Xiao-Gang Wen - An Introduction of Topological Order

An introduction of topological order
Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT

June 29, 2010
Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT An introduction of topological order
Some interesting condensed matter systems
Liquid Crystal
Magnets and hard drive
Crystals and semiconductors (transistor and LED)
Nobel Prize 1956: Shockley, Bardeen, Brattain 1998: Kohn
Superconductors
Nobel Prize 1913: Onnes 1987: Bednorz, Mueller
Phases = symmetry breakings (pattern Formation)
A A
B B

g g
c
g

A
Cauliower Diusion Convection
A new chapter in condensed matter physics
Quantum Hall eect (quantized to 1 10
9
)
V =
xy
I
Nobel Prize 1985: Klitzing 1998: Tsui, Stormer, Laughlin
All Quantum Hall states have the same symmetry and
cannot be described by symmetry breaking
What are (quantum) phases?
Hamiltonian of N-particles and its ground state:
H(g
1
, g
2
) =
N
i =1
1
2
(
2
x
i
+
2
y
i
) +
i <j
V
g
1
,g
2
(x
i
x
j
, y
i
y
j
)
H(g
1
, g
2
)
g
1
,g
2
(x
1
, y
1
, ..., x
N
, y
N
) = E
grnd
(g
1
, g
2
)
g
1
,g
2
(x
1
, y
1
, ..., x
N
, y
N
)
As we change g
1
, g
2
, the ground states
g
1
,g
2
can some time have
similar properties same phase, or
very dierent properties dierent phases.
More precisely, phases are dened through phase transitions.
What are phase transitions?
As we change a parameter g
1
, g
2
in Hamil-
tonian H(g
1
, g
2
), if the average of ground
state energy per particle E
grnd
(g
1
, g
2
)/N
have a singularity in N limit the
system has a phase transition.
B
A
C
g
1
g
2
What are (quantum) phases?
Hamiltonian of N-particles and its ground state:
H(g
1
, g
2
) =
N
i =1
1
2
(
2
x
i
+
2
y
i
) +
i <j
V
g
1
,g
2
(x
i
x
j
, y
i
y
j
)
H(g
1
, g
2
)
g
1
,g
2
(x
1
, y
1
, ..., x
N
, y
N
) = E
grnd
(g
1
, g
2
)
g
1
,g
2
(x
1
, y
1
, ..., x
N
, y
N
)
As we change g
1
, g
2
, the ground states
g
1
,g
2
can some time have
similar properties same phase, or
very dierent properties dierent phases.
More precisely, phases are dened through phase transitions.
What are phase transitions?
As we change a parameter g
1
, g
2
in Hamil-
tonian H(g
1
, g
2
), if the average of ground
state energy per particle E
grnd
(g
1
, g
2
)/N
have a singularity in N limit the
system has a phase transition.
B
A
C
g
1
g
2
Classify quantum states of matter
Classify quantum states of matter =
classify complex function of N = variables (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
N
),
(which are ground state wave functions of local Hamiltonians).
Classify ideal ground state wave functions for ideal Hamiltonians.
A
C
g
1
g
2
B
Classify quantum states of matter
Classify quantum states of matter =
classify complex function of N = variables (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
N
),
(which are ground state wave functions of local Hamiltonians).
Classify ideal ground state wave functions for ideal Hamiltonians.
A
C
g
1
g
2
B
Fractional quantum Hall (FQH) states
N-electrons in a magnetic eld (choose B = 1 and z = x + iy):
H(g
1
, g
2
) =
N
i =1
(
z

B
4
z
)(
z
+
B
4
z) +
i <j
V
g
1
,g
2
(x
i
x
j
, y
i
y
j
)
When V
g
1
,g
2
= 0, there are many minimal energy wave functions
= P(z
1
, , z
N
)e
1
4
N
i =1
z
i
z
i
, P = a (anti-)symmetric polynomial
all have zero energy (for any P):
_
N
i =1
(
z

B
4
z
)(
z
+
B
4
z)
_
P(z
1
, , z
N
)e
1
4
N
i =1
z
i
z
i
= 0
For small non-zero V
g
1
,g
2
, there is only one minimal energy wave
function P whose form is determined by V
g
1
,g
2
.
Three FQH states: the exact zero-energy ground states
= 1/2 Laughlin state: z
1
z
2
, second-order zero
P
1/2
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
, V
1/2
(z
1
, z
2
) = (z
1
z
2
),
[
i <j
V
1/2
(z
i
z
j
)]P
1/2
= 0.
All other states have nite energies in N limit (gapped).
1
z
2
, fourth-order zero
P
1/4
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
4
V
1/4
(z
1
, z
2
) = v
0
(z
1
z
2
) + v
2
2
z
1
(z
1
z
2
)
2
z
1
= 1 Pfaan state: z
1
z
2
, no zero; z
1
z
2
z
3
, second-order zero;
P
Pf
= /
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

1
z
N1
z
N
_
i <j
(z
i
z
j
) = Pf(
1
z
i
z
j
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
V
Pf
(z
1
, z
2
, z
3
) = o[v
0
(z
1
z
2
)(z
2
z
3
) v
1
(z
1
z
2
)
z
3
(z
2
z
3
)
z
3
]
1
z
2
, second-order zero
P
1/2
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
, V
1/2
(z
1
, z
2
) = (z
1
z
2
),
[
i <j
V
1/2
(z
i
z
j
)]P
1/2
= 0.
1
z
2
, fourth-order zero
P
1/4
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
4
V
1/4
(z
1
, z
2
) = v
0
(z
1
z
2
) + v
2
2
z
1
(z
1
z
2
)
2
z
1
= 1 Pfaan state: z
1
z
2
, no zero; z
1
z
2
z
3
P
Pf
= /
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

1
z
N1
z
N
_
i <j
(z
i
z
j
) = Pf(
1
z
i
z
j
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
V
Pf
(z
1
, z
2
, z
3
) = o[v
0
(z
1
z
2
)(z
2
z
3
) v
1
(z
1
z
2
)
z
3
(z
2
z
3
)
z
3
]
1
z
2
, second-order zero
P
1/2
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
, V
1/2
(z
1
, z
2
) = (z
1
z
2
),
[
i <j
V
1/2
(z
i
z
j
)]P
1/2
= 0.
1
z
2
, fourth-order zero
P
1/4
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
4
V
1/4
(z
1
, z
2
) = v
0
(z
1
z
2
) + v
2
2
z
1
(z
1
z
2
)
2
z
1
= 1 Pfaan state: z
1
z
2
, no zero; z
1
z
2
z
3
P
Pf
= /
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

1
z
N1
z
N
_
i <j
(z
i
z
j
) = Pf(
1
z
i
z
j
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
V
Pf
(z
1
, z
2
, z
3
) = o[v
0
(z
1
z
2
)(z
2
z
3
) v
1
(z
1
z
2
)
z
3
(z
2
z
3
)
z
3
]
Dierent FQH phases
The three many-body wave functions P
1/2
, P
1/4
, and P
Pf
have
qualitatively dierent properties and belong to three dierent
phases.
The densities of gapped FQH states are quantized as
rational-number (lling fraction)
1
2
:
e
=
_
d
2
z
2
...d
2
z
N
[P(z
1
, z
2
, ..., z
N
)[
2
e
1
2
|z
i
|
2
_
d
2
z
1
d
2
z
2
...d
2
z
N
[P(z
1
, z
2
, ..., z
N
)[
2
e
1
2
|z
i
|
2
=
1
2
P
1
=
(z
i
z
j
) = 1.
P
1/2
=
(z
i
z
j
)
2
= 1/2,
P
1/4
=
(z
i
z
j
)
4
= 1/4,
P
Pf
= Pf(
1
z
i
z
j
)
(z
i
z
j
) = 1.
is quantized as exact rational number in N limit.
Why = 1 for state
1
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)e
[z
i
[
2
/4
One-particle eigenstate (orbital) for H
0
=
(
z

B
4
z
)(
z
+
B
4
z):
z
l
e
1
4
|z|
2
a ring-like wave function with
r
l
=
2l and angular momentum l .

