Professional Documents
Culture Documents
November1995 L.
~':;J
Reprinted from HYDROCARBON PROCESSING@, November 1995. Copyright @ 1995 by GuIfPubIishing Co., Houston, Texas. AlI rights reserved. Used with permission.
L.
quickly to be cost-effective.The simplest way to coalesce a dispersionis to just letit sit in place. In most cases,it will sooner or later coalesce,settle out and forro two distinct layers with the help of gravity. Seldomis this process an economicalsolution. To speed up the process,the dispersion is usually forced to flow through porous media with high specific surface and perhaps with definite wet-ability characteristics. Small dispersed droplets are then converted into large ones which quickly settle out. Benefits. Gravity separation, the first andstill common method,onlyworks effectivelywhena large retentiontime is provided.With heavyflows, very large vesselsare required. Somehorizontal vesselsare 15 fi to 20 fi in diameter and are 45 ft to 60 ft longo Purchasinga gravity separatorcan be a major capital investment. However,whenusing specially designedcoalescer media, the vesselsize cansometimesbe reduced to one-third of the original designo Result: A substantial reduction in required capital investment. Much ofthe refining industry, however,has large gra. ~! ity-separator vesselsalready existing in their plants. Wit'rrl' today's separation efficiency requirements, many gravity separators donot meet exit standards. Retrofitting these vesselswith a coalescer element designedforthe particular operating conditions can have many economicand environmental advantages. The refining and gas processing industries provide significant examples on the benefits of using well-designedcoalescingmedia. Case history 1. Problem. A medium-size refinery in SouthAmerica producedjet fuel with a high haze number, indicating a stable water emulsion which required settling in product tankage. Five days of settling were required to clear up the hazeand meet the clear& bright specification. One ofthe four jet fuel tanks (100,000 bbl each)was constantly used to settle out water. The additional inventory cost (on a: V.S. basis)to keep a 100,000bbl/yr in a settling
PROCESSING
I NOVEMBER
1995
..
existing veRseI,a cylindrical coalescermade from compressedmicrofibers of glasswas used to provide a high surface area, low flow velocities and maximize the usage of the existing vessel'svolume. Results. After the initial startup, the coalescerreduced the water contentdown to 75 pprnand the haze in the diesel productdisappeared. Delaysin dieselblendingwere reduced by oneday. Furthermore, additionaltankage becameavailable which was previously used for water settling. Savings were $100,OOO/yr (U.S. basis). Case history 3. Problem. Another large refinery on the U .S. Gulf Coastwas caustic treating FCC (fluid catalytic cracker) products to reduce lhe mercaptan sulfur content, and then water washing to remove excesscaustic. Both FCC products were used in gasolineblending. The amount of caustic carryover was too much for the water-wash facility to handle. Therefore, the finished gasoline products were often hazy and high in sodium contento Solution. Researchingthe facility's performancehistory, it was determined that the coalescerson the caustic drums neededa specific internal geometry. Pilot tests indicated that the caustic influenced the interfacial tension making the emulsionvery stable. Laboratory testsindicated that the facility was getting 3,500 ppm of caustic carryover and 2,500 ppm water carryover from the water-wash step. Results. The refinery installed in the causticstage,a tightly knitted wire mesh coalescer(stainless steel media) and a proprietary media of verticallaminations of knitted wire mesh and fiberglass in the water-wash stage. The caustic coFl-tent the caustic wash stepwas reducedto 100ppm. fram The balance was easilyremovedwith the water-washstep.At theoutlet ofthe water wash,the water contentwas reduced to 100ppm. As a direct result, both the hazinessofthe gasoline and the sodiumcontentwereremovedfrom the product. AdditionaI benefits. Becauseofelevated VOC (volatile organic compound) levels in the plant atmosphere, EPA the had restricted the amount oftimes a gasoline tank can be drained per day. Now that most ofthe water was removed by the coalescer,the gasoline tanks required very little drainage. This allowed the facility to meetthe VOC limits. Case history 4. Problem. A European refinery wa8 108ing about2 vol% ofDEA (diethanolamine)801vent with the
modewould be approximately$200,000/yrassumingan 8% interest rate. The loss of one tank severely limited shipping flexibility of the jet-fuel blending operation. (~) Solution. Engineersevaluatedthe process that produced ~e water emulsionand reviewedthe probability of contaminants that could influence the interfacial tension. A bottle test was danewith the hazyproducttofmd the emulsion's settling rate. Laboratory analysis determined that the free water in the jet fuel ranged from 5,000 ppm to 1,000 ppm (parts per million). Based on the processconditions and empirical data, a coalescer elementconstructed from a coknit ofmetal and fiberglass was designed.An existing 8-ft diameter separatorwas retrofitted using this coalescer. Results. The coalescerperformed well, removing the water down to 50 ppm. Thus, thejet-fuel was clear& bright and ready for immediate shipping. Economic advantage. After a month of successful operation, the large jet-fuel tank used for "water settling" was put back as a Balestank. Reduced inventory fees, lower operating costand no shippingdelays due to water settling totaled around $450,000/yr.
