SOCIOLOGY OVERVIEW UNIT 1 TOPIC 1

What is Sociology?
Definition: SOCIO- SOCIETY LOGOS- KNOWLEDGE Translated as the knowledge of society. The subject of sociology was coined by Auguste Comte
Sociology may be defined as the study of society; that is of the web of human interactions and relationships. Sugarman (Sociology, 1968)

Sociology is the objective study of human behaviour in so far as it is affected by the fact that people live in groups. Giner (Sociology, 1972) The purpose of Sociology is the scientific study of human society through the investigation of peoples social behaviour. Ritzer (Sociology, 1979) Sociology is the study of individuals in a social setting that includes groups, organisations, cultures and societies. Sociologists study the interrelationships between individuals, organisations, cultures and societies. Giddens (Sociology, 1989) -It is the scientific study of society (groups of people in society). It is an investigative subject. According to C.Wright Mills:- it is the distinction between private troubles and personal issues. E.G. Emploment:- to be out of work is a personal trouble, family etc, but when a large group of individuals are unemployed this can affect societys productivity. The sociological imagination is the ability to view our own society as an outsider might, rather than from the perspective of our limited experiences and cultural biases. According to P. Berger, it can be said that the first wisdom of society is this- things are not what they seem. What then is a sociological question? A question geared towards asking for information below the surface, behind the scenes or beyond the distance. Taken for granted or even common sense knowledge is not sociological. Sociologically derived knowledge is obtained through a special method known as the scientific method, through social research.

Sociology and Common Sense As budding sociologists, there has to be a distinction between layman and expert knowledge. Its interesting how many people think that sociology is just commonsense! But what is different is the: 1) distinct sociological questions being asked 2) research to be conducted 3) and application or testing of sociological theories Asking sociological questions Questions such as Who, What, Where, When and Why all gather information, but what sociologists ask contain more depth and they make the familiar strange. They also are interested in how social order is maintained. Doing research Sociologists use many methods and undertake scientific studies to test variables. In crime studies, sociologists might examine official rates using official statistics, interview people who have committed crime, observe the police at work or even join criminal gangs. Applying sociological theories Sociologists create general frameworks of ideas to explain how societies work and change. ACTIVITY Read the following statements and judge whether they are true or false 1) Men are more naturally aggressive than women 2) Divorce among young couples is highlighting that marriage as an institution is losing ground 3) A criminal is someone who has broken the law Answers 1) It is socially accepted that men are aggressive than women but women have exhibited aggressive tendencies as well. Men have also been given more freedom than women to do as they please. 2) Divorced couples jump back into marriages soon after 3) a criminal is an individual who has been convicted of a crime. If society did not recognise them as breaking the law then they are not criminal. Further, there are people who are falsely accused and incarcerated.

TOPIC 2 Origins of Sociology Time line:- 17th -18th centuries

Founder of the term Sociology:- Auguste Comte. However there were earlier thinkers who postulated about society. It was the French Revolution that led to sociological thinking which tried to explain the chaos in society. Together with this was the Industrial Revolution which saw a transition from agrarian society to industry, from autocracy to democracy and from tradition to modernity. This period was known as the ENLIGHTENMENT ; to eradicate the belief in myth and adopt reason and progress to understand the social world. The Catholic Church had heavy input is how society was organised. WHY STUDY SOCIETY? For obvious reasons.. of shaping human life. When things go wrong such as crime, unemployment, school drop-outs, scientific procedures need to be done. For Sociology to exist, 3 sets of ideas are necessary. These are known as the preconditions. 1) freedom of thought 2) awareness of a crisis 3) a belief that something could be done to remedy the crisis TOPIC 3 Sociology and the other Social Sciences The individual is a complex organism learning behaviour through a lifelong process called Socialisation ( nurture, environment). Animals, on the other hand, are directed and controlled by instincts (nature, hereditary) Human behaviour has several dimensions Biology:- study of the human body which looks at processes, dysfunctions and its causes. There is a link between biological processes and influence on behaviour. E.g Too much testerone can lead to aggression. Psychology:- study of human behaviour, but looks at internal factors. The mind is the focus of attention. History:- study of the past Economics:- study of supply and demand of goods Anthropology:- study of relatively small, non- industrial societies.

TOPIC 4 Development of Sociology in the Caribbean The Caribbean comprises of people from all parts of the world who brought with them their own culture, traditions, language. In order to understand this diversity it was indeed necessary to introduce the sociological aspect of this phenomenon. Migration was key to the formation of groups of people in the Caribbean and sociology steps in to explain slavery and indentureship and their impact on social life. The Caribbean region is unique and it is with this notion that sociology tries to understand this. Authors have tried to explain how religion works for the region, how families were formed, and even how education was established. All these could not have been established without the research of the past. TOPIC 5 Sociology as a Science Definition of sociology:- the scientific study of society. What is a science? It is the use of systematic methods and investigation and the logical analysis of investigation in order to develop an understanding of a particular subject matter. Characteristics of Sociology 1) Empirical:- based on facts 2) Theoretical :- set of ideas put together logically 3) Cumulative:- build on previous theories 4) Objective:- No personal opinions, not considered as accurate evidence 5) Value- free:- free from value judgements Positivism Scientific inquiry vs Anti-positivism behaviour cannot be measured objectively