The = 1 many-fermion state is obtained by lling the orbitals:
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)e
1
4
|z
i
|
2
= /[(z
1
)
0
(z
2
)
1
...]e
1
4
|z
i
|
2
Empty
Filled
l electrons within radius r
l
one electron per r
2
l
/l = 2 area.
= 1.
Why = 1/m for state
1/m
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
m
e
[z
i
[
2
/4
Consider the joint probability distribution of electron positions:
p(z
1
z
N
)
1/m
(z
1
z
N
)
2
= e
2m
i <j
ln
[
z
i
z
j
[
m
2
i
|z
i
|
2
= e
V(z
1
z
N
)
Choosing T =
1
=
m
2
, we can view
V = m
2
i <j
ln [z
i
z
j
[ +
m
4
i
[z
i
[
2
as the potential for a two-dimensional plasma of charge m
particles.
Each charge m particle in the plasma sees a potential
(z) = [z[
2
/4, which can be viewed as the potential produced by a
uniform background charge distribution with charge density
= 1/2.
The plasma must be charge neutral: m
e
+
= 0
e
=
1
m
1
2
.
Fractional charge
A hole-like excitation = missing an electron, charge = 1
i
( z
i
)
m
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
m
e
|z
i
|
2
/4
A quasi-hole excitation = minimal excitation, charge = 1/m
i
( z
i
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
m
e
|z
i
|
2
/4
m quasi-holes = a missing electron:
_
i
( z
i
)
m
=
i
( z
i
)
m
A direct calculation: p(z
i
) e
V
:
V = m
2
i <j
ln [z
i
z
j
[ m
i
ln [z
i
[ +
m
4
i
[z
i
[
2
Background charge density:
=
1
2
+ ()
Q

Fractional statistics = Berry phase of exch. quasi-holes
A quasi-hole excitation = an N-electron state parameterized by :
[
= [N(,
)]
1/2
i
( z
i
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
e
|z
i
|
2
/4
Berrys phase = phase change = a
d + a
e
i
=
[
+d
, a
= i
, a
= i
,
For unormalized state
i
( z
i
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
e
|z
i
|
2
/4
that
depends only on (holomorphic), the Berry connection (a
, a
)
can be calculated from the normalization N(,
) of the
holomorphic state:
a
=
i
2
ln[N(,
)], a
=
i
2
ln[N(,
)].
What is the Berry connection (a
, a
)?
We nd N(,
) = e
1
2m
||
2
Const., since [
[
2
= e
V
V = m
2
i <j
ln [z
i
z
j
[ m
i
ln [z
i
[ +
1
4
[[
2
+
m
4
i
[z
i
[
2
which is the total energy of a plasma of N charge-m particles at
z
i
and one charge-1 particle at .
Due to the screening, the average V does not depend on
does not depend on and is normalized.

We nd a
= i
1
4m
, a
= i
1
4m
which describes a uniform
magnetic eld.
Berrys phase for a loop:
_
C
(a
d + a
) = 2
Area encl. by C
2m
= 2 num. of encl. elec.
which one can see directly from the wave function
i
( z
i
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
e
|z
i
|
2
/4
.
Calculate fractional statistics: A hand-waving way
Berrys phase =2 x (encl. elec. 1/m)
Berrys phase =2 x encl. elec.

The Berry connection for two quasi-holes: The wave function
,
= N
1/2
i
( z
i
)
i
(
z
i
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
e
|z
i
|
2
/4
N(,
) = e
1
2m
(||
2
+|
|
2
)+
1
m
ln |
|
2
Const.
V = m
i
[ln [z
i
[ + ln
z
i

] +
1
4
[[[
2
+
2
] ln
m
2
i <j
ln [z
i
z
j
[ +
m
4
i
[z
i
[
2
a
= i
1
4m
i
2m
1

, a
= i
1
4m
+
i
2m
1

Calculate fractional statistics: A hand-waving way
Berrys phase =2 x (encl. elec. 1/m)
Berrys phase =2 x encl. elec.

The Berry connection for two quasi-holes: The wave function
,
= N
1/2
i
( z
i
)
i
(
z
i
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
e
|z
i
|
2
/4
N(,
) = e
1
2m
(||
2
+|
|
2
)+
1
m
ln |
|
2
Const.
V = m
i
[ln [z
i
[ + ln
z
i

] +
1
4
[[[
2
+
2
] ln
m
2
i <j
ln [z
i
z
j
[ +
m
4
i
[z
i
[
2
a
= i
1
4m
i
2m
1

, a
= i
1
4m
+
i
2m
1

Fractional statistics in = 1/m Laughlin state
Moving a quasi-hole around another: Berry phase =
encl. area
m

2
m
If we only look at the subleading term 2/m, exchanging two
quasi-holes = /m fractional statistics:
1

2
: [
1
,
2
e
i /m
[
2
,
1
.
The
encl. area
m
term the quasi-hole sees a unform magnetic eld
A quasi-hole = an anyon in magnetic eld.
Quasi-holes in the = 1 Pfaan state
Ground state: z
1
z
2
, no zero; z
1
z
2
z
3
Pf
= /
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

1
z
N1
z
N
_
= Pf
_
1
z
i
z
j
_
A charge-1 quasi-hole state
charge-1
=
( z
i
)/
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

1
z
N1
z
N
_
= /
_
( z
1
)( z
2
)
z
1
z
2
( z
3
)( z
4
)
z
3
z
4

_
= Pf
_
( z
i
)( z
j
)
z
i
z
j
_
A state with two charge-1/2 quasi-holes
()(
)
= /
_
( z
1
)(
z
2
) + (1 2)
z
1
z
2
( z
3
)(
z
4
) + (3 4)
z
3
z
4

_
= Pf
_
( z
i
)(
z
j
) + ( z
j
)(
z
i
)
z
i
z
j
_
How many states with four charge-1/2 quasi-holes?
One of the state with four charge-1/2 quasi-holes
P
(12)(34)
= Pf
_
(
1
z
i
)(
2
z
i
)(
3
z
j
)(
4
z
j
) + (i j )
z
i
z
j
_

= Pf
_
[12, 34]
z
i
z
j
z
i
z
j
_

The other two are P
(13)(14)
, P
(14)(23)
.
But only two linearly independent states. Using Nayak & Wilzcek
[12, 34]
z
i
z
j
[13, 24]
z
i
z
j
= (z
i
z
j
)
2
(
1
4
)(
2
3
) = z
2
ij
14
23
we nd (with z
12
= z
1
z
2
,
12
=
1
2
, etc)
P
(13)(24)
= /
_
[12, 34]
z
1
z
2
z
2
12
14
23
z
12
[12, 34]
z
3
z
4
z
2
34
14
23
z
34

_
= P
(12)(34)
N
pair
/
_
z
12
14
23
[12, 34]
z
3
z
4
z
34

_
How many states with four charge-1/2 quasi-holes?
One of the state with four charge-1/2 quasi-holes
P
(12)(34)
= Pf
_
(
1
z
i
)(
2
z
i
)(
3
z
j
)(
4
z
j
) + (i j )
z
i
z
j
_

= Pf
_
[12, 34]
z
i
z
j
z
i
z
j
_

The other two are P
(13)(14)
, P
(14)(23)
.
But only two linearly independent states. Using Nayak & Wilzcek
[12, 34]
z
i
z
j
[13, 24]
z
i
z
j
= (z
i
z
j
)
2
(
1
4
)(
2
3
) = z
2
ij
14
23
we nd (with z
12
= z
1
z
2
,
12
=
1
2
, etc)
P
(13)(24)
= /
_
[12, 34]
z
1
z
2
z
2
12
14
23
z
12
[12, 34]
z
3
z
4
z
2
34
14
23
z
34

_
= P
(12)(34)
N
pair
/
_
z
12
14
23
[12, 34]
z
3
z
4
z
34

_
P
(12)(34)
P
(13)(24)
= N
pair
14
23
/
_
z
12
[12, 34]
z
3
z
4
z
34

_
Similarly
P
(12)(34)
P
(14)(23)
= N
pair
13
24
/
_
z
12
[12, 34]
z
3
z
4
z
34

_
So
P
(12)(34)
P
(13)(24)
14
23
=
P
(12)(34)
P
(14)(23)
13
24
Two states for four charge-1/2 quasiholes, even if we xed their
positions. The two states are topologically degenerate.
D
n
=
1
2
(
2)
n
states for n charge-1/2 quasiholes.
2 states per charge-1/2 quasihole !!!