Case history 2. Problem. A large refmery on the Gulf Coast ofMexico increased its diesel production. The vertical gravity separator was now a limiting factor. Insufficient water remova! made the diesel fuel hazy and created blending delays.
Solution. A laboratory analysis by a consulting technical staff determined that the dieselcontained about3,000 ppm of free water. Economicsprohibited replacing the existing ~parator. Thremovehaze from this dieselwith a low inter~lcial tension,a large amountof coalescing areawas needed. It was established that a velocity less than 2ft/min. was neededto effectivelyremovethe haze. A full-diameter coalescer in the existing vesselwould not permit Bucha low yelocity. Thovercomethe velocity problem and retrofit the
HYDROCARBON
is a functon
of angle 9. 3
PROCESSINf.;
surtI as catalysis or distilIation. A modern coalescer element may alIow capacity increases of 50% to 200% by enabling superficial velocities to increase along with improved separation. ~ically, the elements can effectivel~' '\ remove aqueous solutlons from a hydrocarbon to below 2iW! ppm and vice-versa. Such performance means maximum recovery ofvaluable hydrocarbons and minimaltreating cost for the separated wastewater. With increased plant capacity and ever stricter environmental regulations, the separation efficiency ofwater from oil and Gil from water has becomean important control aspecto In some plants, the ability to efficiently separate water from hydrocarbons determines if the plant has to shut down or noto A high efficiency coalescer designed for its particular application can effectively separate water from oil, leaving only traces ofwater behind. Then further processing ofthe hydrocarbon can be done immediately without further delays. Using modern coalescers in lhe HPI. When gravity separation is inadequate, an oil emulsion is drained with the wastewater from a gravity settler. Especially in light distillate settlers, the oil entrained in the water has a high vapor pressure and vaporizes as the wastewater is drained through the sewer system to the wastewater treating area. Since there are dozens ofthese settlers in the plant in the forro ofreflux drums, condensers and three-phase separators, the facility's fugi tive VOCs leveI can increase substantially. The garoe is true for water left in hydrocarbon products. Water that settles in tankage is drained to water treating facilities. While it is draining, part of the hydrocarbon vaporizes adding to the ambient VOC leveI. Industrial interestto retrofit separators with coalesce(~I.) in any process vessel containing hydrocarbons and wate~ has tripled in the last two years. A coalescer can produce a sharp separation between the hydrocarbon and water. Therefore, the wastewater from a separator may contain levels of oil as low as 20 ppm to 30 ppm. Results. Plant VOC levels can be markedly improved if coalescers are used where water is separated from hydrocarbon product. Reduce wastewater treating casto A corresponding advantage of coalescers is the ability to reduce the hydro-
Fig. 4. Horizontal coalescer-vessel geometry phase has the higher specific gravity.
LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)product from an absorption tower and wanted to reducethis lossto 100 ppm carryover with the LPG. Solution. Application engineersreviewedthe plant drawings and recommendedinstalling a coalescerat the top of the absorber. As an alternative, the coalescercould also have beeninstalled in a downstreamLPG separator. The absorber tower diameter was large enoughfor a coalescer and would allow for a 1.5 ft/min. vertical velocity to ensure an efficient separation. A co-knit of wire and ultra-fine 1d polyester fiber which is specifically deSign for vertical.
flow coalescing applications was installed.
Results. After installation of the co-knit unit, the DEA carryover into the LPG product was reduce~to less than 100 ppm. This constituted an approximate savings of $ 140,000/yr(U.S. basis) in DEA solventmakeup.
Increased capacity and efficiency. As the HPI continues a capacity consolidation and gears up to comply with many environmental restrictions, older less efficient plants are being phased auto Those remaining must upgrade their processes to: .Pick up the lost production capacity of closed plants .Comply with ever stricter environmental rules .Expand plant capacity to satisfy annual growth. Cash-flow availability for capital investment is generally limited. Therefore, industry has sought increasing capacity by modifying existing equipment. In the '90s, revamp and debottlenecking projects are in full swing. Plant capacity requirements are often increased a$ much as 40% to 50% with traditional gravity settlers experiencing a substantial increase in liquid flow. Retention time now becomes insufficient and separation is incomplete, thus complicating and overloading the downstream processes. Removing haze from jet fuel is a prime example of the benefits of using
HYDROCARBONPROCESSINGI
amaunt af water in the reflux will flash as it enters the fractionator and leave salt deposits on the trays..Flashing upsets the vapor traffic at the top of the fractionator and hinder its efficiency. When a coalesceris retrofitted in a reflux aTum,it can ensure maxirnum water removal from the hydrocarbon. Low-water content in the reflux stabilizes tower operation and reduces costly upset conditions. Reduced corrosion. In a refinery, there are severalareas where inadequate liquid/liquid coalescence causescorrosiGno Corrosionis another consequenceof sulfur and carbonic salt depositionon fractionator trays. In other cases where causticis present in the water and settles to the bottom of a carbonsteel storage tank, the bottom plates may slowlycorrode. Caustic may algo carry over from mercaptan treaters or caustic washfacilities. To avoid carryover,a coalescer vesselcould be installed in product pipelines that would removecaustic down to 50 ppm. Improved product quality. Water and/or caustic entrainment in a hydrocarbon can cause product quality problems.Installing coalescers has enabled many refineries to meettoday'smostdemandingspecificationsincluding: ..Clear & brights in jet fuels ..Haze in distil1ates ..Sodium content of gasoline.
