Lecture Notes

Basic Research Methods I:

a step by step guide to doing and understanding research
by Rudolf V. Kuhn Tell me, and I forget. Show me, and I remember. Involve me, and I understand Chinese Proverb

Topic Outline
Framing a Research Question Formulating your objectives and research hypothesis Reviewing the Literature Deciding on a study design

Research is a systematic process which attempts to solve a problem, thus contributing to the stock of knowledge. Research ideas can be developed from various sources particularly from the interest of the researcher. A good research problem fulfils the following criteria:

Researchability problems that require value judgment cannot be tested Significance/ Relevance development of knowledge that is useful in science, clinical setting or policy development, etc. Feasibility issues of personnel, equipment, time and resources Novelty/ Avoidance of Duplication unanswered research problem Ethical possibility of harm that may be inflicted on participants

A certain topic that interests the researcher may ultimately yield several problems for investigation. A topic therefore has to be narrowed down into a specific research problem which may be restated into a research question that cannot be further broken down into sub-questions. A research question may be classified into one of the following types of questions on the basis of the level of knowledge. This classification helps the researcher on deciding on an appropriate study design. Level 1 Question Little is known, answers the what Descriptive and Qualitative designs, feasibility designs, case studies Passive Designs Observational

Level 2 Question Level 3 Question

Explore relationships between two or more variables (association) Test existing theory or models, predict what will happen and why (causeeffect)

True and Quasi-experimental designs

A research problem/question should be clear, specific, and measurable. Prefer for example, effectiveness to benefits or accuracy to usefulness and similar vague terms. E.g. VAGUE: Does exposure to heavy metal result in health problems? SPECIFIC: Does long-term exposure to lead result in infertility? Formulation of Hypothesis

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Stating the answer to the research question in a declarative sentence gives the Hypothesis which is the proposed answer to be tested. Hypotheses are applicable for Level 2 and 3 questions. 1. Null Hypothesis Ho assumes that no association exists e.g. There is no difference in treatment effectivity/ Drug A is as effective as Drug B 2. Alternative Hypothesis Ha assumes that an association exists a. One-tailed (directional) e.g. Drug A is more effective than Drug B b. Two-tailed (non-directional) e.g. There is a difference in treatment effectivity between A and B Objectives Objectives are the solution to a research problem. They state the desired outcome of the study to test hypothesis. 1. General Objectives overall goal of the research 2. Specific Objectives clearly stated measurable terms derived from the General Objectives Variables Variable factor, trait, or condition that can exist in different states, amounts or types Independent Variable the variable which the scientist (or nature) changes in order to observe a change, the variable that is presumed to determine a dependent variable Dependent Variable assumed effect that changes as a result from some independent variable Confounding Variable third variable that may influence the dependent and independent variable e.g. 1. Association between high rain fall (independent variable) and the improved growth of certain plant species (dependent variable) 2. Grey hair (confounder) predicts likelihood for heart disease (dependent variable) Confounding is the technical term for finding an association for the wrong reason. Beware of Errors, Bias and Confounders! Literature Search Before a research is started, the available literature should be thoroughly searched for existing answers to your problem. If no satisfactory answer has been found, the research process may start. The literature should also be searched to improve the methods or the discussion in ones own research project.
1. 2. 3. Books Journal Articles Internet a. Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com) & Google Books (http://books.google.com)

b.
c. d. e. Records

Strategies:

4.

Science Direct (www.sciencedirect.com) Ebsco Host (www.ebscohost.com) Health Research and Development Information Network (www.herdin.ph) University of the Philippines Integrated Library System (http://ilib.upd.edu.ph/) ()

Broadening/narrowing the question Using different terms/ combination of terms Limiting your search by choosing specific study designs, year of publication, type of journal, etc. (Advanced Search) Use of Note Cards Use of Boolean Operators o This phrase exactly o Search for this AND that / this +that

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Search for this and * something I forgot Search for this OR that but NOT these/ -these