Quantum dimension for the charge-1/2 quasihole d =
2
The charge-1/2 quasihole has a non-Abelian statistics.
For Abelian anyons d = 1.
What is non-Abelian statistics?
For n particles with non-Abelian statistics, there are D
n
degenerate
states even after we x the positions of the particle:
[,
1
, ...,
n
, = 1, ..., D
n
.
If we exchange two particles, say
1

2
, we induce a non-Abelian
Berry phase a unitary transformation U among the D
n
states:
1

2
: [,
1
,
2
, ...,
n

U
,
[,
2
,
1
, ...,
n
From the denition, it appears that The non-Abelian Berry phase

is not a property of the exchanged particles, but a property of all n
particles.
Do we have a local description/characterization of non-Abelian
Berry phase?
The answer is the R-matrix: we can choose a proper basis such
that U = R I
The mathematical theory to describe D
n
, R, U, ... is the unitary
modular tensor category theory.
n
degenerate
[,
1
, ...,
n
, = 1, ..., D
n
.
1

2
n
states:
1

2
: [,
1
,
2
, ...,
n

U
,
[,
2
,
1
, ...,
n

particles.
Berry phase?
that U = R I
n
n
degenerate
[,
1
, ...,
n
, = 1, ..., D
n
.
1

2
n
states:
1

2
: [,
1
,
2
, ...,
n

U
,
[,
2
,
1
, ...,
n

particles.
Berry phase?
that U = R I
n
Edge excitations and conformal eld theory
Incompressible liquid on compact space (sphere)
nite energy gap, and no low energy excitations.
A droplet of incompressible liquid can change its shape
gapless edge excitations.
Dispersion of edge excitations:
Ground state
(z
i
z
j
)
m
e
|z
i
|
2
/4
circular droplet
Empty
Filled
M
0
M ~ k
E
k
Edge excitations deformed droplet
Deformed droplet is formed by moving electron away from the
center
Edge excitations always have larger angular momentum than
ground state
Edge excitations always move in one direction along the edge
Edge excitations of ideal Hamiltonian
= 1/2 Laughlin state:
for ideal Hamiltonian V
1/2
(z
1
, z
2
) = (z
1
z
2
), the N electron
state P
1/2
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
, is the zero-energy state with minimal
total angular momentum (the order of z
i
s) M
0
= N(N 1).
Other zero-energy state is obtained by deforming the Laughlin
wave function without reducing the order of zeros.

edge
= P
sym
(z
i
)
1/2
where P
sym
is a symmetric polynomial,
such as
z
i
, (
z
i
)
2
,
z
2
i
, ...
M M
0
M
0
+ 1 M
0
+ 2 M
0
+ 3 M
0
+ 4
# of states 1 1 2 3 5
P
sym
1
z
i
(
z
i
)
2
... ...
z
2
i
... ...
Edge excitations of ideal Hamiltonian
= 1 Pfaan state: For ideal Hamiltonian
o[v
0
(z
1
z
2
)(z
2
z
3
) v
1
(z
1
z
2
)
z
3
(z
2
z
3
)
z
3
],
Pfa
= /
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

_
i <j
(z
i
z
j
), is the zero-energy state
with minimal total angular momentum.
Other zero-energy states are given by
edge
= P
sym
(z
i
)
Pfa
or
more generally
edge
= /
_
P
any
(z
i
)
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4
...
_
(z
i
z
j
),
where P
any
is any polynomial.
The counting is very dicult. Independent P
any
may generate
linearly dependent wave function.
M M
0
M
0
+ 1 M
0
+ 2 M
0
+ 3 M
0
+ 4
# of states 1 1 3 5 10
What kind of theory produce the above spectrum?
Low energy eective theory of edge excitations
The = 1/m state
1/m
=
(z
i
z
j
)
m
.
edge excitations = edge waves
edge phonons after quantization.
Displacement h 1D edge density = h
2D
.
FQH bulk
h
k
E
Chiral phonon
Conning electric eld induces edge current
j =
xy
z E,
xy
=
e
2
2
Electron drift velocity at the edge
v =
E
B
c
The wave equation for the propagating edge wave:
t
+ v
x
= 0, (x) = nh(x)
The Hamiltonian (i.e. the energy) of the edge waves:
H =
_
dx
1
2
eEh =
_
dx
v
2
In momentum space

k
= i vk
k
, H = 2
v
k>0
k
If we identify
k
[
k>0
as the coordinates and
k
= i 2
k
/k as
the corresponding canonical momenta, then the standard
Hamiltonian equation
q =
H
p
, p =
H
q
will reproduce the equation of motion
k
= i vk
k
The phase-space Lagrangian:
L =
_
dx
x

_
dx
v

2
=
m
4
_
dx
x
(
t
v
x
),
=
1
2

Quantization: view
k
and
k
as operators that satisfy
[
k
,
k
] = i
kk
. After quantization we have
[
k
,
k
] =

2
k
k+k
, k, k
= integer
2
L
H = 2
v
k>0
k
M M
0
M
0
+ 1 M
0
+ 2 M
0
+ 3
# of states 1 1 2 3
phonons ...
...
Edge excitations and current/vertex algebra
[
k
,
k
] = k

2
k+k
dene the U(1) current algebra. The
representation of the U(1) current algebra produces the edge
spectrum 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ... of the = 1/m Laughlin state.
With the Hamiltonian H =
k>0
2v
k
it denes a U(1) vertex
algebra: vertex operator (x, t) =
k

k
e
i k(xvt)
,
(x, t)(0, 0) =
1
(2)
2
m
1
(xvt)
2
, (x, t)(0, 0) =
1
m
ln(x vt).
The operator product expansion of the vertex operator (z)
(z
)(z) =
C
(zz
)
2
[1 + (z z
)O(z) + ], z = x + i v
The conformal dimension h
= [] = 1, h
O
= [O] = 1.
Electron operators and their correlations
An electron operator
e
(x
0
) create a charge density (x
0
x)
[(x),
e
(x
0
)] = (x
0
x)
e
(x
0
)
e
(x) = e
im(x)

e
(z)
e
(z
) = e
i m(z)
e
i m(z
)

1
(zz
)
m
.
The OPE of e
i m(x)
: e
i m(z)
e
i m(z
1
(zz
)
m
+
The conformal dimension of
e
: h
e
= [
e
] = m/2.
More general vertex algebra
What vertex algebra generates the spectrum of the = 1 Pfaan
state?
M M
0
M
0
+ 1 M
0
+ 2 M
0
+ 3 M
0
+ 4
# of states 1 1 3 5 10
Summary
Dierent interaction V(z
i
z
j
) in
H =
N
i =1
(
z

B
4
z
)(
z
+
B
4
z) +
i <j
V
(
z
i
z
j
)
dierent FQH states:
z
1
z
2
, second-order zero P
1/2
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
.
z
1
z
2
, fourth-order zero P
1/4
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
4
.
z
1
z
2
, no zero; z
1
z
2
z
3
P
Pf
= /
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

1
z
N1
z
N
_
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
dierent fractional charges/statistics, edge excitations,etc .
How to understand other FQH states?
How to systematically label them?
Summary
Dierent interaction V(z
i
z
j
) in
H =
N
i =1
(
z

B
4
z
)(
z
+
B
4
z) +
i <j
V
(
z
i
z
j
)
dierent FQH states:
z
1
z
2
, second-order zero P
1/2
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
.
z
1
z
2
, fourth-order zero P
1/4
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
4
.
z
1
z
2
, no zero; z
1
z
2
z
3
P
Pf
= /
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

