APPENDIX 1A: OBJECTIVES FOR LECTURE EXAM 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY 1.

Understand the levels of structural organization of life: a. Molecular b. Cellular c. Tissues d. Organs e. Organ systems f. Organismal 2. Know the following directional terms: a. Inferior-below or lower than another part b. Superior above or higher then another part c. Anterior- front or towards the front of the body d. Posterior- back or towards the back of the body e. Ventral- front or towards the front of the body f. Dorsal- back or towards the back of the body g. Medial -In the middle or toward the middle of the body h. Lateral on the side or toward the side of the body i. Superficial nearer to the surface of the body j. Deep farther from the surface of the body k. Proximal near tto the point of attachment l. Distal farther from the point of attachment m. Parietal outter layer n. Visceral inner layer 3. Explain the meaning of homeostasis a. Maintaining a stable internal environment 4. Explain what the internal environment is a. The sum of all chemical concentrations b. Physical conditions 5. Explain what metabolism is, and why it is necessary a. Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. There are two types of metabolic reactions in the body catablic and anabolic. Catabolic reactions release energy by the brake down of molecules the easies example of this is ATP, ATP is the bodys form of energy. when ATP breaks off a phosphate it releases a surg of energy that cells use to maintain a stable environment. In response to this action, anabolic reactions store energy ulltimately adding a free floting phosohate back to ATP and the process continues. The combination of both reactions keeps the body going and prevents entrophy which is the break down of molecules in a un health way, essentially entropy is the reason for metabolism. 6. Understand the meaning of the following planes & sections: a. Sagittal plane- divides the body into right and left b. Frontal plane divides the body into front and rear c. Horizontal plane (transverse) divides the body into top and bottom 7. Know the anatomical terms which correspond to the following regions of the body a. Head- cephalic b. Neck- cervical c. Upper arm brachial d. Forearm antebrachial e. Fingers- manus (hand), pollex(thumb) , digital (fingers)

f. Abdomen- umbilical g. Pubic- genitals h. Back of knee - popliteal i. Ankle- tarsal j. Skull cranial k. Sholder acrominal l. Back of elbow - olecranal m. Wrist - carpal n. Chest- pectoral o. Lower back- lumbar p. Thigh- femoral q. Shin - crural r. Sole of foot - plantar s. Face- facial t. Front of elbow antecubital u. Palm of the hand- palmar v. Back- veterbral w. Groin-inguinal x. Front of knee- patellar y. Calf- sural z. Heel- calcaneal 8. Identify the body cavities and which organs/ organ systems are contained within each a. The dorsal cavity -Cosist of two cavitys the cranial cavity and the spinal cavity b. The ventral cavity- contains all the other organs in the body. It is divided by the diaphragm in to smaller cavities. i. The thoracic cavity contains the heart (pericardial) and lungs (plera) ii. The abdomino pelvic cavity contains the organs of the abdomen and the pelvis. TISSUES 1. Know the 4 main classes of tissues a. Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous 2. Understand where epithelial tissue is typically found a. Epithelial tissue is typically found on anatomical surfaces.the external surfaces of organs and the internal surfaces of hollow organs 3. Describe the basic structure, function, & typical locations of the following epithelia: a. simple squamous i. structure:one layer of squamous cells ii. function: to faciliate the diffusion of materials iii. typical locations: include the alveoli of the lungs the inner lining of blood vessels and the golmerular capsules of the kidney b. simple cuboidal i. structure: single layer of cube like cells ii. function: absorption and/or secretion of materials iii. typical locations: secretory portion of most glands and the tubules of renal nephrons c. simple columnar i. structure a single role of tall cells, ii. function: secretion and/ or absorption of materials iii. typical locations: the lining of the stomach and small intestines d. transitional i. structure: multiple layers of odd shaped cells ii. function: allows of expantion of a organ because of the loosely packed cells iii. typical locations: the ureters and urinary bladder