Many of the early sociologists in the 19th century, such as Comte and Spencer believed that by applying the principles and practises that had worked so well in the natural sciences, sociology could discover the laws that explained how societies worked and changed. Comte discovered the law of three stages. Society passed through 3 stages:1) Theological:- events caused by the action of gods 2) Metaphysical :- events caused by abstract forces, natural rather than supernatural 3) Positivism:- events caused by scientific rationality. Comte believed that there was a hierarchy of the scientific subjects with sociology at the top of the hierarchy.

POSITIVISM Major tenets a) Human beings are rational individuals who are governed by social laws; their behaviour is learned through observation and governed by external causes that produce the same results. b) Research is a tool for studying social events and learning about them and their interconnections so that general causal laws can be discovered, explained and documented c) Human behaviour can be objectively measured just like matter d) People react to external stimuli:- in other words, that something ( a cause) makes something else ( an effect) E.g a-------------------------------------b----------------------------------c ECONOMIC INCREASED INCREASED RECESSION UNEMPLOYMENT CRIME How an effect may become a cause Durkheims study on Suicide(1897) -Highly personal act which could be researched to show the link between individual and society which would add value to the study, which is sociology. INVESTIGATION :-Suicide rates in different European countries METHOD :- use of official statistics RESULTS a) Suicide rates varied between different countries, more prevalent in Protestant countries than Catholic countries b) The rate of different countries remained constant even if ratios rose or fell across Europe. c) The rise and fall appeared to be related to social factors d) There were consistent variations in suicide rates between different groups within the same country with Protestants, the unmarried and the childless having higher rates than Catholics, the married and those with children. Types of Suicide TOO STRONG TOO WEAK INTEGRATION REGULATION ALTRUISTIC (a) FATALISTIC (b) EGOISTIC (c) ANOMIC (d)

(a) Altruistic:- out of duty. They take their own life. Eg Indian wives in the act of satee. (b) Fatalistic:- excessive regulation such as slaves (c ) Egoistic:- An individual phenomenon

(d) Anomic:- found in modern societies. Anomie means normlessness brought about by unlimited desires and limited means. Individuals cannot attain what the need. ANTI-POSITIVISM INTERPRETIVE SOCIOLOGY SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST THEORY SOCIAL ACTION THEORY--- WEBER Weber is regarded as the founding father of interpretive sociology which emphasises the importance of taking into account the points of view of social actors, and the meanings which they attribute to their own behaviour. Weber introduced the term Verstenhen which means empathetic understanding to explain how one should look at the social world. To imagine how the world would have looked from the point of view of the actors whose actions one wishes to understand, even when such a point of view is quite alien to ones own. Interpretive social science places emphasis on understanding human behaviour Associated schools of thought 1) Symbolic Interactionism:- looks at the meaning behind the interaction 2) Phenomenology:- categorisation of elements to find meaning behind the phenomenon. 3) Ethnomethodology:- Harold Garfinkel coined the term ethnomethodology to designate the methods individuals use in daily life to construct their reality, primarily through intimate exchanges of meanings in conversation. ACTIVITY Essays: 1) Within the social sciences, there is a debate about whether sociology is a science or not. Evaluate the major positions in this debate (May 2004) 2) Sociology cannot be a science because the subject matter is too varied, abstract and difficult to measure. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Support your response by referring to the characteristics of the discipline of Sociology as well as the nature of human social behaviour.(May 2007) 3) Sociology takes what everyone knows and puts into words that no-one understands. Critically examine this statement focusing on: (a) The difference between sociologically derived knowledge and common sense knowledge (b) Some of the problems encountered on the conception of sociology as a science.

TOPIC 6 What is society and how does it work? Society can mean a particular geographical area, a group of individuals with a distinct identity or even a country having a common form of government. Society comprises of groups, institutions and individuals who are socially controlled by norms and values. Norms (Normative/normal) are specific socially acceptable ways of behaviour that are shared by groups of individuals in society. It is the dos and donts which involve social interaction between individuals and which creates the social structure. EG ways of dressing at particular events. There are 3 types of norms :1) Folkways: traditional yet familiar such as a greeting or handshake at first meeting. With folkways there is no clear penalty for not conforming. 2) Mores: norms that result in stronger penalties when individual does not conform such as back chat. 3) Laws:- formal expression of what is acceptable, which when broken can have severe punishments. Values are general guidelines of behaviour. A belief that something is worthwhile and important. EG value placed on money HUMAN SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNED We learn to be human through socialisation. This involves the process of learning the culture (way of life, language, beliefs) of society. It takes place within social groups such as the family, peers, the church, the school and even the media. Primary socialisation occurs between the individual and those people in their life with whom they have primary relationships. These include parents and or guardians. Walking, talking, manners ( a suitable value system),gender roles, basic literacy and numeracy are all carried out by this agent of socialisation(parent). Secondary socialisation is the continued process where individuals learn behaviour through other mediums such as school, organisations and the media. Our behaviour is monitored by these informal controls as well as formal controls. Formal Laws Sanctions Informal Promise Threat Religious Teachings

