ENGINEERING SCIENCE LGD 10703

FLUID
Hydrostatics is the study of pressures throughout a fluid at rest and the pressure forces on finite surfaces. As the fluid is at rest, there are no shear stresses in it. Hence the pressure at a point on a plane surface always acts normal to the surface, and all forces are independent of viscosity. The pressure variation is due only to the weight of the fluid. 7.1 Introduction to Pressure

Pressure always acts inward normal to any surface (even imaginary surfaces as in a control volume). Pressure is a normal stress, and hence has dimensions of force per unit area, or [ML -1T -2]. In the English system of units, pressure is expressed as "psi" or lbf/in2. In the Metric system of units, pressure is expressed as "pascals" (Pa) or N/m2. Standard atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa or 14.69 psi.

7.1.1

Pressure at a Point

Pressure at a point has the same magnitude in all directions, and is called isotropic. 7.1.2 Pascals Principles

Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions. Pressure is acting perpendicular to the wall of vessel containing fluid. Pressure is transmitted throughout a static fluid without loss.

7.1.3

Pressure Variation with Depth

Pressure is measured based on the homogeneous fluid (constant viscosity), the variation in depth and the gravitational constant. This measured pressure is called gauge pressure.

p = gh (p-gauge pressure/g-gravitational constant/h-variation in depth)

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ENGINEERING SCIENCE LGD 10703

Atmospheric pressure is a constant pressure due to the weight of surrounding air normally taken as 101.3 kPa. Absolute pressure is pressure measured above perfect vacuum. pabs = pg + patm (pabs absolute pressure/pg gauge pressure/patm atmospheric pressure)

7.1.4

Pressure in a liquid at rest

If the density is constant, the pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with depth from the free surface.

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The pressure is the same at all points with the same depth from the free surface regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the same fluid. However, the thrust due to pressure is perpendicular to the surface on which the pressure acts, and hence its direction depends on the geometry.

7.2

Hydrostatic Pressure Difference Between Two Points

For a fluid with constant density,

pbelow = pbelow + gh
It is easily remembered by thinking about scuba diving. As a diver goes down, the pressure on his ears increases. So, the pressure "below" is greater than the pressure "above." Rules for above equation are: 1. If you can draw a continuous line through the same fluid from point 1 to point 2, then p1 = p2 if h1 = h2. p4 = p5 if point 4 and point 5 are at the same elevation. Pressure p2 does not equal p3 due to different in viscosity.

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2. Any free surface open to the atmosphere has atmospheric pressure, patm

In other words, in this example, p1 = patm. To find the pressure at point 2, our hydrostatics equation is used: p2 = patm + gh (absolute pressure) or p2 = gh (gauge pressure). 3. The shape of a container does not matter in hydrostatics.

p1 = p2 = p3 =patm + gh

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4. Pressure in layered fluid. Consider pressure of two different fluids in a vertical container filled with mercury at the bottom and water on top of it. The pressure is continuous at the interface between water and mercury. Therefore p1, which is the pressure at the bottom of the water column, is the starting pressure at the top of the mercury column. The pressure p1 can also be regarded as the water surcharge pressure superimposed onto (uniformly transmitted to, and felt at any depth by) the mercury below.

The vertical gradient of the pressure distribution is equal to the specific weight of the fluid . Therefore, the pressure in mercury increases with depth at a rate 13.6 times faster than that in water since mercury / water = 13.6

Pressure at point 1 is p1 = water g h1 Pressure at point 2 is p2 = pmercury + p1 = mercury g h2 + p1

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7.2.1 Hydraulic Jack

Hydraulic jack is a hydraulic system that utilises the Pascals principle. The pressure is transmitted throughout the confined fluid without any loss.

Pressure p1 is equal to pressure p2 due to the mechanical power is transferred to fluid power and converted back to mechanical power. Thus the pressure; p1 = p2 = F1/A1 = F2/A2

7.2.2

Hydraulic Brake

A small force acts at the pedal can transmit a large force to all wheels simultaneously to stop the car. It is because the pressure will be transferred through the pedal brake liquid to cars tire.