1
z
N1
z
N
_
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
dierent fractional charges/statistics, edge excitations,etc .
How to understand other FQH states?
How to systematically label them?
Pattern of zeros
Let z
i
=
i
+ z
(a)
, i = 1, 2, , a
P(z
i
) =
S
a
P(
1
, ...,
a
; z
(a)
, z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) + O(
S
a
+1
)
The sequence of integers S
a
characterizes the polynomial
P(z
i
) and is called the pattern of zeros.
= 1/2 Laughlin state S
1
, S
2
, : 0, 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, 56, .
Unique fusion cond.: P does not depend on the shape
i
P(
i
; z
(a)
, z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) P(z
(a)
, z
a+1
, z
a+2
, )
Pattern of zeros and orbital/occupation distribution
S
N
is the total power of z
i
if the polynomial has N variables.
Relation to monomial symmetric polynomial (highest weight?):
Let l
a
= S
a
S
a1
or S
a
=
a
i =1
l
i
, then
P(z
i
) o[z
l
1
1
z
l
2
2
] + , = m
{l
1
,l
2
,...}
(z
i
, .., z
N
) + ...
The pattern of zero of = 1/2 Laughlin state is also described by
l
1
, l
2
, : 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
n
0
n
1
n
2
: 1010101010101010
Pattern of zeros
Let z
i
=
i
+ z
(a)
, i = 1, 2, , a
P(z
i
) =
S
a
P(
1
, ...,
a
; z
(a)
, z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) + O(
S
a
+1
)
a
characterizes the polynomial
P(z
i
) and is called the pattern of zeros.
= 1/2 Laughlin state S
1
, S
2
, : 0, 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, 56, .
Unique fusion cond.: P does not depend on the shape
i
P(
i
; z
(a)
, z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) P(z
(a)
, z
a+1
, z
a+2
, )
Pattern of zeros and orbital/occupation distribution
S
N
is the total power of z
i
if the polynomial has N variables.
Relation to monomial symmetric polynomial (highest weight?):
Let l
a
= S
a
S
a1
or S
a
=
a
i =1
l
i
, then
P(z
i
) o[z
l
1
1
z
l
2
2
] + , = m
{l
1
,l
2
,...}
(z
i
, .., z
N
) + ...
The pattern of zero of = 1/2 Laughlin state is also described by
l
1
, l
2
, : 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
n
0
n
1
n
2
: 1010101010101010
z
l
e
1
4
|z|
2
, =
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)e
1
4
|z
i
|
2
= /[(z
1
)
0
(z
2
)
1
...]e
1
4
|z
i
|
2
Empty
Filled
i <j
(z
i
z
j
) = /[(z
1
)
0
(z
2
)
1
...] S
1
, S
2
, ... = 0, 1, 3, 6, 10, ...
l
1
, l
2
, : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, , n
0
n
1
n
2
: 111111111111
For P
1/2
:
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
=
_
/[(z
1
)
0
(z
2
)
1
(z
3
)
2
...]
_
2
S
1
, S
2
, ... = 0, 2, 6, 12, 20, ...
l
1
, l
2
, : 0, 2, 4, 6, 10, , n
0
n
1
n
2
: 101010101010
root monomial poly. = o[(z
1
)
0
(z
2
)
2
(z
3
)
4
...]
= 1/4 Laughlin state P
1/4
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
S
1
, S
2
, : 0, 4, 12, 24, 40, 60, 84,
l
1
, l
2
, : 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20,
n
0
n
1
n
2
: 100010001000100010001
1
)
0
(z
2
)
4
(z
3
)
8
...]
A cluster (unit cell): 1 particles 4 orbitals
= 1 Pfaan state P
Pf
= /
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

_
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
S
1
, S
2
, : 0, 0, 2, 4, 8, 12, 18, 24,
l
1
, l
2
, : 0, 0, 2, 2, 4, 4, 6, 6,
n
0
n
1
n
2
: 2020202020202020202
1
)
0
(z
2
)
0
(z
3
)
2
(z
4
)
2
(z
5
)
4
(z
6
)
4
...]
FQH 1D pattern (by considering FQH state on thin cylinder)
Haldane & Rezayi, 94; Seidel & Lee, 06; Bergholtz, Kailasvuori, Wikberg, Hansson, Karlhede, 06; Bernevig &
Haldane, 07
= 1/4 Laughlin state P
1/4
=
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
S
1
, S
2
, : 0, 4, 12, 24, 40, 60, 84,
l
1
, l
2
, : 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20,
n
0
n
1
n
2
: 100010001000100010001
1
)
0
(z
2
)
4
(z
3
)
8
...]
= 1 Pfaan state P
Pf
= /
_
1
z
1
z
2
1
z
3
z
4

_
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
S
1
, S
2
, : 0, 0, 2, 4, 8, 12, 18, 24,
l
1
, l
2
, : 0, 0, 2, 2, 4, 4, 6, 6,
n
0
n
1
n
2
: 2020202020202020202
1
)
0
(z
2
)
0
(z
3
)
2
(z
4
)
2
(z
5
)
4
(z
6
)
4
...]
FQH 1D pattern (by considering FQH state on thin cylinder)
Haldane & Rezayi, 94; Seidel & Lee, 06; Bergholtz, Kailasvuori, Wikberg, Hansson, Karlhede, 06; Bernevig &
Haldane, 07
A classication problem
We have seen that
each symmetric polynomial P(z
i
) S
a
a pattern of zeros.
But each sequence of integers S
a
, P(z
i
)
Find all the conditions a sequence S
a
must satisfy, such that
S
a
describe a symmetric polynomial that satises the unique
fusion condition.
A classication of symmetric polynomials (FQH states) through
pattern of zeros.
Derived polynomials
Let z
1
, ..., z
a
z
(a)
P(z
i
) =
S
a
P
derived
(z
(a)
, z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) + O(
S
a
+1
)
we get a derived polynomial P
derived
(z
(a)
, z
(b)
, z
(c)
, ).
Zeros in derived polynomials D
a,b
P
derived
(z
(a)
, z
(b)
, z
(c)
, ) (z
(a)
z
(b)
)
D
a,b
P
derived
(z
(a+b)
...) +
also characterize the pattern of zeros.
The data D
a,b
and S
a
are related:
D
a,b
= S
a+b
S
a
S
b
.
Derived polynomials
Let z
1
, ..., z
a
z
(a)
P(z
i
) =
S
a
P
derived
(z
(a)
, z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) + O(
S
a
+1
)
derived
(z
(a)
, z
(b)
, z
(c)
, ).
a,b
P
derived
(z
(a)
, z
(b)
, z
(c)
, ) (z
(a)
z
(b)
)
D
a,b
P
derived
(z
(a+b)
...) +
The data D
a,b
and S
a
are related:
D
a,b
= S
a+b
S
a
S
b
.
Derived polynomials
Let z
1
, ..., z
a
z
(a)
P(z
i
) =
S
a
P
derived
(z
(a)
, z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) + O(
S
a
+1
)
derived
(z
(a)
, z
(b)
, z
(c)
, ).
a,b
P
derived
(z
(a)
, z
(b)
, z
(c)
, ) (z
(a)
z
(b)
)
D
a,b
P
derived
(z
(a+b)
...) +
The data D
a,b
and S
a
are related:
D
a,b
= S
a+b
S
a
S
b
.
Conditions on pattern of zeros ground state
Concave conditions
2
(a, b) S
a+b
S
a
S
b
= D
a,b
0,
3
(a, b, c) S
a+b+c
S
a+b
S
b+c
S
a+c
+ S
a
+ S
b
+ S
c
0
The second one comes from
D
a+b,c
D
a,c
+ D
b,c
which can be shown by considering P
derived
(z
(a)
, z
(b)
, z
(c)
, ) as a
function of z
(c)
a+b,c
z z
(a) (b)
D
a,c
b,c
D
D
Concave conditions
2
(a, b) S
a+b
S
a
S
b
= D
a,b
0,
3
(a, b, c) S
a+b+c
S
a+b
S
b+c
S
a+c
+ S
a
+ S
b
+ S
c
0
D
a+b,c
D
a,c
+ D
b,c
derived
(z
(a)
, z
(b)
, z
(c)
, ) as a
function of z
(c)
a+b,c
z z
(a) (b)
D
a,c
b,c
D
D
Concave conditions
2
(a, b) S
a+b
S
a
S
b
= D
a,b
0,
3
(a, b, c) S
a+b+c
S
a+b
S
b+c
S
a+c
+ S
a
+ S
b
+ S
c
0
D
a+b,c
D
a,c
+ D
b,c
derived
(z
(a)
, z
(b)
, z
(c)
, ) as a
function of z
(c)
a+b,c
z z
(a) (b)
D
a,c
b,c
D
D
n-cluster condition: No o-particle zeros when c = n (or the wave
function for the n-clusters is the Laughlin wave function)
D
a+b,n
= D
a,n
+ D
b,n

