Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

Task 1
1.1 (a) PIN Define the decibel in terms of: Power Ratio.
SYSTEM e.g. Amplifier

POUT

Where: PIN = Power Input POUT = Power Output The ratio of POUT is expressed in Log Form as Decibels (dB). PIN

P AP = 10 LOG10 OUT dB P IN Where x = Power Ratio in dBs. Example POUT When = 100, the power ratio in dB would be: 10 LOG100 = 20dB PIN The 20dB would express the Power Gain of the Amplifier. (b) VIN Voltage Ratio.
SYSTEM e.g. Amplifier

VOUT

Where: VIN = Voltage Input VOUT = Voltage Output The ratio of VOUT is expressed in Log Form as Decibels (dB). VIN

V AV = 20 LOG10 OUT dB V IN Where x = Voltage Ratio in dBs. Example VOUT When = 100, the voltage ratio in dB would be: 20 LOG100 = 20 dB VIN The 20dB would express the Voltage Gain of the Amplifier.

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

1.2 Using the appropriate formulae convert the following values of gain to decibels: (a) Power ratio of 0.01. P AP = 10 LOG10 OUT P IN dB

AP = 10 LOG10 0.01dB
AP =0 d 2 B

(b)

Voltage ratio of 20. V AV = 20 LOG10 OUT V IN AV = 20 LOG10 20dB

AV =2 d 6 B

dB

Answer to 0 decimal place (c) Current ratio of 10. I AI = 20 LOG10 OUT I IN AI = 20 LOG1010dB
AI =2 d 0 B

dB

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

1.3

Express an output power level of 10W in terms of dBm. Power Gain (dBm)

I/P

10W

As you can see in the chart below, at 0dBm the Power Output equals 1mW. For every increment of 10dBm the Power Output is multiplied by 10. The opposite is said for every decrement of 10dBm, where the Power Output is divided by 10. -20 dBm -10 dBm 0dBm +10 dBm +20 dBm 0.00001 W 0.0001 W 0.001 W 0.01 W 0.1 W

It is easily calculated by the following equation: PowerGain Input = 10 LOG 1mW 10 10 6 Input = 10 LOG 1 10 3
I pt nu = 2 0

This is confirmed in the chart above, where 10W equals -20dBm.

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

1.4

Explain the decibel in its use as a measurement of Signal to Noise Ratio in electronic systems. The Signal to Noise Ratio is used to indicate the strength of the unwanted noise present. It is expressed in Decibels as: SignalPower dB Signal to Noise Ratio = 10 LOG NoisePowet or SignalVoltageRMS Signal to Noise Ratio = 20 LOG NoiseBVoltage RMS dB

The higher the Signal to Noise ratio the cleaner the signal will be.

1.5 (a) Identify 3 sources of external noise.

Radio Frequency Interference Radiation (such as the Big Bang) Other Electrical/Electronic Equipment (in a close proximity such as a Mains Hum)

(b)

Identify 3 types of internal noise.

Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) Components (resistors, capacitors, wiring) Shot Noise

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

1.6

Six networks are connected in cascade as follows:

I/P

+5 dB
1

-3 dB
2

+12 dB
3

-6 dB
4

+10 dB
5

+2 dB
6

O/P

(a)

Determine the overall gain/loss in dBs. +5-3+12-6+10+2 = +20dB

(b)

Determine the output power if the applied input power is 20mW.

20mW

+20 dB

O/P

P 20 = 10 LOG OUT 20mW P 2 = LOG OUT 20mW P AntiLOG 2 = OUT 20mW 100 = POUT 20 mW POUT 20mW 20mW

100 20mW =

100 2 10 3 = POUT

P UT O

=2W

(c)