carboncontentofwastewater.This can meana direct reduction in treatment cost since a major function wastewater treatment system is the removal of hydrocarbQnsbefore the water is discharged to rivers or bays. Ir a wastewater stream has a high concentrationof solids,these ~eedto be Other potential applications. Caustic treaters for dissettled out or filtered to avoid pluggingofhigh-efficiency or tillates are usedto convert mercaptan sulfur to lessobnoxfibrous coalescerelements. An API separator prior to the ious sulfur forms. In these treaters, somecaustic remains coalesceris sometimes useful for this purpose. witlrthe hydrocarbon product and must to be removed. Improved product blending time. When products/ Thus, most caustic-washfacilities are followed by a water #imponents have a low water contentbecauseofupstream wash. If removal of caustic entrainment is insufficient, .alescers, the product blending time is subsltantially additional water must be used in the wash step. By reduced. This also yields reduced inventory CO$t, avoids retrofitting a coalescer the caustic-washand water-wash in delays in shipping and lowers overall operating tosto systems,operationsare improved: Increased solvent recovery lowers operating costs. .A higher quality distillate is produced In a liquid LPG solvent-treating plant, solvents suchas MEA, .A reduced quantity of wash water is used to remove DEA or MDEA (monoethanolamine, diethanollamine or caustic methyldiethanolamine) are used to removeH2S from LPG .Less wastewateris generated. in an absorbertower. The H2S-richsolventis then regenerFeed to the alkylation plant often contains substanated. Hydrogensulfide is sent to a sulfur recoveryunit and tial emulsified water. This water dilutes acid in the reactor lean solvent recycled back to the absorbertower. The soland adds to corrosion throughout the planto When vent, which is an aqueoussolution, can form a staibleemulretrofitting a coalescer into the feed separator,the amount sion that is lost with the sweetened LPG. Likewis, natural of acid make-upis reduced,lowering operating cost. gas liquids emulsify in the H2S-rich amine solutions. The absorberand regeneratortowers canbe "'!C "j!'' either packed or trayed and designedas gas/liquid 1. or liquid/liquid extraction columns. Specially designedco-knitcoalescers, a uniquegeometry, with Nominal Media target slze have beenretrofitted in the top of suchtowers or in Parallel and .1in. to4 in. a downstreamseparatorand have achievedrecov Both corrugated plates (spacing) eries of95% ofthe solvent previouslylost. t andvanes Improved fractionation tower operation Knlttedmesh 100-500~m 80th Most fractionation towers, like crude or vacuum metal,plastlcand b)-component towers, have an overhead reflux drum or three. phase separator. These vessels are algo found in Co.knlls wire 01 12-35 !1m Both the FCC and cokeunits. In the top part of a three. andmulti-strand fibers phase separator, vent gases are separated from liquids. In the bottom section, the hydrocarbon 5,-3511m Compressed 80th .;oduct is separatedfrom water. When unit capac. mlcr-fibersof ~y is increased,the retention time becomes insuf glass,plastic and metal ficient for goodseparation. ~ Results. More water is carried over with th hydrocarbon product and refluxo Even a smal
HYDROCAJt.BON PROCESSING / NOVEMBER 1995
---",
",
J
~ :,ji!:I,t,:,
recirculate with the solvent. Over time, the hydrocarbon concentrationincreasesto a leveI where it acts as a foaming initiator. Many plants have a separator tank or horizontal vesselwhere they can skim off someof the hydro-. carbonusing gravity separation. Since gravity separatij is not very efficient, part ofthe hydrocarbons continue to be recycled. In addition, as hydrocarbons are skimmed off, someof the emulsified solvent will algo be removed, thereby addingto solvent losses. To avoid liquid hydrocarbonbuildup in the solvent, an efficient coalescer be can installedupstream ofthe regenerator column.