S
a+kn
= S
a
+ kS
n
+
k(k 1)nm
2
+ kma
Since S
1
= 0, (m, S
2
, , S
n
) carries all the information about the
pattern of zeros from an n-cluster symmetric polynomial.
Additional conditions
2
(a, a) = even, m > 0, mn = even, 2S
n
= 0 mod n.
A mysterious condition (the one we want but cannot prove):
3
(a, b, c) = even
(m; S
2
, , S
n
) that satisfy the above conditions correspond to
good symmetric polynomials. Those (m; S
2
, , S
n
) classify
symmetric polynomials and FQH states (with = n/m).
D
a+b,n
= D
a,n
+ D
b,n

S
a+kn
= S
a
+ kS
n
+
k(k 1)nm
2
+ kma
Since S
1
= 0, (m, S
2
, , S
n
2
n
= 0 mod n.
3
(a, b, c) = even
(m; S
2
, , S
n
2
, , S
n
) classify
D
a+b,n
= D
a,n
+ D
b,n

S
a+kn
= S
a
+ kS
n
+
k(k 1)nm
2
+ kma
Since S
1
= 0, (m, S
2
, , S
n
2
n
= 0 mod n.
3
(a, b, c) = even
(m; S
2
, , S
n
2
, , S
n
) classify
D
a+b,n
= D
a,n
+ D
b,n

S
a+kn
= S
a
+ kS
n
+
k(k 1)nm
2
+ kma
Since S
1
= 0, (m, S
2
, , S
n
2
n
= 0 mod n.
3
(a, b, c) = even
(m; S
2
, , S
n
2
, , S
n
) classify
Primitive solutions for pattern of zeros
The conditions are semi-linear
if (m; S
2
, , S
n
) and (m
; S
2
, , S
n
) are solutions, then
(m
; S
2
, , S
n
) = (m; S
2
, , S
n
) + (m
; S
2
, , S
n
) is also a
solution P
(z
i
) = P(z
i
)P
(z
i
)
1-cluster state: = 1/m Laughlin state
P
1/m
: S = (m; ),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (1, 0, , 0).
2-cluster state: Pfaan state (Z
2
parafermion state)
P2
2
;Z
2
: (m; S
2
) = (2; 0),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (2, 0)
3-cluster state: Z
3
parafermion state
P3
2
;Z
3
: (m; S
2
, S
3
) = (2; 0, 0),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (3, 0)
Primitive solutions for pattern of zeros
The conditions are semi-linear
if (m; S
2
, , S
n
) and (m
; S
2
, , S
n
) are solutions, then
(m
; S
2
, , S
n
) = (m; S
2
, , S
n
) + (m
; S
2
, , S
n
) is also a
solution P
(z
i
) = P(z
i
)P
(z
i
)
1-cluster state: = 1/m Laughlin state
P
1/m
: S = (m; ),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (1, 0, , 0).
2-cluster state: Pfaan state (Z
2
parafermion state)
P2
2
;Z
2
: (m; S
2
) = (2; 0),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (2, 0)
3-cluster state: Z
3
parafermion state
P3
2
;Z
3
: (m; S
2
, S
3
) = (2; 0, 0),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (3, 0)
4-cluster state: Z
4
parafermion state
P4
2
;Z
4
: (m; S
2
, , S
n
) = (2; 0, 0, 0),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (4, 0),
5-cluster states: Z
5
(generalized) parafermion state
P5
2
;Z
5
: (m; S
2
, , S
n
) = (2; 0, 0, 0, 0),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (5, 0)
P
5
8
;Z
(2)
5
: (m; S
2
, , S
n
) = (8; 0, 2, 6, 10),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (2, 0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0)
6-cluster state:
P6
2
;Z
6
: (m; S
2
, , S
n
) = (2; 0, 0, 0, 0, 0),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (6, 0)
7-cluster states:
P7
2
;Z
7
: (m; S
2
, , S
n
) = (2; 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (7, 0)
P
7
8
;Z
(2)
7
: (m; S
2
, , S
n
) = (8; 0, 0, 2, 6, 10, 14),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (3, 0, 1, 0, 3, 0, 0, 0)
P
7
18
;Z
(3)
7
: (m; S
2
, , S
n
) = (18; 0, 4, 10, 18, 30, 42),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
P 7
14
;C
7
: (m; S
2
, , S
n
) = (14; 0, 2, 6, 12, 20, 28),
(n
0
, , n
m1
) = (2, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
Also get composite parafermion state P = P
Z
n
1
P
Z
n
2
How good is the pattern-of-zero classication
Not so good :-(
Every symm. poly. P corresponds to a unique pattern of zero S
a
.
Only some patterns of zero correspond to a unique symm. poly.
It appears that all the primitive patterns of zero correspond to a
unique symm. poly.
It is known that
some composite patterns of zero a unique symm. polynomial
some composite patterns of zero several symm. polynomials
So in general, we need more information than n; m; S
a
to
fully characterize symmetry polynomial of innite variables
Topological properties from pattern of zeros
For those patterns of zeros that uniquely characterize a FQH wave
function, we should be able to calculate the topological properties
of FQH states from the data (n; m; S
2
, , S
n
).
We have seen that = n/m.
Topological degeneracy on torus (and other Riemann surface)
Number of quasiparticle types
Quasiparticle charges
Quasiparticle scaling dimensions
Quasiparticle fusion algebra
Quasiparticle statistics (Abelian and non-Abelian)
The counting of edge excitations (central charge c and spectrum)
2
, , S
n
).
2
, , S
n
).
Topological degeneracy
Symmetric polynomial FQH state on plane sphere.
Holomorphic function with quasiperiodic bound condition in x- and
y-directions FQH state on torus.
How many holomorphic functions with a pattern of zero (n; m; S
a
)
can be put on a torus?
How many zero-energy states the ideal FQH Hamiltonian have on
a torus?
The ground state degeneracy is split for non-ideal Hamiltonian, but
is recovered in N limit even for non-ideal Hamiltonian!
So the ground state degeneracy in N limit is a new
quantum number that characterizes dierent states of
matter.
New quantum number new states of matter with
non-trivial topological order. Wen 89
A quasiparticle
A quasiparticle is a defect in the ground state wave function
P(z
i
). It is a place where we have more power of zeros.
For example:
Ground state
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
.
A quasiparticle state
i
(z
i
)
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
2
Density distribution of a quasiparticle state:
Q
The defect at is point-like and carries a charge Q.

The pattern of zeros for quasiparticles
P
(; z
i
) has a quasiparticle at z =
Let z
i
=
i
+ , i = 1, 2, , a (bring a electrons to the
quasiparticle)
P
(; z
i
) =
S
;a
P
(z
(a)
= , z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) + O(
S
a
+1
)
;a
characterizes the
quasiparticle .
S
a
correspond to the trivial quasiparticle = 0: S
0;a
= S
a
To nd the allowed quasiparticles, we simply need to nd

(i) the conditions that S
;a
must satisfy and
(ii) all the S
;a
that satisfy those conditions.
P
(; z
i
Let z
i
=
i
quasiparticle)
P
(; z
i
) =
S
;a
P
(z
(a)
= , z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) + O(
S
a
+1
)
;a
characterizes the
quasiparticle .
S
a
0;a
= S
a

;a
must satisfy and
(ii) all the S
;a
P
(; z
i
Let z
i
=
i
quasiparticle)
P
(; z
i
) =
S
;a
P
(z
(a)
= , z
a+1
, z
a+2
, ) + O(
S
a
+1
)
;a
characterizes the
quasiparticle .
S
a
0;a
= S
a