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7.3 Pressure Measurement

7.3.1 Piezometer- is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to a vessel or a pipe containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be measured. This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when the liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too large and pressure changes must be detectable.

pA = gh1 = 1h1 1 = specific weight of liquid 1

7.3.2 some U-tube manometer - a glass tube bent into the shape of a "U", and is used to measure unknown pressure.

p2 = p1 + 1h1 = pA + 1h1 p3 = 2h2 2 = specific weight of liquid 2

Since points labeled (2) and (3) in the figure are at the same elevation in the same fluid, they are at equivalent pressures, and the two equations above can be equated to give

pA = 2h2 1h1
Finally, note that in many cases (such as with air pressure being measured by a mercury manometer), the density of manometer fluid 2 is much greater than that of fluid 1. In such cases, the last term on the right is sometimes neglected.

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7.3.3 Differential manometer - used to measure the difference in pressure between two containers or two points in the same system.

pA - pB = 2h2 + 3h3 1h1

In the common case when A and B are at the same elevation (h1 = h2 + h3) and the fluids in the two containers are the same 1 = 3, one may show that the pressure difference registered by a differential manometer is given by

p = [ (m /) - 1] gh
where m is the density of the manometer fluid, is the density of the fluid in the system, and h is the manometer differential reading. 7.3.4 Inclined-tube manometer used to measure very small pressure difference.

To increase the sensitivity of the differential reading, one leg of the manometer can be inclined at an angle , and the differential reading is measured along the inclined tube. As shown above, h2 = l2sin, and hence

pA - pB = 2l2sin + 3h3 1h1

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7.3.5 Multi-fluid Manometer used to measure the pressure in the pressurized tank.

pair = patm + (mercuryh3 oilh2 waterh1) g

7.4 7.4.1 Calculation Example Calculate the force F1 and the displacement of x2 in the Figure 1a below.

Simple Hydraulic Jack F1 / A1 = F2 / A2 Where F1 = Force at piston NOTES CHAPTER 7 (ABR) Page 9

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F2 = Force at ram = 3000 N A1 = Cross sectional area of piston A2 = Cross sectional area of ram Thus F1 = F2 * A1 / A2 = 3000 * (/4 * 0.022) / (/4 * 0.122) = 83.3 N V1 = V2 V1 = volume displacement at piston = A1 * x1 V2 = volume displacement at ram = A2 * x2 Thus x2 = x1 * A1 / A2 = 0.02 * (/4 * 0.022)/(/4 * 0.122) = 555 mm

7.4.2

Calculate the force F1 and the displacement of x1 in Figure 1b below.

Simple Hydraulic Jack F1 / A1 = F2 / A2 Where F1 = Force at piston F2 = Force at ram = 5 MN A1 = Cross sectional area of piston A2 = Cross sectional area of ram Thus F1 = F2 * A1 / A2 = 5 * 106 * (/4 * 0.022) / (/4 * 0.082) = 312.5 kN V1 = V2 V1 = volume displacement at piston = A1 * x1 V2 = volume displacement at ram = A2 * x2 Thus x1 = x2 * A 2 / A 1 Page 10

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= 0.1 * (/4 * 0.082)/ (/4 * 0.022) = 160 mm 7.5 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

7.5.1 A liquid half fills a cylindrical container with a diameter of 200 mm and a length of 1500 mm. If the weight of liquid is 223 N, determine the density and relative density of the liquid.

7.5.2 Sea water of relative density 1.03 is at a depth of 2.5 m above a horizontal circular plate of diameter 400 mm. Determine the force on the plate and, hence, the pressure exerted by the sea water.

7.5.3 A steel tank of weight 4 kN has base dimensions of 1.2 m x 3.5 m and contains kerosene (RD = 0.8) to a depth of 2.5 m. The tank is supported by four pads such that the load is equally distributed. Determine: a. the force on each pad b. the fluid pressure on the base of the tank

7.5.4

If 2100 L of kerosene is drawn out of the tank as stated in Question 7.5.3, determine: a. the depth of kerosene now in the tank b. the force on each supporting pad c. the pressure on the tank base

7.5.5

For hydraulic jack as illustrated below, determine: a. the fluid pressure b. the ram force F

200 N

100mm

20mm

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