e. stratified squamous i. structure multyple layers of thin cells ii. function: protectionmore and more layers are formed and pushed towards the surface and eventually fall off iii. typical locations: found in hostlie environments such as the epidermis oral cavity, esophagus, anal canal, and vagina f. pseudostratified ciliated i. structure a single layer of tall cells that look like multiple layers with cilia on top ii. function: secrete mucus and allow it to flow on top of the cillia traping inhaled particals iii. typical locations: typically found in the respiratory system 4. Describe the basic structure, function, & typical locations of the following connective tissues: a. areolar i. structure: a mixture of white and yellow fibers in a random configuration contains fibroblast and leukocytes ii. function: protect against infection iii. typical locations:subcutaneous fascia including adipose tissue, the basal laminae of epithelial membranes, and the mediastinum b. adipose i. structure adipocytes densley packed together , ii. function: energy storage, thermal insulation, and mechanical protection iii. typical locations: subcutaneous fascia, breast, the omentum, and the adipose capsules of the kidney c. dense regular i. structure: densely packed protein fibers, primarly collagen but with varying amounts of collagen ii. function: ideal for binding the musculoskeletal system together iii. typical locations: tendons and ligaments d. dense irregular i. structure: collagen and elastic fibers in a random orientation ii. function: gives strangth , flexibility , and elasticity in multiple directions ultimately gives structure iii. typical locations: found in the dermis , ligaments and the outer layers of most internal organs e. reticular i. structure: a mesh of reticular fibers and fibroblast ii. function: supportive stroma for lymphatic organs iii. typical locations: spleen thymus and bone marrow f. elastic i. structure: elastic fibers form weblike mesh amid lacunate ii. function: provides flexible, elastic support iii. typical locations: external ear, epiglottis g. hyaline cartilage i. structure: chondroitin proteins and a ploysaccharide also collagen fibers ii. function: used as a stiffening material, ALSO forms smooth low friction surfaces on joints which minimize wear and tear iii. typical locations: larynx, bronchial tubes, part of the ribcage also the epiphyseal plates in long bones h. fibrocartilage i. structure: ii. function: allows for the vertebral column and pelvis to be flexible , &

i. j.

structure: unique tissue in a liquid matrix , function: circulation of blood distrubutes oxygen and nutrients also defense against infection and thermoregulation 5. Describe the basic structure, function, & typical locations of: a. skeletal muscle i. structure: elongate, cylinderical and striated fibers ii. function: locomotion, maintaing posture , and ventilation of the lungs iii. typical locations: attached to bone b. cardiac muscle i. structure: uninucleate cells with intercalted disk that conduct electral currents ii. function:to circulate blood iii. typical locations:walls of the heart c. smooth muscle i. structure: elongate, tapered, and uninucleate cells ii. function: to support the overall function of the organ which contains it iii. typical locations: hollow organs like the intestine, the arrector pilli miscles of hair follicules and the intrinsic muscles of the eye 6. Describe the basic structure, function, & typical locations of nervous tissue a. main function is to maintain homeostasis (internal communication) b. located all over the body c. neurons are large cells that possess numerous cytoplasmic extensions axons and dendrites 1. Understand the functions of: a. Neuroglia: maintain the health and electrical activity of the neurons b. Neurons: electrically active cells that fenerate and transmit elecrical signals 2. Know the basic structure and location of cutaneous, serous, and mucous membranes a. Cutaneous skin covering the outter surface of the body i. Outter epithelium is thick epidermis and inner connective tissue is the dense dermis; dry membrane b. Mucous membrande- lines the inside of every hollow internal organ that opens to the outside of the body i. Ex respiratoty , digestive, reproductive, uninary ii. Seceretes mucus ; wet or moist c. Serous slippery membrane lines the closed pleural pericardial and peritoneal cavities THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 1. Know the functions of the integumentary system a. Protect the body from a hostile external environment b. Thermoregulation c. Tactile sensation 2. Describe the basic structure of the epidermis and dermis a. The epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelium which acts as a protective outer layer b. The dermis is composed of dense irregular connective tissue. It provides a mecchanical support for the integument as a whole and its ample vascularization supplies the epidermis with oxygen and nutrients

iii. bone i. ii. blood i. ii.

