EARTH DAMS

The earth dam is the oldest type of dams, as well as the most common, it is nearly always the most economical type to construct on soil foundations, particularly if the material for the embankment is conveniently accessible. Earth dams are even popular nowadays for many reasons: Local available soil is the main construction material. No special foundations are required for the construction of these dams. High skill is not required. No special plants are required. Modern earth-moving machines construct these dams.

FACTORS GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF EARTH DAMS: Site conditions may lead to selection of an earth dam rather than a concrete dam due to the following reasons: 1. Topography: Topography, to a large measure, dictates the first choice of type of dam: a wide valley with deep overburden would suggest an earth dam. 2. Geology and Foundation conditions: Gravel foundations, if well compacted is suitable for earth dams. Silt or fine sand foundations can be used for earth dams, the main problems include settlement, prevention of piping, excessive percolation losses. Clay foundation may be used for earth dams but require flat embankment slopes because of relatively low foundation shear strength. 3. Materials available: The most economical type of dam will often be one for which materials can be found within a reasonable haul distance from the site, including material which must be excavated for the dam foundation, spillway, outlet works, powerhouses, and other appurtenant structures. Materials, which may be available near or on the damsite, include soils for embankments and riprap. If suitable soils for an earth-fill dam can be found in nearby borrow pits, an earth dam may prove to be more economical. In some cases where required excavation from the spillway channel can be utilized in the dam embankment, an earth dam may be advantageous.

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4. Environmental: Recently environmental considerations have become very important in the design of dams and can have a major influence on the type of dam selected. The principal influence of environmental concerns on selection of a specific type of dam is the need to consider protection of the environment, which can affect the type of dam, its dimensions, and location of the spillway and appurtenances facilities. 5. Economic: The final selection of the type of dam should be made only after careful analysis and comparison of possible alternatives, and after thorough economic analysis that include costs of spillway, power and control structures, and foundation treatment.

CLASSIFICATION OF EARTH DAMS 1. Based Upon the Method of Construction: 1.1. Rolled Fill Earth Dams: In this type of dams successive layers of moistened or damp soils are laid one over the other, each layer not exceeding 20 cm in thickness is properly consolidated at optimum moisture content, only then next layer is laid over it. For proper compaction of the soil sheep foot-rollers driven by tractors are employed. When the height of the dam is less than 15 m, the water face is given a slope of 2:1 to 2.5:1, if the height of the dam is more the water face is provided with slope 3:1. 3.1.2. Hydraulic Fill Dams: In this type of dams, the construction, excavation, transportation and placing of the earth is done by hydraulic methods. Outer edges of the embankment are kept slightly higher than the middle portion of each layer. During the construction of this dam the mixture of excavated materials in slurry conditions is pumped and discharged at edges of it. This slurry of excavated materials and water consists of coarse and fine material. When it is discharged near the outer edges, the coarser materials settle at the edges, while the finer materials move to the middle and settles there. In this method no compaction is required.

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As the process of conveying and depositing the composite materials is done by water, therefore it is known as hydraulic fill-dams. At the end of the process water from the central pool is pumped out. 2. Based Upon the Section of the Dam: 2.1.Homogeneous Earth Dams: These dams are constructed with uniform and homogeneous materials. suitable for low height dams (up to 9 m) only.

It is

The seepage action is not favorable, therefore, for safety in case of rapid drawdown, the upstream slope is kept relatively flat. Homogeneous section is modified a little by constructing rock toe at the downstream lower end and by providing horizontal filter drains. These measures control the seepage and thus enable to construct much steeper slopes of the dam and also keep the phreatic line of seeping water within the body of the dam. 2.2. Zoned Earth Dams: These are also known as non-homogeneous earth dams. The central portion of the dam, which is known as core, is made from impervious material.

In some cases a central core wall is made for making the dam watertight when the earth used in the dam is pervious. The thickness of the core wall is kept sufficient to prevent leakage of water through the body of the dam. Sufficient free board is provided above H.F.L. The cross section of the core wall is trapezoidal and it may be constructed with masonry or puddle clay or concrete.
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2.3.

Diaphragm Type Earth Dams:

This type of dam is constructed with pervious material, with a thin impervious diaphragm in the central part to prevent leakage of water. The thin impervious diaphragm may be made of impervious clayey soil, cement concrete or masonry or any other impervious material. The diaphragm can be constructed in the central portion or on the upstream face of the dam. The main difference in zoned and diaphragm type earth dams depends on the thickness of the impervious core or diaphragm.

