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need to adapt to work place changes we can conclude that service organization do spend more on training than its relative sector. It is a common idea that larger firms would be able to spend more on training initiatives than smaller ones bringing in the aspect that firm size does matter when it comes to training development. Another notable fact would be that firms that are involved in international trade are more likely to spend heavily on human capital development. This mean that Asian owned MNCs that are reluctant to spend more on staff development will comply when it competes internationally. So, the extent to which a firm exports is linked to the extent it is involved in training. The higher portion of export a MNC has the more the need to provide training. Along with the rapid economic growth in the Asian region more prominence is given on human resource development to ensure successful cross border operations of MNCs. Previous researches only focused on expatriate trainings for parent country nationals in MNCs; with this paper concerned researchers intend to answer questions relating to type of training offered, sum of expenditure incurred, people involved etc. in MNCs in the Asian region.
Findings:
The first hypothesis can be verified with the info that non-Asian owned MNCs spent significantly higher on employee per annum in contrast to their Asian counterparts. Although some Asian MNCs have spent more on training similar to that of non-Asian MNCs suggesting that they are starting to acknowledge the benefits of adapting to global HR standards. Information gathered have also showed that difference between the two is not that significant. So, hypothesis 1 is partially agreeable. Hypothesis 2 is confirmed by the fact that the number of people working in managerial positions are rather limited compared to those of other work levels and eventually got more training programs. It was also noted that in Asian MNCs there is also a shortage of skilled labor. Hypothesis 3 is maybe supported by the fact that studies showed that service related MNCs do spend more on training then their manufacturing counterparts. Although the support may be proven partial by the fact that the larger manufacturing MNCs are more prone to training and are likely to provide to their production levels, which further states that differences in sector may not be of major relevance when it comes to training levels. Examination have also noted that firm size does play a role as larger firms tend to spend more on training than smaller ones comparatively which is the proving point for hypothesis 4. Lastly hypothesis 5 is proved contradictory because mostly the Asian headquartered MNCs tend to
export more in the region and mostly these are manufacturing MNCs. And the number of service firms in the sample size was significant. These services MNCs are more into serving local customers then exporting their offerings which makes compliance with the given hypothesis rather complicated.
Introduction
Our chosen article was on Training practices of Multinational Companies in Asia. The article contains five hypothesis and findings of hypothesis according to Asia pacific context. Selected Asian country was Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Taiwan which are highly culturally diversified, culture oriented. The fact is that people from different countries act or behave differently, some of these countries are cultural responsive, some are highly local responsive. So the outcome of training and development results differently also. Non-Asian MNEs effort behind providing training to Asian host country will not be fruitful until non MNCs get to understand which approach is best to apply on which country, are the non-Asian MNEs needed to integrate their HRM practice to Asian MNCs practice or is it wise keep local responsiveness. It is quite difficult to decide or make a standard for all MNCs whether it is Asian or non-Asian MNEs. Because different MNEs follow different approaches like ethnocentric, polycentric, and geocentric. Focusing on this approach it is difficult to get desired output from non-Asian MNEs. Many researchers suggest that to get good outcome company needs to universalize some practices which are necessary to be similar all around world. Some also argued that same types of practices are not going to affect same way on different countries, on local culture responsive people. Both convergence and divergence have advantages and weakness, they have few limiting facts whichs May result alternative or unexpected result. It is hard to put a solution of which theory is the best for both PCNs and HCNs. Giving importance on these facts it seems that it is a challenge for non-Asian MNEs to balance local responsiveness and global integration. Focusing on training practice issue of non-Asian
MNE in Asian countries we have chosen our critical question that is: How to overcome the Challenge of balancing the conflicting needs of global integration and local responsiveness or divergence.
Critical Analysis
HRM Practice Issue in Asia:
In Asia Pacific region there have been significant economic and political developments in recent times. Political and economic difficulties in several countries in the Asia Pacific region provide examples of the influence of externals factors on various aspects of management at national and global levels. Every Asian-Pacific country has its own identity and culture, each presenting its own set of opportunities and challenges. For human resources professionals tasked with maximizing competitive advantage through the management of human and intellectual resources, this means coming to terms with individual local HR practices. But MNCs especially from European and other Western countries are designing more relevant and better quality training programs to the employees working in Asia located companies. Here the conflict starts. This conflict is all about convergent and divergence. Because MNCs are shaped by institutions existing in their country of origin and the attempt to introduce these parent-country-based HRM practices in their foreign subsidiaries. Before balancing these two factors of between HRM and IHRM we have to understand meaning of Convergent and Divergent in terms of IHRM.