Identify the attenuator blocks. Block 2 = -3dB Block 4 = -6dB

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

Task 2
2.1 (a) Describe 2 different classes of amplifier. Class A This type of amplifier is not very efficient, this is because the device is always conducting. So even if the input is on its negative part of the cycle, the circuit will still use up the power, therefore making it 50% efficient at best. With this in mind, if a high output power is required, then the wasted power is going to become high also. Even though there is a lack of efficiency in this type of amplifier, it is still the most common type of amplifier in use for small signals. This is because it is cheap, as it consists of one transistor and a few other components such as resistors and capacitors. Class B - This type of amplifier is much more efficient than the Class A, however it only has half of the waveform at the output. They are more efficient than the Class A type amplifier, due to the circuit not drawing power on the negative part of the cycle. There is, however a large amount of distortion resulting in this type of amplifier not being used in many applications. By using the Class B with another opposing transistor, you can get a Class B Push Pull Amplifier. This allows the whole waveform to be amplified to the output. It works by the NPN transistor creating the positive cycle and the PNP transistor creating the negative part of the cycle, so it is constantly alternating.

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

(b)

Identify the biasing points on a typical BJT characteristic input curve.

Image : http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_2.html (c) Give 4 different effects of applying feedback on the performance of an amplifier. (d) Increased Stability Reduction of Noise Reduction of Distortion Increased Bandwidth

Summarise the effects on circuit performance in the form of a table.

Input Impedance Decreased Decreased Increased Increased Output Impedance Decreased Increased Decreased Increased

Type Current Feedback Voltage Feedback Shunt Voltage Shunt Current Series Voltage Series Current

Gain Decreased Decreased Reduced Reduced

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

Task 3
3.1 Design a class A Common Emitter Amplifier with the following specification: DC Power Supply = +12V Load Resistor = 10K Quiescent operating point at Vc = 6V, Ic = 1.0mA, hFE=200 AC Input signal of frequency 1 kHz and amplitude of 8V peak to peak. Produce the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) (c) A circuit diagram Attached Run a circuit simulation using Croc Tech or Multisim. Attached All the relevant design calculations (Below) Test results from the simulation showing, typical input and output waveform voltage levels and frequency. Design Calculations for the Output Side Vcc 6 12 Ve = 6 Ve =
V e = V 2

V c

=V 6

Vc Ic 6 RL = 1mA RL =
R L =6 K

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

Design Calculations for the Input Side Ic hFE = Ib 1mA 200 = Ib 1mA Ib = 200
Ib =5 A

I 2 = Ib 10 I 2 = 0.000005 10 I 2 = 0.00005
I 2 =5 0 A

I1 = I 2 + Ib I1 = 50 A + 5A
I1 =5 5 A

VR 2 = VBE + VE VR 2 = 0.7 + 2
VR 2 =2.7V

R2 = R2 =

VR 2 I2 2.7 50 A

R2 =5 K 4

VR1 = Vcc Vb VR1 = 12 2.7

VR1 =9.3V

R1 = R1 =

VR1 I1 9.3 55A

R1 = 6 K 19

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

10

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

Frequency Input: FINPUT = FINPUT

FIN U PT

1 1000 10 6 = 1000 Hz

= Kz 1 H

Output: FOUTPUT =

FOUTPUT = 1000 Hz
FO T U UP T = Kz 1 H

(1190 10 ) (
6

1 190 10 6

This confirms that the frequency at the input is not changed by the time it gets to get to the output. It is only the amplitude of the waveform that is changed. Voltage Levels Input VPK-PK = 4V + 4V = 8 Volts Output VPK-PK = 856mV + 10.3V = 11.156 Volts

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Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

3.2

Design a class B Amplifier with the following specification: DC Power Supply = +/-12V Load Resistor = 10K AC Input signal of frequency 1 kHz and amplitude of 8V peak to peak. Produce the following: A circuit diagram Attached Run a circuit simulation using Croc Tech or Multisim. Attached All the relevant design calculations For the Class B Push Pull Amplifier, there are no design calculations necessary other that those calculated for the Waveform and to determine the load resistor. It is critical to ensure the hFE for the PNP and NPN transistors are equal and maintain the same level, as this can affect the gain in the corresponding half cycle.