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR EARTH DAMS Free Board: Normal freeboard is the vertical distance between the normal pool level and the crest of the dam. Minimum freeboard is the vertical distance between H.F.L. and the top of the dam. Freeboard is taken 1.5 the wave height: FB = 1.5 hw
hw 0.032 V F 0.763 0.271 F 4
1

for F<32 km for F>32 km

hw

0.032 V F

where: V = wind velocity in km/hr F = fetch in km hw = wave height in meters

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Top Width The width should be sufficient to keep the seepage line within the dam when the reservoir is full. For very low dams with height H<10m, top width: B = H/5 + 3 For dams with height 10m<H<30m: B = 0.55 H + H/5 For dams higher than 30 m: B = 1.65 (H + 1.5)1/3 Top width should not be less than 3 m for any height of the dam.

U.S. and D.S. slopes: Dam height (m) Up to 4.5 4.5 7.5 7.5 15 > 15 U.S. slope 2:1 2.5:1 3:1 3:1 D.S. slope 1.5:1 1.75:1 2:1 2:1

SEEPAGE IN EARTH DAMS: Seepage takes place through and under the dam. The seepage line or phreatic line may be defined as the line above which there is no hydrostatic pressure and below which there is hydrostatic pressure. The determination of seepage line in earth dams is essential, because it helps in: 1. Determining the line dividing the dry and wet or submerged soil in the dam section. 2. Determining and drawing flow net diagram, because it represents the top stream line. 3. Helping that the seepage line does not cut the D.S. face of the dam.

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Seepage Line of homogeneous Dam with Horizontal Filter:

KN = 0.3 L F: focus of parabola V: vertex FG = S: focal distance Parabola KMPV can be drawn with its focus at F. This curve is corrected to MN portion. Finally NMPV represents the seepage line. Parabola equation: The distance of any point P on the parabola from its focus and directrix is equal, thus the equation of the parabola is: x2 + y2 = x + S x2 + y2 = (x +S)2 y2 = (x +S)2 x2 y = (x + S)2 x2 y = S2 + 2xS

Seepage discharge through the earth dam: According to Darcy's Law: q=kiA
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Where: q: seepage discharge per unit width of the dam A: area of cross section = y*1 i : hydraulic gradient = dy/dx k: coefficient of permeability then: q = k dy .y dx q = k d ( S2 + 2xS) ( S2 + 2xS) dx q = k 1 (S2 + 2xS)-1/2 . 2S S2 + 2xS 2 q = k S S2 + 2xS S2 + 2xS q=kS (this equation is applicable only to the dams with horizontal filter)

Seepage Line of Homogeneous Dam without Filter:

The phreatic line can be determined on the same principle as for dam with filter. The focus F of the parabola is at the D.S. toe of the dam; the base parabola cuts the D.S. slope of the dam at point D and will extend beyond the dam as shown in figure.
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Practically the seepage line will emerge out at point C meeting the D.S. face tangentially there, portion CF of the dam is known as discharge face and always remains saturated. The portions DC and CF are related as follows: 30 60 90 120 135 150 180 a / (a + a) 0.36 0.32 0.26 0.18 0.14 0.10 0.00

For: Horizontal filter: = 180 Rock toe: = 90 or more Dam without drainage system: = less than 90 Where: = angle between horizontal and discharge face. The seepage discharge can be calculated from the following equation:
q k

d2 d

When the angle of discharge face is less than 30 the following equation may be used: q = k a sin2

Flow Net Construction for Earth Dams:

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To draw the flow net: Draw the phreatic line Note that ag is an equipotential line and that gc is a flow line Determine the number of equipotential drops N d the flow net needs to have and calculate h = h/Nd Draw the headlines for the cross section of the dam, the points of intersection of the head lines and the phreatic line are the points from which the equipotential lines should start Draw the flow net keeping in mind that the equipotential lines and flow lines must intersect at right angles

Seepage through the earth dam can be calculated from the relation: q = k h (Nf/Nd) Seepage Line where Vertical and Horizontal Permeability Differ (Anisotropic Soil): To locate seepage line or draw the flow net a transformed section is utilized: Multiply the actual horizontal dimensions by k v k h Then line of seepage and flow net can be determined in the same manner for homogeneous and isotropic soil. The equivalent isotropic permeability is k ' k v k h q = k' h Nf/Nd or : q = k' S Filter Design: To prevent piping: D15(filter)/D85(soil) < 5 To ensure that the permeability of the filter is high enough for drainage purposes: D15(filter)/D15(soil) > 5 D50(filter)/D50(soil) < 25 Determination of thickness of filter layer: q=kiA i = t/l A = t.1m t = Thickness of filter layer l = length of filter k = coefficient of permeability for filter material q = k (t/l) t t2 = q l /k take t 2 q l k to be on the safe side
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STABILITY OF SLOPES IN EARTH DAMS In the design of earth dams the factor of safety of both slopes must be determined as accurately as possible for the most critical conditions. In the case of U.S. slope the most critical stages are at the end of construction and during rapid drawdown of the reservoir level. In the case of D.S. slope the most critical stages are at the end of construction and during steady seepage when the reservoir is full. Type of Failures: 1st) Slope failure b) toe failure c) base failure