increasing levels of divergence. Usually it is easier for organizations to have convergent policies or a universalistic approach as it helps maintain uniformity & does away with the cost & effort of designing place specific policies. It may also be easier to implement integration, but much more difficult to internalize, certain HRM practices like training and development. Therefore, even if there are best practices, they may not bring positive effects until people fully accept and approve them. Thus, It is easier to change the HR policies than it is to change the behavior of employees.
to the international markets. This choice often leads the firm to face several problems that may affect its economic results in the foreign market. Cultural determinants still have a deep influence on the Chinese society, and by means of shaping individuals behavior and their ways of thinking and acting, they also affect business and organizational relationships.
integration and local responsiveness, understanding the cultural embedded ness of HRM practices and assessing the underlying power dynamics .The dual need refers to the need for inter unit linkages (integration) and the challenges faced by each affiliate in order to operate effectively in its local environment (responsiveness or differentiation), sometimes referred to as the internal and external fit of a MNC. In one of the most recent SIHRM models, Taylor and colleagues' (1996) have identified three different SIHRM orientations in MNCs: i) Adaptive, ii) Exportive and iii) Integrative. These orientations determine the company's overall approach to managing the tension between integration or the pressure for internal consistency and differentiation or the pressure for external consistency. Adaptive: An adaptive SIHRM orientation is one in which the affiliates' HRM systems reflect the different local environments. Differentiation is being emphasized with almost no transfer of HRM philosophy, policies or practices either from the parent firm to its international affiliates or between international affiliates. Researchers propose that this orientation is more likely to be adopted by MNCs who follow a multidomestic strategy, or if top management perceives that HRM competence is context specific. Exportive: An exportive SIHRM orientation is one in which the parent firm's HRM system is being transferred to its different affiliates. Integration is being emphasized with high internal consistency among all units and reflects as previous literature described an ethnocentric approach. Integrative: An integrative SIHRM orientation attempts to take 'the best' approaches and uses them throughout the organization in the creation of a worldwide system The focus here is on substantial global integration with an allowance for some local differentiation. Researchers propose that both an exportive and integrative orientation is more likely to be adopted by MNCs who follow a global strategy, or if top management perceives that HRM competence is context generalized.
Managers in synergistic organizations do not ignore cultural differences nor do they approach culture as a problem to be solved. Instead, they use the cultural diversity as a key source in solving problems or achieving outcomes. Implementing an integrated IHRM approach according to the philosophy of cultural synergy may therefore be a useful way to achieve an IHRM system that supports the organizational strategy as well as is acceptable to all affiliates. The idea of cultural synergy can be found in the work of both Adler (1997) and Hoecklin (1995). While Adler takes a problem-solving approach to cultural synergy, Hoecklin adopts a valueadded perspective on culture. Adler's synergistic approach to problem solving involves three fundamental steps: cross-cultural situation description, cultural interpretation, and cultural creativity. Global managers first define the problem or describe the situation from the perspectives of all cultures involved. Second, they culturally interpret the situation by analyzing and explaining the patterns that make each culture's behavior logical from within its own perspective. Third, they develop new culturally creative solutions that foster the organization's effectiveness and productivity without violating the norms of any culture involved. Another researcher Hoecklin argues that managers from each culture must jointly work through the following steps: 1) agreeing on the specific outcomes that are desired from the interaction; 2) understanding each culture's way of doing things in trying to achieve the outcome; 3) agreeing to an approach or create new alternatives, blending approaches which will lead to achieving the desired outcomes; 4) implementing the solution and reviewing the impact from a joint perspective; and 5) refining the solution based on multicultural feedback. While the two models differ from each other in terms of starting the synergy process with a problem to be solved or a desired outcome, their overall philosophy seems very similar. Both authors stress the creative potential of cultural differences leading to new solutions and approaches that transcend the existing differences. Important in this process of developing culturally synergistic solutions are the assumptions of equifinality and cultural contingency. Employees and managers using synergistic approaches believe that 'there are many culturally distinct ways of reaching a same goal (equifinality), but neither is inherently superior to the other (cultural contingency). They believe that creative combinations of all different ways produce the best approaches to organizing and working. So, only in those cases in which organization members explicitly recognize the concept of culture can the response to cultural diversity be synergistic. Furthermore, finding creative combinations that transcend differences requires
flexibility and open mindedness. It is through a flexible mind that one has the ability to benefit from local thinking and to reemploy these ideas in other parts of the world, adapting them to new circumstances. Implementing such a synergistic approach is a systematic process at an operational level. An organization might address cultural differences at a strategic level by taking decisions that signal the importance of culture. Examples of such strategic decisions are internationalizing the management team, selecting expatriates from all over the company instead of only from headquarters, or setting up cooperation between affiliates. Such strategic interventions are important and valid steps since they encourage the meeting of two or more cultures. But companies are advised to move beyond such type of tolerance and cooperation and to begin to build cultural synergies at an operational level. While operational, this process of a synergistic approach is not a quick fix, but instead a systematic process. In introducing culturally synergistic problem solving or value adding to an organization for the first time, the process must be addressed explicitly and formally through workshops, seminars and structured meetings. The process should also be seen as a continuing, evolving process rather than an isolated event to solve a particular problem. Later, such synergistic processes will become more implicit, more informal, and considerably less time-consuming since the learning acquired during initial sessions will become part of the organization's increasingly global perspective and cross cultural competence. Going back to the three different IHRM orientations of an exportive, adaptive and integrative approach, it is only an integrative approach that may have the potential of a culturally synergistic approach to HRM. The two other approaches, an exportive and an adaptive orientation, seem to ignore the possibility of cultural learning.