SANCTIONS REWARDS Formal Trophy PUNISHMENTS Formal Informal Incarceration Glare

Informal Applause

Individuals occupy a particular position in society which is referred to as a STATUS, while a ROLE is the accompanying behaviour attached to that position. Roles and statuses are significant components of the social structure. Individuals can occupy several positions which can lead to role conflict. EG friend vs policeman. There are 2 types of statuses. Ascribed Fixed at birth No mobility Caste Sex Race Achieved based on ones own merit movement between classes Class Gender Ethnicity

All of these elements which make human social behaviour possible add to the concept of ORDER( balance, equilibrium, stability) in society. ACTIVITY 1)What is the difference between agents of socialisation and agencies of socialisation? 2) What is gender socialisation and give 2 examples of how this process is learned. Answer; (1) agents include parents, teachers, priests, peers while agencies include school, church, media or social club. (2) process where boys and girls learn to behave in socially acceptable ways. Through verbal appellation:- come here honey (girl), no good (boy) Through toys and chores at home, they learn particular roles

TOPIC 7 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT FUNCTIONALISM (Function, effect and contribution) Thinkers: Emile Durkheim( 1858-1917) and Talcott Parsons Functionalism concerned with:- How societies hold together - How is order maintained in any society - What are the main sources of stability in any society
-Social order -Shared values through the socialisation process -Value consensus :- agreement between individuals on values in a society

These thinkers view society as a whole (system) where each institution work together for the maintenance of social order. As a result this perspective is considered a MACRO theory. It looks at the big picture of society to explain how it works rather than on individual ideas, meanings and interpretations. Emile Durkheim was a main proponent who viewed all parts of society working interdependently(organismic analogy) to achieve ORDER. Every institution has their part to play for stability and equilibrium in society. He introduced 2 elements:a. Social Solidarity - the feeling that we belong to a common society (that we have certain basic values in common with people). Solidarity is based upon such things as common culture, socialisation, basic values and norms, etc. b. Collective Conscience - the "external expression" of the collective will of people living in a society. This represents the social forces that help bind people together (to integrate them into the collective behaviour that is society). It can be likened to the "will" of society.
These will create a conscious in the individual like an inner policeman to obey the law of society.

Human behaviour needed to be controlled as individuals have unlimited desires with limited means. These desires are to be morally regulated for societys success. He introduced the concept of division of labour to explain that as societies modernised, moral regulation and social solidarity also changed. In simple, traditional societies there was no ready need for social order and so this was achieved through mechanical solidarity (sharing of common interests). However, with specialisation, mechanical solidarity had to be replaced with organic solidarity( highly needed to maintain the social unit) We are born in a ready made world and so have to develop the skills necessary to live in this world. Disorder is recognised but too much would bring about the demise of society. In other words it would be dysfunctional. Eg. Too much crime is detrimental to society but

crime in right amounts can demonstrate to the citizens what not to do, create employment and even provide for social change (change of laws). Change is seen as a somewhat slow process but has to occur for society to grow. (Evolutionary change) In summation, this theory takes a holistic picture of society and emphasises on the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Robert K. Merton another functionalist added to Durkheims work by demonstrating that there exists 2 types of functions:- manifest and latent functions. A manifest function is the conscious and deliberate effect of an action while the latent function is the unconscious and unintended effect. e.g. the manifest function of the police is to protect while the latent function is to create a status quo to members in society that they cannot be touched. Talcott Parsons(1902-1979) impressed the idea of the socialisation process and the individuals need to learn the culture of society to promote this order. Each institution faces problems which need to be addressed for the society to function properly. These he called the functional prerequisites. 1) Adaptation:- This involves procuring the means to achieve valued goals. this may, for example, involve the ability to create / provide the physical necessities of institutional life. 2) Goal Attainment:- This involves the need to set goals for human behaviour and also to determine the means through which they can be achieved (the means of keeping an institution moving towards its allotted goals). 3) Integration :- People have to be made to feel a part of any institution. They need to be made to feel that they belong and one way of achieving this is to give them something that they can hold in common (values, beliefs, etc.). The ability of an institution to integrate people successfully is vital for its continuation and internal harmony. 4) Pattern maintenance or latency:- This involves the development of social control mechanisms that serve to manage tensions, motivate people, resolve interpersonal conflicts. Criticisms 1) Too much emphasis placed on order and how it should be maintained. Views the glass as half full rather than half empty- conservative bias 2) The socialisation process leaves less to be desired as everyone is taught differently. 3) There is no concept of free will, initiative or creativity as social beings are born in a ready made world with everything preconceived already. Human behaviour is deterministic. ACTIVITY Essay: Assess the claim made by some sociologists that human behaviour results from socialisation