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Methods of Analysis for Stability of Slopes: Method of slices Modified method of slices Simplified Bishops method of slices Friction circle method Taylors stability numbers Centers for trial circles through toe:

Slope angle (i) 60 45 33.8 26.6 18.4 11.3

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Directional angles 29 40 28 37 26 35 25 35 25 35 25 37
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Centers for trial circles below toe:

Method of slices:

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Fs = [c L + tan N] T Where: T = Summation of tangential forces tending to produce movement N = Summation of normal forces for all of the slices = Angle of internal friction of the material which the circle cuts c = unit cohesion L = Length of arc intersecting the embankment

In case of presence of pore pressure: Fs = [c L + tan (N-U)] T Pore pressure calculations: Case1: End of Construction
r

hw l u

u = w hw l = r U = ul

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Case2:

Steady seepage at maximum reservoir level

r
O

r
h' h

l u

u = gw (h-h') l = r U = ul

Case3:

Rapid Drawdown of the reservoir level (emptying the reservoir)

r

h'

l u

u = gw (h-h') l = r U = ul
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Case4:

Rapid Drawdown of the reservoir to a certain level

r r

h'

h'

h h l u

u = gw (h-h') l = r U = ul

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CAUSES OF FAILURE OF EARTH DAMS: The types of failures can be categorized into three main classes:

1.

Hydraulic Failures:

About 40% failure of earth dams is due to this reason only. Following are the various types of hydraulic failure: 1.1. Overtopping: The earth dam may get overtopped if: The design flood is under estimated The spillway is of insufficient capacity. Faulty operation of spillway gates Insufficient freeboard Settlement of foundation and embankment

Protection of Embankment from Overtopping: The following erosion protection systems are tested and each system has a different level of erosion stress resistance and mode of failure: Grass vegetation is common and will provide good protection for a low level of erosion stress and short duration. Geotextiles perform well when used beneath other forms of surface protection. Soil cement and roller compacted concrete have been used with great success. Rock-filled wire baskets (gabions) have been used successfully for erosion protection. Riprap placed on steep slopes to provide protection against overflow has not been successfully demonstrated except for low depths or very large rock size.

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1.2.

Erosion of Upstream Face:

During winds the waves developed near the top water surface notch out earth from the upstream dam face in absence of proper slope protection, rollers are developed in the waves, which try to scoop out the earth. Waves can also cause slip of the upstream slope leading to the dam failure.

1.3. Toe Erosion: Toe erosion may occur due to two reasons: (a) erosion due to tail water, and (b) erosion due to crosscurrents. The toe erosion can be avoided by providing thick riprap on the downstream slope, up to a height slightly above the tail water level.

1.4. Erosion of Downstream face by Gully Formation: During heavy rains, the rainwater falling over the downstream face and the erosive action of the flowing rainwater may lead to the formation of the gullies on it. The formation of the gullies may lead to the failure of the dam. For preventing this failure: The dam faces should be properly maintained All cuts formed should be filled as early as possible Grass should be grown on the slope Providing berms at suitable heights Proper drainage arrangements for removing rainwater should be made.

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2.

Seepage Failures:

Seepage always occurs in the earth dams. If it is within design limits, it does not harm the stability of the dam. But if the seepage is concentrated or uncontrolled beyond the limits, it will lead to the failure of the dam. Following are the various types of seepage failure, which cause about 30% failure of earth dam: 2.1. Piping: The seepage of water through the body and foundation of the earth dam lead to piping or progressive erosion of concentrated leaks, causing a large number of catastrophic failures.

Water seeping through the earth dam causes internal erosion of the soil mass, progressive backward from the point of exit leads to the formation of an open conduit through the soil. 2.2. Sloughing: Failure due to progressive sloughing is closely related to piping. Under the full reservoir condition, the downstream toe remains saturated, and may erode, producing a small slump or miniature slide. This miniature slide leaves a relatively steep face, which becomes saturated by seepage from the reservoir and slumps again, forming a slightly higher and more unstable face. This process can continue till the remaining portion of the dam is too thin to withstand the water pressure and complete failure occurs suddenly as the reservoir breaks through.

