. Continuity: f(x) is continuous at c iff f(x) is defined at c lim as x approaches c of f(x) exists lim as x approaches c of f(x) = f(c) f(x) is continuous on the open interval (a,b) iff it is continuous on every point c in (a,b) f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] iff it is continuous on (a,b) and the lim as x approaches a from the right of f(x) = f(a) and the lim as x approaches b from the left of f(x) = f(b) Continuous on the closed interval [a,b] Properties of Continuity: If b is a real number and f and g are continuous at x = c then the following are also continuous at x = c: bf and bg f +/- g fg f/g, if g(c) 0 a b

f(x) = 2x + 1 , x 1 x+b,x<1 Find b so f(x) is continuous everywhere set x = 1 and the equations equal to each other, 2(1) + 1 = 1 + b, 2 = b 1. f(x) = 3x 4, x 2 x/2 b, x < 2 Find b so f(x) is continuous everywhere

2. f(x) = 2, x -1 ax + b, -1 < x < 3 -2, x 3

Find a and b so f(x) is continuous everywhere

Asymptotes and removable discontinuities: f(x) = (x + 4) / (2x-1) has a vertical asymptote at x = f(x) = (x 2) / (x 2)(x2 + 2) has a removable discontinuity at x = 2 f(x) = (x 2)(x + 4) / (x 2)(x + 3) has a removable discontinuity at x = 2 and a vertical asymptote at x = -3 Find any vertical asymptotes or removable discontinuities; 1. f(x) = (x2 + x 6)/ (x2 + 3x) 2. f(x) = (x2 3x + 12)/(x 3) 3. f(x) + (x2 + x 12)/(x2 + 7x + 12) f(g(x)): f(x) = 2x + 1 g(x) = x 3 f(g(x)) = 2(x 3) + 1 = 2x 5 If g is continuous at c and f is continuous at g(c) then the composite function given by (f g)(x) = f(g(x)) is continuous at c. If the above conditions apply then the lim as x goes to c of f(g(x)) = f(g(c)) Find f(g(x)) 1. f(x) = x3 3x2 + 3 g(x) = x2 2x + 1

2. f(x) = x2 1 g(x) = (x3 5x + 12)/x

Find lim as x goes to c of f(g(x) 1. c = 2 f(x) = 3x -12 g(x) = 12x2 - 4x + 3

2. c = -3 f(x) = 2/(x-3) g(x) = 1/3(x1/3 + 9)

Using a calculator to find the largest delta if Epsilon = a #, for lim as x goes to a # of f(x) = a # (This is for TI-83 and TI-84) Take graphing calculator and enter the equation in as well as two constants, one of them is the limit plus epsilon and the other is the limit minus epsilon. Then choose an appropriate viewing window, which should be centered around the value x is approaching in the limit. Make sure that in the viewing window you see the two flat lines that are the constants you added earlier. Ex. Lim as x approaches 1 of 2x2 + 1 = 3 if = .1 then find Enter 2x2 + 1 as one equation, 3.1 as another and 2.9 as your third. Then hit window and change the x-axis values to be around 1 (.9 to 1.1 works for this problem) and the y values to be just a little bigger than 3.1 and a little smaller than 2.9 (2.8 to 3.2 works). Then hit the graph button, you should see one line with two flat lines crossing over it. Then hit calc and choose intersect. For 3.1 subtract 1 from the xvalue of the intercept and for 2.9 subtract the x-value of the intercept from 1. If they are not the same then the function is not linear. That means they should be different in this problem. Always choose the smaller delta, in this case: .0246951. Round to the thousandths .025. Always round to the thousandths. Using a calculator: If lim as x approaches 3 of x3 2x = 21 and = .1 then find The Squeeze Theorem: If h(x) f(x) g(x) in some open interval around c (except perhaps at c itself) and if lim as x goes to c of h(x) = L and the lim as x goes to c of g(x) = L then the lim as x goes to c of f(x) = L. Ex. x2 f(x) x2 , c = 0 find lim f(x) as x approaches 0 if Lim as x approaches 0 of x2 = 0 and the same for x2 therefore by squeeze theorem the lim of f(x) as x approaches 0 is equal to zero. Special Limits and Limit Problems: Lim as x goes to 0 of sin(x)/x = 1 Lim as x goes to 0 of (1 cos(x))/x = 0 One-sided Limits: approaching from left (-) approaching from the right (+) Lim as x approaches 2- of abs(x 2)/ (x 2) = -1 [[x]] means the largest integer that is less than or equal to x [[-2 - ]]= -3 ,[[7.25]]= 7 ,lim as x goes to -1+ of [[x]] = -1 if it was from the left it is -2