;a
must satisfy and
(ii) all the S
;a
Conditions on S
;a
Concave condition
S
;a+b
S
;a
S
b
0,
S
;a+b+c
S
;a+b
S
;a+c
S
b+c
+ S
;a
+ S
b
+ S
c
0
n-cluster condition
S
;a+kn
= S
;a
+ k(S
;n
+ ma) + mn
k(k 1)
2
(S
;1
, , S
;n
) determine all S
;a
.
Find all (S
;1
, , S
;n
) that satisfy that above conditions
obtain all the quasiparticles.
Conditions on S
;a
Concave condition
S
;a+b
S
;a
S
b
0,
S
;a+b+c
S
;a+b
S
;a+c
S
b+c
+ S
;a
+ S
b
+ S
c
0
n-cluster condition
S
;a+kn
= S
;a
+ k(S
;n
+ ma) + mn
k(k 1)
2
(S
;1
, , S
;n
) determine all S
;a
.
Find all (S
;1
, , S
;n
) that satisfy that above conditions
obtain all the quasiparticles.
For the = 1 Pfaan state (n = 2 and m = 2)
S
1
, S
2
, : 0, 0, 2, 4, 8, 12, 18, 24,
n
0
n
1
n
2
: 2020202020202020202
Quasiparticle solutions (S
;a
l
;a
n
;l
):
n
;0
n
;1
n
;2
: 2020202020202020202 Q
= 0
n
;0
n
;1
n
;2
: 0202020202020202020 Q
= 1
n
;0
n
;1
n
;2
: 1111111111111111111 Q
= 1/2
Unit cell: m orbitals + n electrons
All other quasiparticle solutions can obtained from the above three
by removing extra electrons only 3 quasiparticle types.
Ground state degeneracy on torus = number of quasiparticle types
Charge of quasiparticles
Q
=
1
m
n
a=1
(l
;a
l
a
)
S
1
, S
2
, : 0, 0, 2, 4, 8, 12, 18, 24,
n
0
n
1
n
2
: 2020202020202020202
;a
l
;a
n
;l
):
n
;0
n
;1
n
;2
: 2020202020202020202 Q
= 0
n
;0
n
;1
n
;2
: 0202020202020202020 Q
= 1
n
;0
n
;1
n
;2
: 1111111111111111111 Q
= 1/2
Q
=
1
m
n
a=1
(l
;a
l
a
)
S
1
, S
2
, : 0, 0, 2, 4, 8, 12, 18, 24,
n
0
n
1
n
2
: 2020202020202020202
;a
l
;a
n
;l
):
n
;0
n
;1
n
;2
: 2020202020202020202 Q
= 0
n
;0
n
;1
n
;2
: 0202020202020202020 Q
= 1
n
;0
n
;1
n
;2
: 1111111111111111111 Q
= 1/2
Q
=
1
m
n
a=1
(l
;a
l
a
)
1
[
2
=
_

d
2
z
i
P
(
1
; z
1
, ..., z
N
)e
|z
i
|
2
/4
P
(
2
; z
1
, ..., z
N
)e
|z
i
|
2
/4
2
R
2
_
2h
_
1
R
2
sin(/2)
_
2h
where R is the radius of the FQH disk

and 1 [
1,2
[ R R.
R

1
2
Can we calculate the quasiparticle scaling dimension h
from
S
a
, S
;a
?
May be not, since S
a
, S
;a
do not completely characterize the FQH
wave function.
Relation to Vertex algebra
P(z
i
) =
i
V
e
(z
i
), P
derived
(z
(a)
i
) =
i ,a
V
a
(z
(a)
i
)
V
a
(z) = (V
e
)
a
, V
a
V
b
= V
a+b
.
Z-graded vertex algebra:
V
a
(z)V
b
(w) =
C
ab
(z w)
h
a
+h
b
h
a+b
V
a+b
(w) + ...
A relation between the h
a
and S
a
(h
a
is the dimension of V
a
)
h
a+b
h
a
h
b
= D
a,b
= S
a+b
S
a
S
b
n-cluster condition implies that h
a
a
2
if a = 0 mod n.
h
a
= S
a
aS
n
n
+
am
2
More complete characterization of FQH wave functions
(symmetric polynomials) is given by (n; m; S
a
; C
ab
, ...).
Relation to Vertex algebra
P(z
i
) =
i
V
e
(z
i
), P
derived
(z
(a)
i
) =
i ,a
V
a
(z
(a)
i
)
V
a
(z) = (V
e
)
a
, V
a
V
b
= V
a+b
.
Z-graded vertex algebra:
V
a
(z)V
b
(w) =
C
ab
(z w)
h
a
+h
b
h
a+b
V
a+b
(w) + ...
A relation between the h
a
and S
a
(h
a
is the dimension of V
a
)
h
a+b
h
a
h
b
= D
a,b
= S
a+b
S
a
S
b
n-cluster condition implies that h
a
a
2
if a = 0 mod n.
h
a
= S
a
aS
n
n
+
am
2
More complete characterization of FQH wave functions
(symmetric polynomials) is given by (n; m; S
a
; C
ab
, ...).
Z
n
-vertex algebra
The Z-graded vertex algebra = Z
n
-vertex algebra U(1) current
algebra:
V
a
(z) =
a
(z)e
ia(z)
m/n
where j = generates the U(1) current algebra and
a
generates
the Z
n
-vertex algebra:
a
(z)
b
(w) =
C
ab
(z w)
h
sc
a
+h
sc
b
h
sc
a+b
a+b
(w) + ...
n
= 1, the n-cluster condition.
where the scaling dimension of
a
(z) is
h
sc
a
= h
a
a
2
m
2n
= S
a
aS
n
n
+
am
2

a
2
m
2n
, h
sc
a
= h
sc
a+n
Does the data (n; m; h
sc
a
, C
ab
, ...) completely characterize the
Z
n
-vertex algebra and symmetric polynomial?
Classify Z
n
-vertex algebra= classify symmetric polynomials
From the pattern-of-zero consideration, we get concave conditions
S
a
= h
sc
a
ah
sc
1
+
a(a 1)m
2n
= integer 0
h
sc
a+b
h
sc
a
h
sc
b
+
abm
n
= D
ab
= integer 0
h
sc
a+b+c
h
sc
a+b
h
sc
b+c
h
sc
a+c
+ h
sc
a
+ h
sc
b
+ h
sc
c
=
3
(a, b, c) = even integer 0
From the generalized Jacobi identity, we get a set a non-linear
equations for (h
sc
a
, C
ab
, ...)
Those condition may be sucient and necessary classication
of Z
n
-vertex algebra symmetric polynomials.
Using Z
n
-vertex algebra, we can calculate quasiparticle scaling
dimension, quasiparticle statistics, central charge (edge spectrum),
...
What really is topological order (beyond FQH)?
Topological order is an order for gapped quantum states.
Topological order is a kind of order that
- cannot be described by symmetry breaking
- cannot be described by long range correlations
- cannot be described by local order parameter
Hard to publish papers by describing what topological order is not.
But how to describe topological order in terms what it is?
Some basic issues for a theory of topological order
Characterize topo. order through experimental/numerical probe
(Dene topological order via physical characterization)
Calculate topological orders (ie their physical characterizations)
from ideal/generic ground state wave functions.
Calculate topological orders from Hamiltonian (or Lagrangian)
Classify and nd mathematical frame work of topological orders.
(Mathematical denition of topological order)
Mathematical denition of Topological order
E E
g g g g
E E
A general mechanism to cause singularity of
g
or
O for gapped
states: gap closing.
gapless
g
1
g
2
A
gapped
gapped
B
C gapped
A basic assumption:
Singularity of
g
or
O at g
c
= gap closing at g
c
Two gapped ground states, [(0) of H(0) and [(1) of H(1),
are in the same phase i we can nd a path H(g), 0 g 1
connecting H(0) and H(1) such that H(g) are all gapped.
A precise denition of quantum phases of matter:
Two gapped states, [(0) and [(1), are in the same phase i
they are related through a local unitary (LU) evolution
[(1) = P
_
e
i
1
0
dg