Requirements for seepage control in embankments: By providing: 1.Flat Slopes without Drains 2.Embankment Zonation 3.Horizontal drainage filter 4.toe filter 5.filter downstream of the toe 6.D.S. coarse section 7.Chimney drains
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3.

Structural Failures:

Structural failures generally occur due to shear failure causing slides. About 25% dam failures are due to structural failures. This failure may be of the following types: 3.1. Upstream and Downstream Slope Failures Due to Construction Pore Pressure: When a dam is built of relatively impervious compressible soil, the drainage is extremely slow and excess pore pressures develop during and immediately after construction. The construction stage in many cases may be more critical from the point of view of stability and the slopes may fail. 3.2. Upstream Slope Slide during Sudden Drawdown: For the upstream slope the critical condition is when the reservoir is suddenly emptied without allowing any appreciable change in the water level within the saturated soil mass.

This stage is known as sudden drawdown. With complete drawdown, the hydrostatic force acting along the upstream slope at the time of full reservoir is removed without the hydrostatic pressure on the slope to counteract it. 3.3. Downstream Slope Slide during Full Reservoir Condition:

Critical condition for downstream slope occurs when the reservoir is full and percolation is at its maximum rate. The direction of seepage forces tends to decrease stability.

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3.4. Slope Protection Failure: Slopes are generally protected by riprap over a layer of gravel or filter blanket. During a heavy storm the waves on the surface of the reservoir beat repeatedly against the slope just above the reservoir level. The wave energy is dissipated in turbulent action on and within the rocks of the riprap layer.

This action may have two effects: (1) the waves may pass through the voids of riprap and may wash away the filter layer, settling the riprap layer and exposing the embankment to wave erosion, and (2) if the average size of rock comprising the riprap is not heavy, it may be washed out of the layer by the hydraulic forces generated by the waves. However, failure of filter is more common Requirements for slope protection: Earthfill dams must be protected from erosion. Where severe wave action can be expected, the upstream slope will need to be armored effectively. The downstream face may require less treatment to provide resistance to runoff and general weathering. 1. Upstream Slope: In estimating the characteristics and effects of waves that may have an impact on the dam, consideration must be given to the wind velocity, duration, and direction, the reservoir configuration, and the orientation and slope of the embankment The duration of exposure is also an important factor. Riprap is the most common armor for upstream faces of earth dams. Uniformly graded riprap having the same D50 size is actually more effective than wellgraded riprap. Riprap should be placed upon bedding material that is compatible with it so that it will remain in place while retaining the soils in the main body of the embankment. In the placement of riprap, care must be taken to prevent segregation, which could result in erosion of areas where small stones are concentrated or in washing of bedding materials through pockets of large stones.
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2. Downstream Slope: The protection needed on the downstream face will be governed by the extent of exposure to runoff, wind, general weathering, and tailwater washing. Embankment material vulnerable to erosion can be covered by a blanket of gravel or broken rock. On long slopes, runoff may attain enough volume and velocity to cut gullies in such blankets if the slope protection is too thin, gullies should be backfilled promptly with resistant materials. Where the soils are suitable and the climate is favorable, grass may protect a downstream face adequately. 3.5. Foundation Slides: When the earth dam has foundation of fine silt or soft clay, it can slide wholly. Sometimes a soft and weak clayey seam exits under the foundation and the dam can slide over it causing the failure. 3.6. Failure due to Damage by Burring Animals: The burring of animals in the embankment may cause piping failure of the small earth dams. Some animals like muskrats dig holes in the earth dam to make their houses. These holes may be very long and become source of dam failure, ground squirrels also make holes in the soil.

3.7. 3.8.

Faulty Construction: Improper Maintenance:

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3.9. Failure due to Earthquake: Earthquake may cause the following types of failure to the earth dams: a) Cracks may develop in the core wall, causing leakage and piping failure. b) Slow waves may be set up due to shaking of reservoir bottom, and the dam may fail due to overtopping. c) Settlement of dam which may reduce freeboard causing dam failure by overtopping.

Particular Precautions on Earthquake resistant design for Embankment dams It seems effective to place additional embankment material at the toe or heel of the dam to get greater stability on the slopes during earthquakes. Impervious blankets on soft foundations have not generally been recommended because they are liable to rupture. As during earthquakes, the dam body may move in a direction different from its abutments, accordingly it was considered effective to make the axis of the dam slightly curved and to make the width of the dam somewhat greater towards the abutments. Make the slopes of the dam gentle. Provide an extra allowance of freeboard for settlement of the dam and its foundations. Increase the width of the dam crest. Increase the thickness of the impervious zone. Select the materials very carefully. Give sufficient foundation treatment. Take the utmost care in performing the work of construction and make the soils as dense as possible.

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