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TOPIC 8 MARXISM Main thinkers:- Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels Marxist thinkers are concerned with how societies work and particularly in the fundamental aspects of production and human interaction. Since time immemorial, humans have been involved in the production and distribution of goods and services. Marx saw that societies were based on this transaction for human existence. Without this human life would not be possible. Like Functionalism, Marxism is a macro theory but Marx focuses on the economical aspect of human relations. Man needs certain assets to produce such as land, raw materials, capital, tools, machinery, labour which he terms forces of production (material and non material) These have to be used by people and so have to enter into social relations- relations to the means of production. These combined are the infrastructure. Everything outside of the infrastructure would be the superstructure. Means of production refers to those things that are tangible and can be owned such as the land, not labour, machinery, not knowledge. (material) For Marx, there existed two classes in society, the haves and the have nots, the ruling class and the subject class, the owners and the serfs, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The ruling class owned and means of production while the subject class owned only their labour for which they sold to the ruling class for their survival. This relationship was one of exploitation and oppression with the bourgeoisie gaining at the expense of the proletariat. As a result of this inequality, conflict is likely to exist which always threatens the social order and allows for social change. For Marx, societies are always transitory due to the conflict between classes and he identified 4 modes of production:- primitive communism, slave society, feudalism and capitalism. The working class is kept in a false class consciousness where they think that the world is fair and so remain in their position. This is kept in check by the ruling class ideology:- a false picture of reality. This belief is supported in all aspects of society through the socialisation process. Together with this notion is the fact that they are alienated from what they are producing and see it as a continuous process, only making profits for the bourgeoisie. Class in itself is where individuals share the same relations to the means of production while Class for itself is where they recognise the inequality and take steps to change their position. In summation, economic ownership produces economic power which in turn is translated into political and ideological power.

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Criticisms 1) Too economically deterministic ;- over-exaggerate the importance of economic relationships 2) Recognises ONLY two classes in society when there are generally more. 3) Ahistorical:- does not fit into reality of modern day societies. Activity 1) Compare and contrast the Functionalist and Marxist theories. (Use a table) 2) Describe how a Functionalist and a Marxist would explain:a) Viewing television b) drinking coffee c) prostitution 3) Evaluate the relevance of the Marxist model of class structure and class conflict to an analysis of Caribbean society. (Spec 2002) 25 marks

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TOPIC 9 INTERACTIONISM Whereas Functionalism and Marxism are considered as macro theories, the Interactionist school of thought is a micro theory which looks at the small picture.. the individual and the meanings that are attached to action. The main focus is on:1) how individuals act 2) how onlookers interpret the act and what meanings are attached Activity What meanings are attached to the following scenarios? a) A couple in an intimate setting with candles b) A person dressed like a mummy c) Your friend breaking the red light Main proponent was George Herbert Mead who identifies and I and the ME which represents the self The I represents the conscious action and the ME represents the awareness of how other people expects us to behave. Lets use an example. Getting in an accident. The I aspect would be shaken up, maybe cry, even swear but the ME aspect would evaluate the social conditions as to how it happened, who saw, where it took place. For instance, one would assert that it was wet and the car skidded, a male driver gave me a bad drive, the road was not well lit, this is the first time I got in an accident (inexperienced). Through this example it is clear to ascertain that human behaviour cannot be objectively measured using the interactionist perspective as people react differently to similar stimuli. As such we categorise people and experiences to make sense of the world where we attach labels to people and access them when we create the situation. Criticisms 1) there is little attempt to explain how social structures work and more emphasis on the individual 2) there is discussion on power relations (who labels) but none on where this power comes from (why some are more powerful than others) 3) human social relations are relative in nature and so would not be measured. 4) inadequate explanation of social order and social change. Activity Draw a table showing the differences between macro and micro theories.

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TOPIC 10 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY As was already discussed, sociology can be considered scientific in its procedures and methods of gathering data. What is research Research is the systematic investigation of a problem. It is the process of forwarding ideas to be tested in a systematic way, collecting raw data, converting this data to be understood and presenting conclusions. Research design is the planned way of carrying out the research. It starts with asking questions and developing certain concepts based on the problem to be studied. It can take 2 forms:1) Deductive approach:- this starts off with a theory and then uses observations to test this theory 2) Inductive approach:- from studied observations, a theory is drawn. Methodology involves the principles of research, how we go about creating knowledge. Data is the raw facts and figures which when analysed is transformed into information (processed data). There are two types of data:- quantitative and qualitative. a) Quantitative (scientific) data is data presented in numerical form such as official statistics. Advantages Disadvantages 1) used to study trends and test hypothesis Lack depth 2) reliable and representative Output of research has no meaning 3) easy to analyse and objective No focus on the individual b) Qualitative (humanistic) data is presented in words which gives deeper meaning to the investigation. Advantages Disadvantages 1) Output of research is close to reality Subjective and unreliable 2) In-depth feelings and meanings Not scientific and measurable 3) rich description Cannot generalise and easy to mis-interpret Additionally, there are two sources of data:- primary and secondary a) primary data sources are obtained by the researcher themselves ( first hand, up-todate and relevant) e.g. questionnaire. b) secondary data sources are already in existence. The researcher does not have to undertake research. E.g diaries, official statistics