Infinite Limits: Lim as x goes to 2 of 1/(x 2) does not exist but when it is a one sided limit, lim as x goes to 2+ of 1/(x 2) = + Limit practice problems: 1.3 pg. 67-68 Numbers: 5-40, 45-62, 67-88 1.4 pg. 78-79 Numbers: 1-24 1.5 pg. 88 Numbers: 33-52 Review Exercises pg. 91-92 Numbers: 11-26, 31-36, 57-68 Unit 2 Test: Derivative by definition 2nd derivatives Normal Lines alternate form of the derivative derivatives of trig functions functions with vertical tangent lines implicit differentiation Continuity without differentiability water volume problems position function distance function d= (x2 + y2)1/2 volume of a sphere AP problem for Career Cruising Derivative by definition: f(x) = lim as x goes to zero of: (f(x + x) f(x)) / x If f(x) = 1 / x f (x) = lim as x approaches 0 of (1 / (x + x) 1 / x) / x lim (1 / (x + x) (1 + x / x) / (x + x)) / x lim (- x/x) / (x + x) / x lim as x goes to 0 of -1 / (x2 + x x) = -1/x2 Find the derivative by definition of f(x) = x2 + x

2nd Derivatives Just take the derivative of the derivative: f(x) = 1/x f (x) = -1/x2 f (x) = 2/x3 Find the second derivative of: 1. f(x) = 2x1/2 + 3

2. f(x) = 4x3 2x + 3

Normal Lines: The normal line has the inverse slope of the tangent line of a function. Find the normal line for the equation f(x) = 3x2 + 2x at the point (2,16) f (x) = 6x + 2 x=2 so f (x) = 14 Tangent Line slope equals 14, Normal Line slope equals 1/14 Point slope form: y 16 = 1 / 14 (x 2) Y-intercept form: y = x / 14 + 111 / 7 Find the normal line for: 1. f(x) = x + x/3

2. f(x) = 5x3 2x2 + x 20

Alternate form of the derivative: Used to find the derivative of one specific xcoordinate. Also used to show non-differentiability at one specific x-coordinate. f (c) = lim as x approaches c of (f(x) f(c)) / (x c) Used to find specific x-coordinate: f(x) = x2 f (2) = lim as x goes to 2 of (f(x) f(2)) / (x 2) lim as x goes to 2 of (x2 4) / (x 2) lim as x goes to 2 of x + 2 = 4 Used to prove non-differentiability: f(x) = x1/3 f (0) = lim as x goes to 0 of (x1/3 0)/(x 0) = lim 1/x2/3 = 1/0 no limit. A vertical tangent line, not differentiable 1. f(x) = 3x2 7x+2 , c = 2

2. f(x) = x4 2x2+3x 12 , c = 2

3. Prove the non-differentiability of f(x) = x2/3 when c = 0

Derivatives of trig functions: d/dx sinx = cosx d/dx cosx = -sinx d/dx tanx = sec2x d/dx cotx = -csc2x d/dx secx = secxtanx d/dx cscx = -cscxcotx pg. 126 39-54

Functions with vertical tangent lines: The definition to a tangent line of a curve or to a linear function does not include the option of a vertical tangent line. For vertical tangent lines the following definition may be used if f is continuous at c: Lim as x goes to 0 of (f(c + x) f(c)) / x = or -

Although f(x) is continuous at all points for graphs like f(x)=x1/3 it is not differentiable where the tangent line is vertical, in this case at x=0. Continuity without differentiability: = Sharp turns or vertical tangent lines. Sharp turn: f(x)=abs(x 2) is not differentiable at x=2 because the one sided limits are not equal. Vertical tangent lines: already mentioned at top of the page, because the limit of the function at the point of the vertical tangent line is or - f(x) is not differentiable Implicit differentiation: xy3+x2y=7 Find the derivative of y in relation to x: 1 y3 + x 3y2(dy/dx) + 2xy + x2(dy/dx) = 0 3y2x(dy/dx) + x2(dy/dx) = y3 2xy dy/dx = ( y3 2xy)/(3y2x + x2) dy/dx = -y(y2+2x)/x(3y2+x) Find the derivative of y in relation to x of: 1. x2y 4xy5 = 9