typical locations intercertebral discs and the symphysis pubis structure: a hard mineralized matrix function: ideal for support and protection but also mineral reserve

3. Describe the structure, function, and relative location of the: a. stratum basale i. structure: composed of keratiocytes ( toughens the epidermis ), melanocytes (pigmentation), langerhans cells ( a phagocytic cell- immune system), and merkel cells (sensory cells- light touch) ii. function:produces new epidermal cells iii. typical locations:the deepest layer of the epidermis b. stratum spinosum i. structure: cells that came from the stratum basale but begain to shrink but the junctions hold tight ii. typical locations:just above the stratum basale c. stratum granulosum i. structure: the cells begin to assume a squamous configuration and begin to die ii. typical locations:usually 3-5 cell layers thick above the stratum spinosum d. stratum lucidum i. Structure: 3-5 layers thick as well also known as the clear layer cells become disiccated, flat, and filled with keratin fibers. ii. typical locations: only found in thick skin such as the soles of the feet or hands e. stratum corneum i. structure: multiple layers of flat scale like cells that are dead and filled with keratin fibers ii. function:cells continously shed off and are replaces the top layer of protection iii. typical locations: the top layer of the epidermis 4. Understand the basic structure and function of: a. hair follicles i. structure: cylindrical extension of the epidermis that consist of three parts connective tissue root sheath, external and internal epithelial root sheath ii. function: a evoluntioary vestiage used to decrease heat loss but pointless in humans b. sebaceous glands i. structure: oil glan secreats sebum which is a triglyceride outgrowths of a hair follicle ii. function: lubricates the hair and keeps them supple c. sudoriferous glands (apocrine) i. structure: sweat glands only found in the axillary and pubic areas ii. function:produces pheromones thats a chemical signal d. sudoriferous glands (eccrine) i. structure: another sweat gland found all over the body secreates water electrolytes and some urea ii. function:primarly for thermalregulation e. nails i. structure: a shield like plate of highly keratinized epithelial tissue ii. function: f. ceruminous glands i. structure: ear wax another triglyceride ii. function:helps waterproof the epidermis of the ear canal and repels insects BONE TISSUE 1. State 4 functions of the skeletal system a. Supporting scaffold of soft tissues b. Protects intenal organs c. Storage system for minerals

d. Provides a lever system which enable the musculature to effect moveiments and locomotion e. Also produces red blood cells 2. Describe the gross anatomy of a typical long bone a. Primarly made of hydroxyapatite a calcium phosphate mineral 3. know the basic anatomy and functions of: a. dense (compact) bone i. structure: and outer shell of dense white osseous tissue typically a cylinder encloses a space called the medullary cavity or marrow cavity ii. characterized by the presence of osteons and haversian systems iii. function: provides much of the structeral strength for bones b. spongy bone i. structure: loosely organized form of osseous tissue ii. caracterized by trabeculae ( gives the bone strength with low weight) with spaces between the spaces are typically filled with red bone marrow iii. function: preoduces red bone marrow all maximizes the strenght to weight ratio of the bones c. diaphysis i. structure: the shaft of bones ii. function: provides leverage d. epiphysis i. structure: each end of lond bones ii. function:enlarged to strengthen the joint and provide added surface area for the attachement of tendons and liagments e. epiphyseal plates i. structure: hyaline cartilage that seperates the epiphysis and diaphysis ii. function:where bones grow in length 1. zone of reserve cartilage 2. zone of cell proliferation- cells multiply 3. zone of cell hypertrophy- cells get bigger 4. zone of calcification- cells begin to die and become bone 5. zone of bone deposion forms a trabeculae of spongy bone f. periosteum i. structure: consist of two layera outer fibrous layer and a inner osteogenic layer the outer layer is used to attach tendons that bind muscle to bone and the inner osteogenic layer is important for growth of bone and healing of fractures ii. function: involved with the growth, maintenance and repair of bones g. Endosteum i. structure: innternal spaces lined with a thin layer of reticular connective tissue ii. function:involved with the growth , maintenance, and repair of bones h. red bone marrow i. structure: hypoietic tissue ii. function:produces blood cells i. yellow bone marrow i. structure: adipose ii. function: j. articular cartilage i. structure: a layer of hyaline cartilage and a lubricating fluid between the bones ii. function:enables a joint to move far more easily 4. Describe the basic anatomy of osteons (Haversian systems); know wherethey are found a. Osteons are the basic unit of structure of compact bone the osteon consist of layers of bone matrix that encircle a central canal called a haversian canal this canal contains blood vessels and nerves which supply the osteocytes with o2 and nutrients