insights in how to set up a fair decision making process. The culturally synergistic IHRM model distinguishes two basic cycles of activity - one that occurs prior to any decision or action, and one that occurs after a decision to act has been taken. The first cycle consists of five stages: 1) felt need for an integrated IHRM practice, 2) Developing an super ordinate goal, 3) exploring best practices of different cultures, 4) Assessing the cultural appropriateness of solutions, and 5) decision making by consensus. The second cycle then involves 6) taking action steps, and 7) evaluation of the outcomes of the action steps. In each stage there are common traps. Awareness of these traps can help IHR managers to focus on conditions and interventions that overcome these traps and that stimulate constructive working relationships leading to creative combinations of HRM practices.
Conclusion
An integrated IHRM approach is confronted with the challenges of finding a balance between global integration and local responsiveness, understanding the cultural embedded ness of HRM practices, and correctly assessing the political concerns of the affiliate units. The underlying logic of the culturally synergistic approach as well as the suggested interventions when trying to implement this approach seem to provide a possible way of dealing with these three challenges. Most scholars in IHRM tend to link the global-local duality to the discussion of HRM competences and practices that are context generalizable or context specific. When HRM practices are generalizable, affiliate practices can be transferred to the parent company and vice versa. When HRM practices seem to be context specific, no transfer can occur. Following this logic, an integrated approach of IHRM combines both characteristics of the parent company's HRM system with those of its affiliates. In contrast, a cultural learning model stresses the possibility of mutual dialogue leading to creative variations of HRM practices. Instead of simply transferring practices, a culturally synergistic approach to IHRM can create new practices by recognizing and transcending the individual cultures. IHR managers may find a balance between global integration and local responsiveness when they explore best practices of different cultures, try to understand how these practices lead to the desired outcome and then try to create new alternatives by blending and combining practices. So, the challenges of the dual global-local need and the cultural embedded ness of HRM practices can be dealt with exactly by utilizing and valuing cultural differences instead of approaching these cultural differences as a problem to be solved.
Additional Part
As the verdict of the article states that Foreign owned MNCs do indeed have the financial backing to emphasize more on training and development of the human resource. In relevance to that knowledge lets look at the first HYPOTHESIS, which states the assumption that concludes the above verdict. We have companies like Uniliver and Telenor present along with many others. For obvious standards, these companies do have more financial backing to train their employees. Then again, another factor may have some relevance to the findings concerned. The fact that these companies are coming from developed first world countries. Based on their standard of living and the stage they are in, according to their economic development, these companies will be more obliged to emphasize on HRM development. Where as in Bangladesh our organization still dont consider HR systems with that much prominence. This is where the second HYPOTHESIS comes in which states managerial and professional level staffs get more training then clerical level staff. Again as a third world country we have a surplus of the clerical and production level worker and the organizations here that has a surplus of such worker are the garments industry which consist a majority of our export nowadays. So we can conclude that is accordance to the majority working population in our country we do have more workers in the labor class. In reference to some local companies they are relactant to spend much on training that class of worker but more on the managerial level. One of the key findings came from HYPOTHESIS 3. Which states that service industry are more likely to better train their employees than manufacturing firms. And findings showed that to be true in most cases. The same thing happens in our country. Lets look at this way would you train a garments worker in charge of stitching more than a restaurant waiter who has to deal with clients head on in certain except able manners.
References:
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE IN ASIAN HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT BY Chris Rowley and John Benson A CULTURALLY SYNERGISTIC APPROACH TO INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT: IMPLEMENTING AN INTEGRATED APPROACH By M.
JANSSENS
International Human Resource Management: Asia Pacific Challenges By Helen De Cieri