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Primary research Primary/ quantitative Mailed/self completed questionnaire Structured Interviews Longitudinal studies Experiments Quantitative data Secondary/Quantitative Official Statistics primary/ qualitative Participant observation Unstructured Interviews

Qualitative data Secondary/ Qualitative Personal Documents Media material Secondary research

Activity To research triangulation and suggest why researchers would utilise this method. Stages of research 1) proposal, recommend a hypothesis, a statement of the problem 2) literature review:- this concerns specific information on the hypothesis 3) data collection 4) analysis 5) presentation of data 6) conclusions and recommendations (theory development) Reliability and validity are terms which refer to both quantitative and qualitative designs. Reliability deals with repetition, consistency and stability. Given the same circumstances, the results will be the same, time and time again. This is usually more pronounced using quantitative data such as a questionnaire. Validity in sociological essence, means that the research is designed in a way that it tests what it set out to do in the first place. Qualitative data will therefore be high in validity as for example using observation, the researcher would clearly outline what they are testing. Objectivity concerns the scientific way the information is obtained. Respondents are not coerced into anyones opinions while representativeness depicts that the sample selected would appear in numbers proportional to their size in the target population. Value neutrality assumes that researchers cannot allow their personal feelings to influence the interpretation of data even if it is contrary to their personal views. How do researchers decide what topic to study? The topic to be studied should have personal meaning to them as the research itself is time consuming and costly. It should also try to explain certain dramatic changes in society. (Why crime is rising). Funding for research can also impact on the topic. Government grants and private financial support can encourage research in a particular field of study.

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How do researchers decide what research method to use? 1) Theoretical assumptions:- as a researcher from a particular school of thought, they would choose methods consistent with their perspectives. A positivist would use questionnaires as opposed to an interpretive sociologists who would use observation. Also how reliable and valid the data collection methods are and the values of the researcher. 2) Practicality:- depending on the intention of the research and the target population, this would guide the researcher to choose a particular method. Also the time and money available to the researcher. 3) The topic itself :- this would actually dictate what method to use. Once the hypothesis is established it should be clear as to what research method should be feasible. 4) Chance and inspiration:- there are some researchers whose studies were not planned but rather conducted by accident. E.g Malinowski in the Trobriand islands and participant observation studies on the aborigines. 5) Moral and ethical issues:- methods should be translucent as possible with respondents having knowledge on what the results will be used for. Researchers need to maintain objectivity and integrity, respect the subjects right to privacy, preserve confidentiality, seek informed consent and protect subjects from personal harm. In some instances it might not be possible to accomplish all as data could be lost.

Four cornered relationship model Choice of topic----------------------------------------------Theoretical Preference Research Methods------------------------------------------Practical Preference

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RESEARCH METHODS Survey research QUESTIONNAIRE This is a list of pre-set questions geared towards obtaining information on a particular issue. A questionnaire can contain open ended and close ended questions. Open ended questions allow the respondents to answer in a particular way. E.g How do you feel about crime in the community. Close ended questions give the respondents options to choose from. E.g what is your age. 10-14 15- 19 20- 24 There are many types of questionnaires. a) mail/ postal:- this is a questionnaire sent via post to gather data from a wide cross section of the population. It is typically used for market research Advantages:1) Can gather data from a large number of people, practical 2) Targets individuals over a wide geographical area 3) Relatively inexpensive Disadvantages 1) Low return rate which can destroy the representativeness of the sample 2) Respondents can lie b) Self- Completion:- this is given to the respondent to fill out Advantages:1) Relatively inexpensive 2) Fast and efficient way of analysing data especially if close ended questions were used 3) No interviewer bias :- when interviewers are present, respondents would tend to answer in a way they think the examiner wants them to answer. It is a perceived notion based on age, sex or topic, that the respondents will answer in a particular way depending on these variables. Disadvantges:1) The interpretation of the questions would be different for individual readers and so answer questions differently thus producing data which cannot be compared. 2) Respondents might very well lie. To curb this, interviewers introduce a check question.