5. Explain the process of endochondral ossification a. And artery and vain grow into the epiphysis b. Formation of primary ossification center, bony collar(works as structural support), and peristeum The growth of a preexisting model composed of hyaline cartilage (baby) c. Cartilage begains to grow and begin to die and makes the primary ossificaion center where the beging of bone starts to form i. d. Vascular invasion, formation of primary marrow cavity, and apperance of secondary ossification center Arterys begin to penatrate the diaphese e. Osteoblast enter the diaphes and for a trebecule f. Osteoclast begin to for the madullar cavity g. Secondary astificaion begings to develop bone at the ephisies h. This allowes the bone to grow i. ii. Bone at birth with enlarged primary marrow cavity and apperance of secondary marrow cavity in one epiphysis iii. Bone of child with epiphyseal plate at distal end iv. Adult bone with a single marrow cavity and closed epiphyseal plate 6. Describe how bones grow, in length and thickness 7. Explain the role of the following in bone growth and maintenance: a. epiphyseal plates i. the growth plates that encourage bones to grow in length b. periosteum i. the inner layer produces osteoblast c. osteoblasts i. makes bone d. osteoclasts i. break down the bone (inorganic part of bone)releaseing ca and phospate into the blood stream e. calcitonin i. a increase in blood ca causes a release of calcitonin fom the thyroid causing osteoblast to begin to work taking ca from the blood and putting it in the bone causeing a decrease in blood ca f. parathyroid hormone i. a drop in blood ca levels causes a release of parathyroid hormone causes osteoclast to begin to work releaseing ca into the blood increasing blood ca g. blood Ca++ i. controls the cycle of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin THE SKELETAL SYSTEM 1. Describe the basic anatomy and give an example of a: a. long bone i. longer than wide ii. the humerus b. short bone i. relatively small, block like bones ii. carpal bones c. flat bone i. plates of bone that may or may not be curved enclose and protect soft organs and provide broad surfaces for muscle attachement ii. the sternum

2.

3. 4.

5.

6.

d. irregular bone i. often have complexx, bizarre shapes ii. facial bones and veterbrae e. sesamoid bone i. usually elliptical in shape and are always found inside tendons they protect joints and tendons form mechanical wear and tear and give the muscles greater mechanical leverage ii. the patellae f. sutural (Wormian) bone i. small plates of bone ii. form between sutures of the skull Describe and explain the function of the following: a. Condyle i. Small rounded process b. Epicondyle i. Small roughen ed area on a condyle c. Tubercle i. Small raised roughened area d. Tuberosity i. Large raised rough area e. Foramen i. A round opening f. Meatus i. A tube like passageway g. Fossa i. A bowl like depression in a bone h. fissure i. an enlongated slit i. process i. part of a bone which is enlarged or extended above or beyond the surrounding bone surface Identify the bones which comprise the axial skeleton a. The skull, vertebral column, ribcage, and hyoid Know the major subdivisions of the spinal column; know how many vertebrae are in each subdivision a. Cervical i. Seven verterbrae b. Thoracic i. Twelve vertebrae c. Lumbar i. Five vertebrae d. Sacral i. Five fused veterbrae Explain what the following are: a. Scoliosis i. A abnormal lateral curavature of the spine in a s shape b. Kyphosis i. A abnormal curvature of the thorastic section of the spinal cord causeing a hump back c. Lordosis i. A abnormal curvature of the lumbar section of the spinal cord causing sway back Explain what sesamoid bones are, where they are found, and theirfunction