(a) (b) (c)

(d)

Test results from the simulation showing, typical input and output waveform voltage levels and frequency.

The waveforms below represent the input and output waveforms for the Class B Push Pull amplifier. Frequency Input: FINPUT = 1 100 10 6

FINPUT = 1000 Hz
FIN U PT = Kz 1 H

(1100 10 ) (
6

Output: FOUTPUT =

FOUTPUT = 1000 Hz
FO T U UP T = Kz 1 H

(1115 10 ) (
6

1 115 10 6

This confirms that the frequency at the input is not changed by the time it gets to get to the output. It is only the amplitude of the waveform that is changed. Voltage Levels Input VPK-PK = 4V + 4V = 8 Volts Output VPK-PK = 3.4V + 3.4V = 6.8 Volts

12

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

13

Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

3.3 (a)

Compare the results and performance of the two different amplifiers in terms of the following: Output waveforms The output waveform for the Class A shows that the circuit draws 863mV even when the current isnt flowing through the transistor, making the circuit not very efficient. The waveform is the shape illustrated due to the Vcc restricting the amount of gain available. The waveform is amplified from 8V to just over 11 Volts, however if the Vcc was increased then the waveform would appear more sinusoidal. As with the Class B Push Pull Amplifier, there is a section in the waveform where the transistor is switched on. At this point you can see distortion which is the non-linear region in the transistor input characteristic graph. The waveform for this simple amplifier, shows that only half of the waveform is produced at the output. This is caused by the current not being able to flow correctly on the full cycle, therefore indicating a different type of amplifier would be better for amplifying something requiring a truer representation of the input waveform. On the output waveform of the Class B Push Pull Amplifier, it is clear that there is crossover distortion. This is caused by the two transistors having to overcome the VBE which turns them on. For these transistors it is around 0.7V, therefore the output voltage remains at 0V until the input voltage is at around 0.7V allowing the current to flow through the transistor. This is visible on the output waveform above, where the red sinusoidal waveform reaches 0V and remains there, until the input voltage is increased to 0.7V or over, on the positive or negative cycles. Due to this the voltage peak has decreased from 4 Volts to 3.4 Volts, suffering a voltage drop of 0.6V. The flat spot on the waveform lasts for the same time period as the Input waveform takes to go from -0.7V to +0.7V, confirming that this is the time where the PNP and NPN transistors switch over and reach their linear part of their characteristic and turning on. There is no phase shift in the Class B Push Pull Amplifier Waveform

(b)

DC Power dissipated in the load The Power dissipated in the load of the Class A amplifier causes the transistor to heat up, resulting in the Voltage Gain varying with it. There is high inefficiency in the Class A amplifier due to power constantly being drawn throughout the waveform. For the Class B amplifier the power dissipated is much more efficient. The two transistors should be connected to the same heat sink, this is due to a difference in the peak voltage of either the positive or negative cycles on the waveform. If one of the transistors had a higher

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Brendan Burr

BTEC National Certificate in Electronics

Principles of Analogue Circuits

temperature than the other, one part of the waveform would have a higher peak voltage, resulting in inaccuracies. (c) Quiescent operating points When the Class A amplifier reaches its Quiescent Point it allows the current to flow through the Transistor giving the input signal the amplification the circuit was design for. The Vce for the Transistor in this circuit is around 0.7V, it isnt until this voltage is reached that the waveform begins its half cycle. The point of quiescence controls the point in which the transistor turns on and off, which in turn regulates when the current at the Base of the Transistor can flow. On the Class A amplifier the quiescent point is set to the middle of the DC load line. This results in the Q-point allowing Base current to flow through the transistor throughout the input cycle, this then regulates the current on the Collector which causes output waveform to be amplified using the Vcc. The Class B Push Pull amplifier has two Transistors, this is because current will not flow for the whole cycle. It requires two transistors, PNP and NPN, this allows the current to flow for each of the half cycles allowing the current to flow through both of the collectors once each Transistor reaches its saturation point, determined by the Q-point.

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