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INTERVIEW There are two types of interviews 1) Structured 2) Unstructured A structured interview is basically a questionnaire given by the interviewer who is bounded by those questions. Advantages Easy to analyse and quantify with fixed choice questions Less dishonesty in face-to-face interaction High in reliability Used to gather quantitative data Disadvantages Limited, as researcher is bounded by set questions Uses a small sample and so cannot generalise Costly and time consuming Interviewer bias can step in

An unstructured interview is formulated as a free flowing conversation where there are no set questions. Advantages Disadvantages Interviewee can explain and so researcher Not easily quantifiable can gather in depth information Used to gather qualitative data (sensitive Low in reliability groups) High in validity Might be difficult to record as in a conversation Information could be warped if interviewer is not skilled Questionnaire Participant observation Structured--------------------------------------------------------------Unstructured Questions lie within this continuum Activity 1) Research the advantages and disadvantages of individual and group interviews. 2) What is mulitvocality? The Interview Process How do we go about an interview? Firstly, contact has to be established using gentle persuasion for the interviewee to participate in the interview. This contact can be made by advanced telephone, letters or even showing up at the respondents house. In any even, it must be clear the reason for the interview and how the outcome of the research would be used. One very important way of conducting interviews is the non-directive way which involves refraining from offering opinions (reduce interviewer bias). This method would allow the interviewee to be comfortable expressing themselves without the feeling of being judged. Howard Becker(1971) disagreed with this type of interview as he believed that interviewers should be more active and aggressive so that fuller, better 18

information can be derived. The researcher would then be leading the respondent into revealing private details. His study with Chicago school teachers proved that using this type of interview he got more information then they would normally share in a non directive manner such as their evaluation of students in terms of class and ethnic background. Observation and Participation observation The emphasis here is on the overall nature of the study being non experimental and on simply observing the naturally and freely occurring behaviour WITH or WITHOUT their knowledge. This method is frequently used by qualitative researchers to obtain information on groups of individuals (linked to Ethnography- study of the way of life of a group of people). There are however certain circumstances where observations are prohibited such as in politics, family or companies. Being studied ( observed) presents some problems in certain situations. People would act differently knowing they are under scrutiny. Hargreaves( 1967) undertook a study involving secondary schooling where teachers were observed and some (teachers) stopped teaching altogether, while some continued as normal. He discovered that the longer he stayed, the less attention was given to them and so they acted naturally again. Advantages Disadvantages Flexible, non structured data gathering Lack objectivity as it relies too much on system may produce greater richness of observers interpretation information Preserves validity in study Risk to life of researcher This method strengthens knowledge as it Studies cannot be replicated and only a answers questions that would not be fraction of social life is recorded asked in an interview setting Participants would tell truthful accounts. Generalisations are not possible There is no need to lie Participant Observation is a very important technique as it allows the observer to get directly involved with the group they are studying. It has been adopted by many sociologists doing ethnographic studies. Some researchers follow the principle that, if you cant observe them, join them, but join them how? Overt Participant Observation allows the researcher to join the group where his identity and intention is known by the members. Advantages Morally and practically the better way Avoid participating in illegal behaviour Free to ask questions Disadvantages It will affect the behaviour of people in the group- Hawthorne effect * Research is time consuming, can take years Researcher can be misled or misinformed

*Hawthorne effect :- the mere fact that research is being conducted will alter the results. Research was conducted at Hawthorne works at the Western Electric 19

Company in Chicago to ascertain whether there was relationship between productivity and levels of heating, lighting and rest intervals. The results were rather strange as productivity peeked even when heating was increased! Covert Participant Observation involves the researcher entering the group in cognito, without the group being aware. (undercover brother) Advantages Less likely to change peoples behaviour Might be the only way to study group e.g. gang. Allows empathetic understanding Disadvantages Time consuming Cannot ask questions freely or ask for help Data collection would be based on memory Danger of getting too involved- going native (Pryce) and losing objectivity.

Activity 1) To research these participant observation studies under the following headings:Name of researcher, year, title, locality, findings (descriptions), overt/covert Studies:- E.Liebow, Whyte, K. Pryce, Ditton. Name of researcher Liebow Whyte Pryce Ditton Year Title Locality Findings Overt/ Covert

Covert

2) Question:- Outline the different ways that sociologists ask questions of the people they are studying and assess the problems when doing this. [25 marks] EXPERIMENTS In sociology, laboratory experiments are very rarely carried out for the reason that what they want to study cannot be conducted in this type of setting. Disadvantages 1) They are places of unnaturalness and so studying behaviour would be worthless in a laboratory with respect to sociology. 2) It would not be possible to place a whole society (community) in a lab for the sake of a study. Impractical in nature. So sociologists came up with studies known as field experiments. As the name suggests it is an experiment but it is carried out in a natural setting where variables can be isolated. Such experiments conducted include:-

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1) experiment with babies:- girls were dressed in blue, boys in pink. Results were that the girls seen as boys and vice versa and their actions were recorded in relation to gender. Girls were playful and boys were emotionally stressed. 2) Sissons (1970) conducted an experiment to test social class and interaction with strangers. An actor was dressed as a business man and a labourer in separate occasions asking directions and it was found that people were more helpful to the business man. 3) Brown and Gay(1985) undertook an experiment where bogus applications were made for a variety of jobs by letter and telephone. Applicants ensured that they were from various ethnic groups. Results confirmed that minority groups got less positive responses. Disadvantages 1) It is not possible to control variables as with work done in a lab. Many factors would be involved other than the factors you would want to test. 2) The Hawthorne effect will likely to occur 3) Individuals should be told of their involvement in an experiment but on most occasions are not privy as it would change their behaviour. It is advised to tell them immediately after the experiment. Activity 1) Assess the strengths and limitations of the different kinds of qualitative research techniques used in sociology. (June 2006) 25 marks CASE STUDIES It is an in-depth study of one individual or group usually qualitative in nature. Case studies are valuable since it can highlight: 1) Outstanding cases:- Osgood et al for instance studied the rare but genuine experiences of a person with 3 quite separate psychological identities. 2) It can contradict a theory:- a single instance can seriously damage a theory. Advantages Provide new insights on previous knowledge Can be used as a preamble to a larger study- pilot study * Disadvantages Generalisations cannot be made Limited in design and unrepresentative

*pilot study( feasibility study, pre test) is a small scale study conducted before the main study to ascertain any errors or collect preliminary data.