2. x3y2 2x4y2 = 19

Water Volume related rates problems: Conic Water volume: Water is leaking out of a cone at a rate of 2ft3/min. The height of the cone is 10ft and the radius is 7ft. Find the rate of change of the depth of the water when the water is a. 8 ft deep b. 1 ft deep Volume of a cone: V=1/3 r2h Trying to find the rate of change of the depth of the water so replace r with h. 7r=10h , r=10h/7 V=1/3 (10h/7)2h Simplify and then take the derivative: V=( /3)(100/49)h3 dV/dt=( /3)(100/49)h2(dh/dt) Remember that dV/dt is the rate of change in volume of water. Also note that since the amount of water is decreasing the rate is negative. -2=(100 )/(147)h2(dh/dt) dh/dt=-2/((50 )/(147)h2) Use this equation to solve for dh/dt. Use the given values from the problem for h. a. h=8 , dh/dt=-2/((50 )/(147)(8)2 = -2/68.38841151 = -0.0292447208 = -0.029 b. h=1 , dh/dt=-2/((50 )/(147)(1)2 = -2/1.06856893 = -1.871662131 = -1.872 Do #24 pg.155

Trough Water volume: Pg. 155 #26 V=1/2bh length a. 3h=12length , h=b , V=1/2h2(3h/12) , V=(1/8)h3 dV/dt=(3/8)h2(dh/dt) 2=(3/8)(1)(dh/dt) , dh/dt=16/3 b.

Position Function: In feet s(t)=-16t2+V0t+S0 The equation for the position of free falling objects V0 is the initial velocity and S0 is the initial position The derivative of the equation is the equation for velocity: V(t)=-32t+V0 The second derivative of the equation is the equation for the acceleration of gravity a(t)=-32 In meters s(t)=-4.9t2+V0t+S0 V(t)=-9.8t+V0 a(t)=-9.8 Distance Function: d= (x2+y2) y=cosx find the rate of change of a point on the curves distance from the origin if the x-coordinate is increasing at 3cm/sec when the x-coordinate is /3 d= (x2+y2) , d2=x2+y2 , d2=x2+(cos2x) Take derivative with respect to time 2d(dd/dt)=2x+2(cosx)(-sinx)(dx/dt) , dd/dt=(x+(cosx)(-sinx)(dx/dt))/d (subsitute for d). dd/dt=(x sinxcosx(dx/dt))/ (x2+cos2x) , dd/dt=( /3 3(sin( /3)cos( /3)))/ (( 2/9)+cos2( /3) Feel free to further simplify this mess but it isn t really worth it. The problem on the test will not be this complicated.

Volume of a sphere: The volume of a spherical balloon is increasing at a rate of 5cm3/sec. What is the rate of change of the radius when: a. r=3 b. r=6 V=4/3 r3 The volume of a sphere 2(dr/dt) Take the derivative then plug in the given values dV/dt=4 r a. 5=4 (3)2(dr/dt) , 5/(36 )=(dr/dt) b. 5=4 (6)2(dr/dt) , 5/(144 )=(dr/dt) Pg.154 #18,19

AP problem for Career Cruising (AP calc AB only)

Unit 3 Test: critical numbers relative extrema and inflection points (including graph) concavity optimization problems Rolle s theorem Mean Value theorem Limits to absolute extrema asymptotes Critical Numbers: Where the derivative equals zero or is undefined Relative extrema and inflection points: Relative extrema: the highest or lowest point on an open interval around that point. Can only occur at critical numbers. On a closed interval: 1. Find the critical numbers 2. Find the y-values of the critical numbers and of the endpoints 3. Highest y-value will be maximum, lowest will be minimum. f(x)=3x4 4x3 [-1,2] f (x)=12x2(x 1) Critical numbers when f (x)=0 and at endpoints so: x=-1,0,1,2 f(-1)=7 , f(0)=0 , f(1)=-1 , f(2)=16 Minimum at (1,-1) Maximum at (2,16) POI (points of inflection): when there is a change in the concavity (but no change in whether f(x) is increasing or decreasing) and there is a tangent line at the point where the concavity changes. In order to find POI find where the 2nd derivative of the function is zero or undefined. f(x)=6/(x2+3) f (x)=-12x/(x2+3)2 = 0 when x=0. That would be a relative max f (x)=-36(1 x2)/(x2+3)2 = 0 when x=1 Plug it back into the original equation, there are points of inflection at (-1,3/2) and (1,3/2) Find the POI for f(x)= -9/(x2+5)

Concavity: A function is considered concave up when the derivative of the function is increasing, and concave down when the derivative of the function is decreasing.