a. usually elliptical in shape and are always found inside tendons they protect joints and tendons form mechanical wear and tear and give the muscles greater mechanical leverage 7. Identify the bones which comprise the appendicular skeleton a. Bones of the limbs and limb girdles 8. Identify which bones comprise the pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle a. Pectoral girdle i. The clavical and the scapula enables humans to manipulate the arms to position impossible for other mammals b. Pelvic girdle i. Composed of two os coxae bones which articulate at the sacrum the os coxa has three parts the ilium ischium and pubis connects the lower extremities to the axial skeleton 9. Identify the bones of the upper and lower extremities a. Upper extermities i. Humerus ii. Radius iii. Ulna iv. Carpal bones v. Phalanges b. Lower extremities i. Femur ii. Patella iii. Fibula iv. Tibia v. Tarsals ARTICULATIONS 1. Describe the basic anatomy, and give an example of: a. Suture i. A fiberous joint in which the fibers are very short and allow for little or no movement ii. Sutures in the skull b. Syndesmosis i. A fiberouse joint at which two bones are bound by longer collagenous fibers than in a suture or gomphosis giving the bones more mobility ii. Bindes the tibia and fibula together side by side c. gomphosis i. at tooth in the socket of the skull ii. firmly in place by a fibrous periodontal ligament which consists of collagen fibers that extend from the bone matrix of the jaw into the dental tissue d. synchondrosis i. two bones are bound by hyaline cartilage ii. the temorary joint between the epiphysis and diaphysis of a childs long bone another example is the first rib to the sternum e. symphysis i. two bones joined by fibrocartilage ii. the pubic symphysis f. synovial joint i. the elbow ii. two bone surfaces covered with articular cartilage the two surfaces are separated by a narrow space the joint articular cavity that contains sunocial fluid 2. Explain the differences between:

a. Synarthrosis i. A point at which adjacent bones are boound by collagen fibers that emerge from one bone cross the spave between them and penetrate into the other b. Amphiarthrosis i. Two bones linked by cartilage c. Diarthrosis i. Synovial joint 3. Describe the basic anatomy of, and the types of movements possible with: a. plane joints i. Bone surfaces are flat or only slightly concave and convex. The adjacent bones slide over each other and have relatively limited movement ii. your wrist iii. usually biaxial b. hinge joints i. monoaxial joint ii. moving freely in one plave with very little movement in any other iii. the knee c. pivot joints i. monoaxial ii. a bone spins on a longitudinal axis iii. the radial ulnar joint d. saddle joints i. concave in one direction and convex in the other ii. the thumb and your wrist iii. bi axial jont : fornt and back and side to side e. condyloid joints i. an oval convex surface on one bone that fits into a complementary shaped depression on the other end ii. biaxial joint : fornt and back and side to side iii. metacarpophalangeal joint f. ball & socket joints i. a smoooth hemispherical head that fits into a cuplike socket ii. the shoulder or hip iii. only multiaxial joint abduction , flexion, and internal rotation 4. Understand the following movements: a. gliding i. sliding over one another b. angular i. occurs only between long bones, increasing or decreasing the angle between the bones c. rotation i. movement in which a bone spins on its loingitudinal axis d. circumduction i. one end of an appendage remains fairly stationary while the other end makes a circular motion e. adduction i. a movment toward the midline f. abduction i. a movement away from the midline g. flexion i. a movement that decreased a joint angle usually in a sagittal plane h. extension

10

i. a movement that straightens a joint and generally returns a body part to the zero position example is straightening the elbow 5. Describe the basic anatomy and function of a bursa a. A bursa is a fibrous sac filled with synovial fluid located between adjacent muscles where a tendon passes over a bon or between bone and skin b. It cushioon muscles helps tendons slide more easily over the joint and sometimes enhances the mechanical effects of a muscle

11