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Life histories are a subdivision of case studies where only one person is studied. This takes the form of unstructured questions. Studies conducted include the life of a Polish peasant by Thomas and Znaniecki as well as an aging woman by Allport. The use of qualitative data presents a wealth of knowledge for the researcher as he can view the world from the actors point of view. This method of research is similar to case studies in the way of falsifications of theories. A collection of life histories can be used to make generalisations. LONGITUDINAL STUDIES Study of a group over a period of time, where data collection is done in intervals. First used to measure changes in public attitudes- more reliable since same people would be used, the changes would not result from composition of sample. It is a form of research where quantitative data is collected in social surveys. Advantages Attitudinal change can be readily seen Valid data is obtained Large number of variables can be collected over the time span and pinpointed at a later date Disadvantages Time consuming

Impractical to locate sample over a period due to death, migration, refusal to participate- sample attrition * Behaviour will be altered over time *Sample attrition:- depletion of original sample size, loss of members of the sample.

Activity 1) Research any Caribbean or otherwise longitudinal study conducted and its findings. 2) Assess the extent to which a longitudinal approach is useful for the study of either HIV/AIDS or teenage pregnancy in the Caribbean. (June 2009) 25 marks OFFICIAL STATISTICS These are numerical data produced by both governmental and non-governmental agencies. Every 10 years the government conducts a census where data is collected on the population concerning households, expenditure and income. Statistics also include births, deaths, marriages, divorces, crime, unemployment, road fatalities. The external bodies also conducts research which they analyse and present to the public such as opinion polls, market research, NGOs research. Advantages Saves time and money as it is already collected Collected by credible sources Large amounts of quantitative data which is easy to analyse Comparisons can be easily made Disadvantages Access to information may be restricted Can become obsolete Lack of depth in the investigation Can be manipulated to suit a particular set of interests 22

Activity Review Durkheims study DOCUMENTS Use of this secondary form of data is concerned with analysis of autobiographies, letters, diaries and even the media (papers). It can be classified into 2 categories:1) Content analysis 2) thematic amalysis/semiology Content analysis:- quantitative in nature, objective and systematic where the frequency of words is analysed and where the amount of time and space devoted to a particular theme is noted. E.g. During the time of mass kidnapping in Trinidad, many dramas on television showed how and why kidnapping occurred. There were many programmes on this topic. Thematic Analysis:- qualitative method which uses signs and symbols to explain/obtain meaning for the underlying ideas. E.g. a dove means more than a bird, it also symbolises peace. Activity Explain the assumptions of the Positivist and Interpretivist methods in sociological research. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of EACH method. (Spec 2002)

SAMPLING A sample is a small proportion of an entire population. A population is the group from which the researcher will choose the sample. The sampling frame is the list of members of the population to be studied while the sampling unit is the member of the population to be studied. Activity Draw a diagram to depict how each of the above terms are linked. A representative sample is a cross section of the population with the same proportion of males, females, young, old etc. In this way the sample will represent the whole group. Why choose a sample? 1) It is costly to use an entire population 2) It is time consuming on the researcher 3) It might not be possible to use the entire population 4) Since only a small number within the group is used it is then possible to make generalisations of the population once a representative sample is chosen.

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Types of sampling designs:- probability vs non-probability Probability 1) Random:-this is where each and every member of the population has an equal and fair chance of being selected. E.g Play Whe, Picking from a hat 2) Systematic:- this is where every nth term is used from a list of items from the population. E.g. choosing every 3rd person from the roll to form the sample. 3) Stratified:- this is where the population is divided into different layers(age, sex, religion, race) and then the sample is taken. This would be a more representative sample as the same proportion chosen from the group would be reflected in the sample group. Non- probablitity 4) Quota:- it is considered stratified sampling but the selection within the strata are non random. This method is popular among market research companies and opinion polls where the researcher once meeting the criteria, will choose the number needed to fulfil the sample. E.g. a pharmaceutical company conducing research on 50 people who are over the age of 50 and strictly women will choose the first 50 women above the age of 50 and no more. This example shows the non-randomness of the research. 5) Snowball/network and volunteer :- the sample is formed based on contact to one individual who will in turn direct/ introduce to other members of the sample. Just like a snowball going downhill, it collects members thus increasing the sample size. Obviously this method will be non- random and hence unrepresentative. E.g. Rapists, burglars, heroin users, collectors of Ancient Greek coins. Volunteer:- this method uses leaflets, advertisements, posters and media broadcasts to announce the research and request volunteers for the sample. One example is studies conducted on prostitutes in the USA. 6) Convenience/opportunity sampling:-involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a sample population selected because it is readily available and convenient. PILOT STUDIES This refers to mini versions of a full scale study as well as the pre-testing of a particular research instrument such as a questionnaire. Pilot studies or feasibility studies are important to a good study design. It has many purposes such as:Train the researcher in many elements of the research process, convince funding bodies that the main study is feasible and worth funding, identify problems which might occur with the prescribed methods and determine what resources are needed for the planned study.