Please excuse poor drawing

Concave Up

Concave Down

To find the concavity of the function you do the same thing as when finding the POI. Take the second derivative and find when it is equal to zero or is undefined. Then take points slightly to the left and slightly to the right of each POI. If the y-value to the left is positive and the right y-value is negative then the POI then the function is concave up to that POI. If the other way then it is concave down. An example is probably a good idea because that was a poor explanation but whatever, I will use the same one as before: f(x)=6/(x2+3) , f (x)=-12x/(x2+3)2 , f (x)=-36(1 x2)/(x2+3)2 and the POI are at x=1 positive -1 negative 1 negative

concave up Pg.195 1-20

concave down

concave up

Optimization Problems: Applied minimum and maximum problems 1. Identify all given quantities and quantities to be determined. If possible make a sketch. 2. Write a primary equation for the quantity that is to be maximized or minimized 3. Reduce the primary equation to having one single independent variable. This may involve the use of secondary equations relating the independent variables of the primary equation 4. Determine the feasible domain of the primary equation. That is, determine the values for which the stated problem makes sense.

5. Determine the desired maximum or minimum value using derivation, the first derivative test, the distance formula, etc. Chapter section 3.7 has examples of how to perform certain optimization problems that would take to long to type out so just go read it. Pg.223-224 Numbers 19-30, 33-36,39-42 Rolle s Theorem: This is pretty much just a specific case of the Mean Value theorem and since no definitions will be on the test this seems somewhat pointless to include but here goes: Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open interval (a,b). If f(a)=f(b) then there is at least one number c in (a,b) such that f (c)=0. If you want you can do the problems on pg.176 #11-24 The Mean Value Theorem: If f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open interval (a,b), then there exisists a number c in (a,b) such that f (c)=(f(b) f(a))/(b a) Determine if the Mean Value theorem can be applied and then if it can find all values of c for the equation f(x)=2x2 f(x)=2x2 [-2,4] f (x)=4x 4c=(32 8)/(4 (-2)) 4c=24/6 c=1 1. f(x)=3x5 2x [-1,3]

2. f(x)=cosx [0,1]

3. 1/abs(x2) [-1,2]

Limits to Lim as x approaches of c/xr=0 if r is a positive rational number and c is any real number. Furthermore, if xr is defined when x<0 then the lim as x approaches of c/xr=0 Finding the limit at Infinity: If you want more detailed instructions then look on page 200 in section 3.5. I will make it simple because I don t want to type out the full solution to indeterminate form. Lim as x goes to of (2x 1)/(x+1)= / which is called the indeterminate form. The book shows how to convert this to a determinate form but that isn t something that will be on the test so the easy way to determine the limit is to: 1. If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator then the limit of the rational function is 0. 2. If the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, then the limit of the rational function is the ration of the leading coefficients. 3. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, then the limit of the rational function does not exist. Lim as x goes to of (3x-12)/(14x-2)= 3/14 of

Find the limit as x goes to 1. (3x2 2x+12)/(4x-3) 2. (2x4 3x2+2x 4)/(8x4 2) 3. (5x2 13)/(3x4 2x+7) pg.205 #15-34

Absolute extrema of a function: The absolute extrema of a function will always be either critical numbers or endpoints. I repeat: The absolute extrema of a function will always be either critical numbers or endpoints. Should I write it again? I don t know if twice is really enough to emphasize how important this piece of information is, I ll write it out again: The absolute extrema of a function will always be either critical numbers or endpoints. I think that should do it.

Asymptotes (again): Already know about vertical asymptotes; now add slant asymptotes and horizontal asymptotes. The line y=L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f if Lim as x approaches - of f(x)=L or if lim as x approaches Lim as x goes to at y=3/2 of f(x)=L

of (3x 2)/(2x+1)=3/2 therefore there is a horizontal asymptote

To have a slant asymptote the degree of the numerator must be exactly one higher than the degree of the denominator. To find the slant asymptote, simply divide the equation. Excluding the remainder that is the slant asymptote. (x3+2x2 4x+2)/(x2 5x 7) has a slant asymptote of y=x+7. Find the slant asymptotes in the following equations: 1. (x4 3x2+5)/(4x3+3x 2)

2. (3x5 2x3+x)/(4x4 8)

3. (2x3 4x2+3)/(x2+9x 6)

Recommendation: Go back and glance through the optimization problems again, those are going to be worth a lot of points.