Introduction to Study Designs The scientific credibility and integrity of a research depend largely on the right study design. The design of the study includes information on the type of study, target population, sampling methods, data collection methods and other methodology of the study. The selection of the study design and methodology are in line with the objectives of the study which they seek to answer. In the selection of the study design, it may also be helpful to orient oneself to previously published literature or expert testimony. Research can be described in different ways; one such classification (used for medical-epidemiologic and social science research) is given below:
1. 2. Descriptive a. Case Report b. Cross Sectional Analytic (at least 2 comparative groups) a. Observational i. Cross Sectional ii. Case-Control iii. Retrospective Cohort b. Interventional i. Before-After Study ii. Prospective Cohort iii. Quasi Experimental iv. Randomized Control Trial/ True Experimental

Case Control Outcome is present at the start of the study Investigation into the Cause or Exposure that resulted to the Outcome Control is selected by choosing a group where the outcome is present Cohort Outcome is NOT present at the start of the study Exposure is either present or will be introduced Follow-up period is necessary to observe the effect of the exposure/intervention Randomized Control Trial Strongest type of study design Follow-up period is necessary to observe the effect of the exposure/intervention Exposure is randomly assigned

N e

O O

N Population Ne Sample Size E Exposure (Independent Variable) No Exposure/ Comparison Group O Outcome No Outcome

From Experiment to Paper:

Technical Writing Skills for Scientists
by Rudolf V. Kuhn

Lecture Notes

Topic Outline
Parts of a Research Paper Outlining Approach to Style Citing References Ethical Considerations in Research

A research proposal and the finished product, a research article, consist of different parts highlighting and describing distinct elements of the research process. A research proposal is a detailed written blueprint that guides the conduct and execution of the research study, ordinarily written in the professional setting for submission to review boards or to funding agencies. The research article, though it may consist of similar parts as the research proposal, is written to allow the scientist to share his findings with the scientific community and the public at large, thus contributing to the store of knowledge. Possible Parts of a Research Paper
Abstract o Summary of the most important aspects of the research presented in capsule format Introduction o Identify what is being studied and the study design used o Significance of the study and scientific rationale o May include objectives and hypothesis (or separate) o Move from general to specific (real world problem your research) o Engage your reader, answer the question Why should I care? Review of Related Literature o Discussion of published literature references in relation to current research o Review of previous methods/ study designs Materials and Methods/ Methodology o Description of sampling method, study design, implementation of the experiment, order/ timing of tasks, inclusion/exclusion criteria o May make use of flowcharts or illustrations o 3rd Person, Past Passive o Equipment and materials are described exactly by identifying the manufacturer and model o Use subheadings to organize your methods o Common procedures may be mentioned by name or be given a reference o New methods should be described in sufficient detail to allow replication Results and Discussion o Data presented as text, tables or graphs. Does not include raw data o Explanation for the occurrence of the results based on reliable references o Order multiple results logically (most to least important, simple to complex, chronologically) o Do not merely repeat table data/ data from your results section o Give evidence for your explanations/ conclusions o Compare and Contrast with other works o Do not leave out negative data or data that do not fit the general pattern, instead try to explain them o Results not relevant to the argument or topic presented need not be included o Avoid vague statements there was a trend towards instead give statistical significance or some estimate of accuracy and precision of the data o Do not reconsider every part of the study in minute detail for your discussion o In your discussion, move from your results to literature, practice and theory o Assess validity of the results, relate to previous works, comment on significance & implications & future directions of study Conclusion o Answer to the objectives set in the beginning of the research o Reiteration of the important points of the research

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o May include recommendations and future directions for research (or separate) References/ Bibliography o List of sources cited in the work (APA, MLA) o Follow prescribed style format and order (alphabetical, chronological) Appendices o Raw Data o Gantt chart/ Time schedule o Budget Plan o Ethics, Informed Consent, Relevant Permits o Authors Resume

Outlining Outlining allows the researcher-writer to organize his thoughts and collate different references and ideas into their right place. A well-written outline helps to:

Show weak areas of your research-argument which require more information Schedule the work Give you an overall sense of direction of the research Define boundaries and logical subdivisions of the research Shows the relationship of your ideas Simple to complex Least important to most important (climax order) Least controversial to most controversial Most convincing to least convincing (or vice versa) Most interesting to least interesting

The following are some of the strategies to order your outline:

Steps for Outlining

1) Determine the audience, purpose, and thesis statement of your paper 2) Brainstorm for all ideas you wish to include 3) Cluster related ideas and place the key point as subsection heading 4) Arrange material falling under one category in a specific order 5) Identify important details and evidences for each key point 6) Ensure that all ideas follow the order and contribute to the thesis statement

An Approach to Style The style of writing of research papers is academic and serious in its tone and manner. It employs the formal language of schools and universities, of government and in legal documents. Formal English uses traditional grammar rules and is characterized by complex but varied sentence structures and an extensive vocabulary.
e.g.
The following recommendations are adapted from W. Strunk and E.B. Whites The Elements of Style (2000), Dr. Hamadas lecture during the OSSEI National Campus Journalism Seminar Workshop (2006) and a lecture by the author to the UST College of Science Journal (2009):

Personal Writing Style

1. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

2.

8.

Know your audience Place yourself in the background Write with nouns and verbs Revise and Rewrite Do not overwrite and be sparing in figures of speech Avoid the use of qualifiers, instead be specific (metric units) Use orthodox spelling and word usage Be clear, concise and consistent

Good Writing in English

Sentence Unity Keep consistency of grammatical structures Leaders do not command excellence; excellence is built by them.

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Good planning helps to make elusive dreams came true. Avoid choppy sentences The student studied very well. He got the highest score in class. His grade was 99. Avoid fragments When the students attended the lecture on research. Sentence Coherence Avoid misplaced or dangling modifiers The terrorist was described as a tall man with a heavy mustache weighing 170 pounds. Avoid split constructions Look to, before crossing the street, the left and to the right. Use correct pronoun reference To all dog-owners: Tie them. Use transitional devices You start something. Finish it. (If) Sentence Emphasis Place important words in strong positions Recency over Primacy Love is patient and kind, as the Biblical verse goes. Arrange ideas in logical order To qualify for a job, you have to be morally upright, physically fit and mentally stable. Repeat important words and ideas Democracy is a government of, for, and by the people Use periodic sentences The people perish where there is no vision. Sentence Conciseness Avoid wordy expressions In the last act of the play is the explanation of the title of the play. Avoid fine writing Revenue enhancers can be paid through the nearest financial institution. Sentence Variety Vary Sentence Forms and Arrangements I know these facts to be true. Vary the beginning of your sentences Sen. Noynoy Mar and Sen. Loren Madrigal were detained by the Commission on Human Rights yesterday.

Some Conventions of Technical Writing (Style Guides)

1. Spell out figures one to nine. 10 and above as Arabic numeral. Exceptions exist. 2. Foreign words are italicized. Scientific names are thus written Mussaenda ustii. Subsequent
mention of the same species may be abbreviated as M. ustii, if no confusion exists with other genera. The author to a scientific name should be mentioned in taxonomic works, e.g. Craterium retisporum G Moreno & SL Stephenson. Spell out the word on first mention, then followed by the acronym in parentheses, use the acronym for later references in the copy The abstract uses the past tense. Theories that hold generally true are put in the present tense. Methods and Results are in the past tense. Discussions often alternate between past tense ("we found that") and present tense ("our results are consistent with"). Common names and systematic names exist for chemical compounds (IUPAC), enzymes (IUBMB) and the like. The systematic names are unique and immediately identify the compound and are therefore preferred for technical papers in the field.

3. 4. 5.