H(g
)
_
[(0)
where

H(g) =
i
O
i
(g) and O
i
(g) are local hermitian operators.
Hastings, Wen 05; Bravyi, Hastings, Michalakis 10
If two gapped states, [(0) and [(1), are in the same phase
exist gapped H(g) that connect the two states
the two states are related by a LU evolution generated by
H(g) = H(g)
If two gapped states, [(0) and [(1), are related by a LU
evolution generated by

H(g)
the two states are connected by H(g) = U(g)H(0)U
(g),
where U(g) = P
_
e
i
g
0
dg

H(g
)
_
LU evolution and quantum circuit
We can rewrite H as H = H
A
+ H
B
where the terms in H
A
act on
non-overlapping sites, and the terms in H
B
also act on
non-overlapping sites. For example, for H =
i
S
i
S
i +1
, we have
H
A
=
i =even
S
i
S
i +1
and H
B
=
i =od
S
i
S
i +1
.
e
i TH(g)
= e
i TH
A
(g)
e
i TH
B
(g)
e
i TH
A
(g)
and e
i TH
B
(g)
generate the local unitary
transformations.
A
i T H
B
i T H
e
e
U
i
1 2 l
...
[(1) = P
_
e
i T
1
0
dg H(g)
_
[(0)
= (local unitary transformation)[(0)
Topological order is a pattern of long range entanglement
The local unitary transformations dene an equivalence relation
A universality class of a quantum phase is an equivalent class of
the LU transformations
Two kinds of equivalent classes (phases) if no symmetries:
The trivial class: states equivalent to product state under LU
transformations. They belong to the same class (phase)
short-range entanglement and trivial topological order.
Non-trivial classes: states not equivalent to direct-product states.
Those states form many dierent equivalent classes (phases)
many patterns of long-range entanglements and many dierent
topological orders.
In absence of symmetry:
Quantum phases of matter
= patterns of long-range entanglement = topological orders
= equivalence classes of the LU transformations
Examples: FQH states
Topological order is a pattern of long range entanglement
The local unitary transformations dene an equivalence relation
A universality class of a quantum phase is an equivalent class of
the LU transformations
Two kinds of equivalent classes (phases) if no symmetries:
The trivial class: states equivalent to product state under LU
transformations. They belong to the same class (phase)
short-range entanglement and trivial topological order.
Non-trivial classes: states not equivalent to direct-product states.
Those states form many dierent equivalent classes (phases)
many patterns of long-range entanglements and many dierent
topological orders.
In absence of symmetry:
Quantum phases of matter
= patterns of long-range entanglement = topological orders
= equivalence classes of the LU transformations
Examples: FQH states
Symm. breaking orders and symm. protected topo. orders
If the Hamiltonian H has some symmetries, its phases will
correspond to equivalent classes of symmetric LU transformations:
[ P
_
e
i
1
0
dg

H(g)
_
[ where

H(g) has the same symmetries
as H.
g
1
2
g
2
g
SRE
LRE 1 LRE 2
SBSRE 1
SYSRE 1
SBLRE 1 SBLRE 2
SBSRE 2
SYSRE 2
SBLRE 3
SYLRE 1 SYLRE 2 SYLRE 3
1
g
(a) (b)
States with short range entanglement can belong to dierent
equivalent classes of symmetric LU transformations
Landaus symmetry breaking orders.
States with the same symmetry can belong to dierent equivalent
classes of symmetric LU transformations
symmetry protected topological orders.
Examples: Haldane phase and S
z
= 0 phase of spin-1 chain.
Band and topological insulators
Symm. breaking orders and symm. protected topo. orders
If the Hamiltonian H has some symmetries, its phases will
correspond to equivalent classes of symmetric LU transformations:
[ P
_
e
i
1
0
dg

H(g)
_
[ where

H(g) has the same symmetries
as H.
g
1
2
g
2
g
SRE
LRE 1 LRE 2
SBSRE 1
SYSRE 1
SBLRE 1 SBLRE 2
SBSRE 2
SYSRE 2
SBLRE 3
SYLRE 1 SYLRE 2 SYLRE 3
1
g
(a) (b)
States with short range entanglement can belong to dierent
equivalent classes of symmetric LU transformations
Landaus symmetry breaking orders.
States with the same symmetry can belong to dierent equivalent
classes of symmetric LU transformations
symmetry protected topological orders.
Examples: Haldane phase and S
z
= 0 phase of spin-1 chain.
Band and topological insulators
Local unitary trans. and wave function renormalization
The concept of support space
The total wave function (i , j , ..., a, b, ...) can be viewed as a wave
function on a region A:
a,b,...
(i , j , ...), where i , j , ... label states in
the region A and a, b, ... label states out side of the region A.
a,b,...
(i , j , ...) for all dierent a, b, ... span the support space 1
sp
A
of the region A.
The dimension of the support space is less then the total Hilbert
space 1
A
in A: 1
sp
A
1
A
The concept of generalized unitary transformation
A generalized unitary transformation U : 1
A
1
sp
A
shrinks the
degrees of freedom in A without loosing any quantum information.
It generates a wave function renormalization:
Vidal 07; Jordan, Orus, Vidal, Verstraete, Cirac 08; Jiang, Weng, Xiang 09; Gu, Levin, Wen 09
region A
U
Labeling topological orders
Topological order = pattern of long range entanglement
= equivalent class of LU transformations
How to label those equivalent classes?
We can use the wave function itself to label the topological
orders.
But this is a many-many to one labeling scheme.
Under the wave function renormalization, the wave function ows
to simpler one within the same equivalent class.
Use the xed-point wave function:
x
to label topological
order.
Hopefully
x
can give us a one-to-one labeling of topological
order, and a classication of topological order.
orders.
x
order.
Hopefully
x
orders.
x
order.
Hopefully
x
orders.
x
order.
Hopefully
x
Classify topological orders with xed-point LU trans.
But using xed-point wave function
x
to label topological orders
has one problem:
as we perform wave function renormalization, the number of
degrees of freedom and size/shape of lattice are changing. The
xed-point wave function
x
can never be xed.
3

U U U
1 3 2
1 2
The concept of xed-point state
A xed-point state is not one wave function, but a family of wave
functions,
n
, one wave function of each size/shape of lattice.
Fixed point does not mean the xed wave function.
It means a xed relation between those wave functions,
xed-point local unitary (LU) transformation, U
(lattice-2) = U
(lattice-1), (lattice-3) = U
(lattice-2)
Topological orders are classied by xed-point local unitary
transformations
Classify topological orders with xed-point LU trans.
But using xed-point wave function
x
to label topological orders
has one problem:
as we perform wave function renormalization, the number of
degrees of freedom and size/shape of lattice are changing. The
xed-point wave function
x
can never be xed.
3

U U U
1 3 2
1 2
The concept of xed-point state
A xed-point state is not one wave function, but a family of wave
functions,
n
, one wave function of each size/shape of lattice.
Fixed point does not mean the xed wave function.
It means a xed relation between those wave functions,
xed-point local unitary (LU) transformation, U
(lattice-2) = U
(lattice-1), (lattice-3) = U
(lattice-2)
Topological orders are classied by xed-point local unitary
transformations
The structure of xed-point states
To nd xed-point LU transformations, we need to rst have some
understanding of (or make some assumptions to) xed-point states.
Graphic state:
Fixed-point wave functions are dened on graphs, with N + 1
states on links and N
v
states on vertices:
i i*
=
v
1,...,N
k
j
i=0,...,N
n
m
l
Support space and support dimension with boundary:
j i
l
k
m
_
= (, , m, i , j , k, l ; ) =
i ,j ,k,l ,
(, , m)
Support space on m: V
ijkl
=
i ,j ,k,l ,
(, , m)[x ijkl , vary
Support dim.: D
ijkl
= dimV
ijkl
for the region bounded by ijkl .
Graphic state:
v
states on vertices:
i i*
=
v
1,...,N
k
j
i=0,...,N
n
m
l
j i
l
k
m
_
= (, , m, i , j , k, l ; ) =
i ,j ,k,l ,
(, , m)
ijkl
=
i ,j ,k,l ,
Support dim.: D
ijkl
= dimV
ijkl
Graphic state:
v
states on vertices:
i i*
=
v
1,...,N
k
j
i=0,...,N
n
m
l
j i
l
k
m
_
= (, , m, i , j , k, l ; ) =
i ,j ,k,l ,
(, , m)
ijkl
=
i ,j ,k,l ,
Support dim.: D
ijkl
= dimV
ijkl
The support dimensions of tree graphs
The support dimension of the
_
k j
i
_
on a region bounded by
links i , j , k: D
ijk
N
v
shrink the range = 1, ..., N
ijk
= D
ijk
(which depends on ijk).
Saturation condition: For =
_

j i
l
k
m
_
:
The support dimension D
ijkl
= The number of m =
m
N
jim
N
kml
Similar saturation condition for any tree region