Unit 4 Test indefinite integrals (REMEMBER +C) finding f(x) from f (x) Reimann Sums Integral Rules Definite Integrals Fundamental Theorems of Calculus Average value of a function over an interval odd-even functions Indefinite integrals: 2x(dx)=x2+C An integral is, as the book so accurately points out, an antiderivative. Unfortunately, all the rules that can be applied to derivatives (power, quotient,etc.) do not work for Integrals. Since this is an indefinite integral (meaning no bounds are being given) you must add +C to every integral. There are a few strategies for figuring out integrals but Integration is primarily based on your knowledge of derivatives and your familiarity with integrals. I suggest you do as many as possible before the test. Here are some different kinds of integrals and how to solve them: Simple Integral: (x+1)(dx)=1/2x2+x+C Composite: (3x 2)2(3)(dx)=1/3 3(3x 2)2(3)(dx)=1/3(3x 2)3+C The pattern for a composite function is: f(g(x))g (x) u prime over u(although this is covered in Chapter 5 in the book I am doing it here): 5/(5x+1)(dx) since the numerator is the derivative of the denominator the integral is equal to ln(abs(5x+1))+C substitution: Don t use this method unless you have to. (2x 1)1/2(dx) Determine the need for substitution 1/2(du/2) u 2x 1=u. Also, dx=du/2 this is the actual substitution u1/2(du) Multiplying and dividing by constants (not part of substitution this process can be used on any integral). (u3/2/(3/2))+C Solve the integral in terms of u 1/3(u)3/2+C Simplify 1/3(2x 1)3/2+C Replace each u with the original substitution value, 2x 1. Pg.255 #15-42 Pg.304 #7-38, 43-56, 63-70

Finding f(x) from f (x) on a graph: Remember that f (x) is positive then f(x) is increasing f (x) is negative then f(x) is decreasing f (x) is positive then f (x) is increasing and f(x) is concave up f (x) is negative then f (x) is decreasing and f(x) is concave down Important points to notice are when the graph changes from being positive to negative or increasing to decreasing or vice versa. Reimann Sums: Basically the first rule to find the area under a curve, this wasn t really a problem on the test so much as asking for the definition, which is not going to be on the test so I will just talk about right handed and left handed rectangles. Right-handed rectangles f(x)=x2 [0,1] Notice that the rectangles start from the right and that The sum of all the rectangles will be a little bit bigger then the actual sum of the area under the curve. The width of each rectangle will be the same, 1/n The height of each rectangle will be the # rectangle it Is dived by n put into the function. Ex. Rectangle one will be f(1/n) rectangle two will be f(2/n) and rectangle i will be f(i/n). The sum of the rectangles will be the limit as n goes to of (n on top i=1 on bottom) of 1/n f(i/n) Lim 1/n i2/n2 Lim 1/n3(n(n+1)(2n+1)/6) Lim 1/n2((2n2+3n+1)/6) Lim (2+(3/n)+(1/n2))/6=1/3 (Remember n going to Left handed rectangles start from the left but use almost the exact same procedure as right handed. The difference is that the height is f((i 1)/n) instead of just f(i/n) Remember that if the bounds do not start at zero you must add whatever the starting boundary is. Ex for the bounds [2,4] the width would be 2/n and the height would be f(2+2i/n). Methods:(assume all are n on top and i=1 on the bottom unless otherwise stated) constants=nconstants i=n(n+1)/2 i2=n(n+1)(2n+1)/6 i3=n2(n+1)2/4

Definite Integrals and definite integral rules: (with a on top a on bottom) f(x)dx=0 (a , b)f(x)dx=- (b , a)f(x)dx (b , a)f(x)= (c , a)f(x)dx + (b , c)f(x)dx (b , a)kf(x)dx=k (b , a)f(x)dx (b , a)[f(x)g(x)]dx= (b , a)f(x)dx + (b , a)g(x)dx If f(x) g(x) then the same will be true for their integrals (2,1)3x2dx= [x3](2,1) = (2)3 (1)3 = 7 pg.279 33-44, Fundamental Theorems of Calculus: First: (b,a)f(x)dx=F(b) F(a) Second: d/dx[ (x,a)f(t)dt]=f(x) a is just a constant

Use first fundamental theorem to do pg.291 5-32 Use 2nd fundamental theorem to do pg.293 #81-92 Average value of a function over and integral: (1/b a) (b,a)f(x)dx For good measure here is the mean value theorem for Integrals (b,a)f(x)dx=f(c)(b a) Odd-Even functions: If a function is even: f(x)=f(-x) and (a,-a)f(x)dx=2 (a,0)f(x)dx If a function is odd: f(x)=-f(x) and (a,-a)f(x)dx=0 Pg.306 101-104 Please note that this guide does not cover everything that is in the chapters. But, this covers everything that was on the tests (to some degree) and some extra stuff I thought was important. This does not cover anything we did in chapter 5 because there was no test for that stuff. I suggest looking at old homework.