Citing References APA (American Psychological Association) Style Short In-text Quotations o placed in quotation marks o indicate author (year) page number

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e.g. Dagamac (2010) states (p. 199) Cite all authors If more than 5, use et al. Long In-text Quotations (>40 words) o Omit quotation marks but indent Summary and Paraphrase o Omit page number Reference Section o Alphabetical order of cited references o o

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number (issue number), pages. dela Cruz, T.E., Kuhn, R., Javier, A.O., Parra, C.M. & Quimio, T.H. (2009) Status of the Myxomycete Collection at the UP-LB-Museum of Natural History (UP-LB-MNH) Mycological herbarium. Philippine Journal of Systematic Biology, 3 (1), 97-111. Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher. Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Online Periodical, volume number (issue number if available). Retrieved from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/

o o o o

Ethical Considerations in Research Ethical guidelines for research were born in scandal and reared in protectionism. -Carol Levine, 1988
1749-1823: Edward Jenner who discovered smallpox used his son and neighborhood children to test smallpox vaccine Dr. Richard Strong, Harvard professor of Tropical Medicine experimented with cholera on prisoners in the Philippines killing 13 1932-1972: Tuskegee Syphilis study

Many ethical guidelines were since then established as a response to the many atrocities in research committed throughout the history of research. Many of these guidelines (Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, Belmont Report, Good Clinical Practice) revolve around the following basic principles: Beneficence, Non-maleficence, Justice, and Respect for Person. The ethical aspect of research is a realization of the final cause of research to contribute to the common good of man and the environment. Applications of the aforementioned ethical principles include: Research must be scientifically valid Truthfulness in the writing of results Researchers must be competent No unfounded claims of originality or first report cases Acceptable risk-benefit assessment No fitting the trend or statistical Full knowledge and Informed Consent manipulation of study participants Researchers should have no conflict of Confidentiality interest Research should be subject to independent peer-review Requirements of Researchers, Reviewers, Authors Must have integrity, honesty, objectivity Must not commit scientific misconduct including fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism Authorship Authorship in scientific research works rarely results to big money but rather it brings prestige, promotions and grants for future research. It is thus no surprise that authorship is sometimes awarded for the sake of pakikisama, for easy funding or for possible inclusion into a journal. (adapted from
Philippine Health Research Ethics Board and guidelines by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors)

Criteria for Authorship: Substantial contribution to the conception and design of the project, or the data analysis and interpretation the drafting or revising of the article

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The following are not to be regarded as grounds for inclusion as authors: acquisition of funding collection of data general supervision Authors, especially the corresponding authors/principal investigators, assume public responsibility for the integrity and truthfulness of the whole scientific paper. References and Suggested Readings:
Alora, A.T. (2006) Bioethics for Students. Manila: University of Santo Tomas Publishing House From Beaglehole, R., Bonita, R. & Kjellstrm, T. (1993) Basic Epidemiology. Geneva: World Health Organization Butler, P.A., & Khanna, J. (1992) Guidelines for Writing a Scientific Paper. Geneva: World Health Organization. Online available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1992/HRP_SW_1992.pdf Calimag, M.P., Cuevas, B.M., Delos Santos, N.C., Gonzaga, M.G.G., Inocencio, A.P., Regal, M.A. & Sison, J.M. (2007) Research Methodology. (Clinical Epidemiology I Module) Manila: UST Faculty of Medicine and Surgery Forlini, G., Bauer, M.B., Biener, L., Capo, L., Kenyon, K.M., Shaw, D.H., Verner, Z. (2002) Grammar and Composition 4. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Greenberg, R.S., Daniels, S.R., Flanders, W.D., Eley, J.W. & Boring, J.R. (2000) Medical Epidemiology. McGrawHill/Appleton & Lange Hamada, I.B. (2006) Good Writing in English. OSSEI National Campus Journalism Lecture handouts Strunk, W. & White, E.B (2000) The Elements of Style. 4th Ed. Boston: Pearson Longman Tischler, M. (nd) Scientific Writing Booklet. http://www.biochem.arizona.edu/marc/Sci-Writing.pdf International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (1991) Uniform Requirements for manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals. The New England Journal of Medicine. 324(6): 424-428 Available online at http://www.icmje.org/index.html Waldhorn, A. & Zeiger, A. (1972) English Made Simple. London: W.H. Allen & Co. Ltd.