=
_
_

j i
p
n
k l
m
_
_
D
ijklp
=
m,n
N
jim
N
mn
k
N
np
l
The rst kind of wave function renormalization: F-move
The xed-point wave functions are related by a xed LU trans.:
(graph-2) = U
(graph-1)
=
_

j i
l
k
m
_
and =
_

i j k
l
n
_
have the same support
dimension D
ijkl
=

D
ijkl

m
N
jim
N
kml
=
n
N
kjn
N
l
ni
N
ijkl
The two wave functions are related by a LU trans. Leven, Wen, 04

F-move:
_

j i
l
m
k
_
=
N
n=0
N
kjn
=1
N
nil
=1
F
ijm,
kln,

_

i j k
l
n
_
The matrix F
ij
kl
(F
ij
kl
)
m,
n,
is unitary and has a dimension N
ijkl
.
The pentagon identity
j i
p
n
m
l k
can be trans. to
j i
q
s
p
l k
through two dierent paths:
j i
p
n
m
l k
_
=
q,,
F
mkn,
lpq,

_

j i
p
q m
l k
_
=
q,,;s,,
F
mkn,
lpq,
F
ijm,
qps,
j i
q
s
p
l k
_
,
j i
p
n
m
l k
_
=
t,,
F
ijm,
knt,
j i
n
t
p
l k
_
=
t,,;s,,
F
ijm,
knt,
F
itn,
lps,

_

j i
s
t
p
l k
_
=
t,,;;s,,;q,,
F
ijm,
knt,
F
itn,
lps,
F
jkt,
lsq,

_

j i
q
s
p
l k
_
.
The two paths should lead to the same LU trans.:
t,,,
F
ijm,
knt,
F
itn,
lps,
F
jkt,
lsq,
=
F
mkn,
lpq,
F
ijm,
qps,
Such a set of non-linear algebraic equations is the famous
pentagon identity.
The second kind of wave function renormalization: P-move
First way:
i
a
b c
j k
to
i
j k
which reduce the degrees of freedom.
But notice that, through the F-move,
j
i
j
k k k
i
j
i i i
Second way:
j
i

i
k
to
i
Levin, Wen, 04 or
k
j
i
i
to
i
Koenig, Reichardt, Vidal, 09
The support dimension of
_
_

j
i
i
k
_
_
: D
ii
=
ii
_
i
j
i
k
_
= P
kj ,
i

_
i
_
,
N
kii
=1
N
j
jk
=1
P
kj ,
i
(P
kj ,
i
)
= 1
Consistent conditions between F
ijm,
kln,
and P
kj ,
i
From
_
_
i
j
m
p
k
l
_
_
=
N
n=0
,
F
ijm,
kln,

_
_

i
j
k
n
l
p
_
_
P
jp,
i

im
_

i
l
k
_
=
n,,
F
ijm,
kln,
P
jp,
k

kn
_

i k
l
_
we nd more non-linear equation
P
jp,
i

im
=
N
kjk
=1
F
ijm,
klk,
P
jp,
k
for all k, i , l satisfying N

kil
> 0
A classication of topological orders
The data N
ijk
, F
ijm,
kln,
, P
kj ,
i
classify the xed-point LU
transformation and topological orders. They satisfy
m
N
jim
N
kml
=
n
N
kjn
N
l
ni
,
(F
ijm,
kln,
)
= F
jkn,
l
,
,
n,,
F
ijm
kln,
(F
ijm,
kln,
)
=
m,m
t,,,
F
ijm,
knt,
F
itn,
lps,
F
jkt,
lsq,
=
F
mkn,
lpq,
F
ijm,
qps,
,
N
kii
=1
N
j
jk
=1
P
kj ,
i
(P
kj ,
i
)
= 1,
P
kj ,
i
=
m,,,l ,,
F
jj
k,
i
,
F
i
mj
,
m
l ,
P
lm,
i
,
P
jp,
i

im
F
ijm,
klk,
P
jp,
k
for all k, i , l with N

kil
> 0.
Simple solutions of the non-linear equations
We choose N
000
= N
110
= N
101
= N
011
= 1, other N
ijk
= 0, and
nd two sets of solutions
F
000
000
= 1
F
000
111
= (F
011
100
)
= (F
101
010
)
= F
110
001
= 1
F
011
011
= (F
101
101
)
= 1
F
110
110
= = 1
Both solutions are closed-string states:
Freedman, Nayak, Shtengel, Walker, Wang, 04; Levin, Wen, 04
= 1: (loops) = 1
Eective theory: Z
2
gauge theory
= 1: (loops) = (1)
# of loops
Eective theory: U(1) U(1) Chern-Simons gauge theory
with semion excitations
We choose
N
000
= N
110
= N
101
= N
011
= N
111
= 1, other N
ijk
= 0, and nd
only one set of solutions:
F
000
000
= 1
F
000
111
= (F
011
100
)
= (F
101
010
)
= F
110
001
= 1
F
011
011
= (F
101
101
)
= 1
F
011
111
= (F
101
111
)
= F
111
011
= (F
111
101
)
= 1
F
110
110
=
F
110
111
= (F
111
110
)
F
111
111
= , = (
5 1)/2
N = 1 string-net state Freedman, Nayak, Shtengel, Walker, Wang, 04; Levin, Wen, 04
Low energy eective theory: SO(3) SO(3) Chern-Simons theory
with non-Abelian statistics.
Summary
Local unitary transformation denes quantum phases:
Equivalent classes of LU transformation =
universality classes of quantum phases.
With no symmetry,
all short-range entangled states belong to the same phase
the trivial topological order
Other states can belong to the dierent classes
many patterns of long-range entanglement
and many dierent non-trivial topological orders.
Topological orders = patterns of long-range entanglement
The data N
ijk
, F
ijm,
kln,
, P
kj ,
i
that satisfy a set of non-linear
equations classify a kind of topological orders.
- All the topological properties can be calculated from the data.
- Exact soluble Hamiltonian can be constructed from the data.
- A generalization of string-net approach.
Topological order and entanglement a rich world
ADS/CFT
Topological
Order =
Long range
entanglement
High Tc
superconductor
Classification
of 3manifolds
Topological
gravity
condensation
Stringnet
Emergent
photons & electrons
Herbertsmithite
Modular
Transformation
Lattice gauge theory
Spin
liquid
Local unitray
renormalization
Wave function
transformation
quantum field
theory
Topological
quantum comp.
Edge state
Vertex Algebra
(CFT)
FQH
Tensor
Network
Pattern
of zeros
NonAbelian
Statistics
Tensor
Category
Emergent

Xiao-Gang Wen - An Introduction of Topological Order

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An introduction of topological order

Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT

2l and angular momentum l .

Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT An introduction of topological order

does not depend on and is normalized.

Berrys phase =2 x encl. elec.

Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT An introduction of topological order

Berrys phase =2 x encl. elec.

Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT An introduction of topological order

2 states per charge-1/2 quasihole !!!

From the denition, it appears that The non-Abelian Berry phase

From the denition, it appears that The non-Abelian Berry phase

From the denition, it appears that The non-Abelian Berry phase

Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT An introduction of topological order

The defect at is point-like and carries a charge Q.

To nd the allowed quasiparticles, we simply need to nd

To nd the allowed quasiparticles, we simply need to nd

To nd the allowed quasiparticles, we simply need to nd

where R is the radius of the FQH disk

Similar saturation condition for any tree region

The two wave functions are related by a LU trans. Leven, Wen, 04

for all k, i , l satisfying N

for all k, i , l with N

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