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Hints ON ESSAY WRITING 1) Reading the question:- this should be done thoroughly before attempting to write. Study the title of the essay carefully. 2) Ensure that you are relevant to the topic. Answer what the question asks. 3) Content and analysis are indeed important. 4) Planning the essay:- encapsulates brain storming 5) Introductions must arrest the readers attention 6) Length of the exam should determine how much you should write. 7) Refrain from colloquial English and blurry words and phrases 8) Conclusions should include an important statement. Make it as effective as it will be the last words the examiner will view.

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Research Section one (i) Introduction: Statement of the problem This section will allow the student to identify the specific area of study and the reasons behind the study. It should be a topic which is of interest to the student and so the student should offer a brief background. The statement of the problem does not necessarily have to be a problem. It can be a current issue facing a group (teens, alcoholics) in society or an investigation into a new phenomenon in the community. It can be in the form of a question or a statement. Egs. To what extent does extra curricular activities assist in the students development at Princes Town West Secondary School? What factors are responsible for the homophobic action among parents in the community of Angel Avenue? To investigate whether race affects social interaction among the form five students of St. Josephs Convent, San Fernando. (ii) Aims and Objectives This section should outline the purpose of the study. The researcher is trying to gather information on a particular for what purpose? How would the results be used, what relationships are you trying to discover? The researcher is also trying to recommend/ propose solutions and investigate possible alternatives to the study. (iii) Literature Review It is literally a review of the literature. Literature in this context will mean knowledge that has already been discovered on the topic. There will be citations from sociologists, medical practitioners, psychologists etc, all concerned with presenting the information from different standpoints. There should be at least 3-4 different research sources. Ensure that proper reference format is used. Information can also be obtained from the World Wide Web. Section Two (i) Research Design This section requires the research to have a sound knowledge on research techniques and the reason for choice. The method chosen should be justified by outlining the advantages and uses. It is advised to also describe what type of data is necessary and how the data will be deciphered. Will a sample be chosen? How? The time frame and how the research tool(s) will be delivered to the sample. You can also include why a pilot study could not be conducted. If one was, then you could give reasons for it.

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Format: (1) Research tool(s) was designed. Give brief description with advantages (2) Sample was chosen and briefly describe the method(s) (3) Type of data preferred described further with advantages together with the advantages of primary vs secondary sources (which ever you choose) (4) Time frame eg. 2 weeks, time of day, with reasons. (5) Mention of pilot study, if any (ii) Sample Selection What is a sample? Why choose a sample? Identify the population and indicate numbers. How was the sample selected through age, sex, social status- target population? Describe the method in greater detail. (iii) Data Collection Instrument This will include a brief description of the tool(s) used in terms of definition, advantages and a copy of research technique(s) used. If a questionnaire is used then it should include 15- 20 well modelled questions. Section Three (i) Presentation of Data The researcher uses a variety of diagrams to represent the data collected. It is advised to that up to 6 different diagrams be used including pie charts, bar graphs, histogram, scales, line graphs, tables, maps, doughnut graphs etc. The title would be the question asked in the questionnaire Ensure that the diagram is properly annotated and the percentages add up to 100%. Have key/ scale where necessary The footer would include the description of the diagram. Do not assume that the examiner can read your graph! (ii) Analysis of Data This section would include actual data transformed into knowledge about the research conducted. The researcher should be able to find relationships between variables used and make some general comments. It was discovered that 12%.... it can be seen from diagram 3 that according to figure 4, 10 %......... (iii) Findings, Discussion of findings, Conclusions Findings:-The researcher can outline some findings obtained at the end of the study. Discussion of Findings:-There should also be some effort to link the literature review to what was found and concur/ disagree with the analysis. This section brings the previous sections together:- the statement of the problem, objectives, literature review and even the presentation of data. Here also you can discuss any challenges faced when conducting the study.

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In the conclusion, one can suggest that further work needs to be conducted, and offer some recommendations to solve the problem. Give an overall appearance of the study. (iv) Bibliography A very important item of the research design that students do not pay attention to. It includes the resources used while conducting the research. This is the required way. Author, Title, Year Published, Publisher e.g. Mustapha, Nasser. Sociology for Caribbean Students, 2007, Publisher. Websites also need to be listed together with title of journal entries, articles, date. Proper citations are necessary.

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