COALESCERS-ART OR SCIENCE Formation ofliquid-liquid dispersions is a frequent occurrence in the HPI. Separation difficulty varies with the dispersion type which is characterized by the droplet size. If a uniformdispersion is allowed to settle, it will usually fonn two distinct layersrather quickly from the primary dispersion where droplets will have diameters greater than 100 ~m. After the definire interface is fonned, both layers will remain cloudy and coalescencecontinues at a much slower raro with the secondary dispersion where droplets are much smaller. Traditionally, liquid-liquid coalescence has been accomplished by equipmentdesigned for gravity settling. Primary dispersions are usually separated adequately in the wastewater treatment plant's API separator, and specially designed vertical and horizontal vessels such as the reflux drum of a steam stripper or a caustic wash tower. In the '90s, process engineers must design and specify liquid-liquid and three-phase separators to meet ever tougher environmental regulations, to reach increasingly stringent product specifications, and to handle higher prat 'i duction rates. Whether the problem is the biological oxpJ.. gen demand leveI in the biological treatment system, time lost while ahaze settles out in a diesel storage tank or the plant's sudden demand for drier seal-flush oil, the likely problem is the remaining entrainment as a secondary dispersion. Various coalescing media have been used for over 30 years in the HPI as flow-through devices to break these fine stable emulsions. High efficiency media. Proprietary media available today uses a wide range of target diameters, surface chemistries and geometric structures tailored to specific applications. The more efficient the media is, the less capacity and the higher pressure drop it has. Table Ilists most media types on the market in ascending order of efficiency.
Fig. 7. Three-phase separator configuration divides a vapor from two liquid phases.
In MfBE and TAME units, wash water is used in both the main and methano1 recovery extraction columns to remove impurities and recover methanol. A water emulsion can carry over to the downstream reactor from both extractors. Water causes side reactions aI1ld 10wersthe amount and purity of the MTBE and TAME products. To avoid this, coalescerscanbe added in the top ofthe extractors or downstream separators. I From a crude desalter unit, a 1argeqti1antityof oi1y water is discharged. Using a coa1escer unitto remove oi1 from this water wi11substantia1lyreduce th~ costof treating a major refinery wastewater source. Amines. Treatments of natural gas with amines for sweetening and glycol for drying can suffet from serious foaming problems. Both absorption and regenerationtowers can generate roam on trays or in packing. Foaming resu1ts from the formation of stable bubble$. The volume to weight ratio for these stable bubb1es ~igh, resulting is in the gas carrying the roamoverhead.In adtlition, when a bubb1e bursts, the shattered film createsvery fine droplets that are difficu1t to collect. Excessive foaming in the solvent plant increases operating costs in severa1ways: .Foaming in the absorber tower decreasesthe effectiveness ofthe solvent. Consequent1y, hytlrogensulfide the content in the overheadgasescan increase. .Foam and resu1ting fines reaching thei mist eliminaror reducesefficiency and thus increases solvent entrainment loss. .Temporary feedratereductionto "drain" tpamwiIl result in lost production. .Lost operating time to correctthe prob]em. .Foaming in the regenerator tower incteases the solvent entrainment losseswith the hydrogenBu1fide gasses. Solvent contaminants are major contributors to foaming. They can be condensedlight hydrocatbons, organic acids, water or traces of treating chem~ca1sfrom an upstream processo Hydrocarbon contamin*nts in the gas feed may not initia1ly cause any foaming. Mowever,since these light hydrocarbons remain as a 1iqrid, they may
6
HYDROCARBON
Fundamentais of coalescing. Separatingthe dispersion of one immiscible liquid in another is usually considered more of an art than a science.Becauseof the many variables, most research has concentrated on the practical aspectsof achieving a separation under definite, specific conditions.The literature contains ample data for specific situations, but little theory that can be applied to practical problems on a broad range of applications. This is why many considercoalescence be a black boxoperation and to indeed practical experienceis vital to an effective and economic solution for most industrial coalescer problems. -Nevertheless, progress has been made and databases
built,. based on specific designs for specific applicationAl) Conslder the general modes of coalescence. For a norm~
dispersion, two major steps are involved in the separation. The first step is truly coalescence, wherein very fine droplets physically join one another to forro larger drops
/ NOVEMBER ] 991\
PROCEHHING
--~
which
can
then
settle
quickly
by
gravity.
Fib
ous
or
gran-
ular
media
mar
be
used
to
promote
this
step
The
second
stepinvolves
theselection
offlow
pattemst
promote
an
i,'ff!e~tive
collection.ofthese
large
drops
into
liquid-l.iq-
'\i..,!lld
rnterface.
Physlcal
and
chemical
properti
ofthe
sub-
stances
will
determine
the
time
needed
for
mplete
sep-
gravity settling. The allowable rate ofrise ofthe dispersed phase is foundas the value where the buoyant forces on an ojJ.droplet of a given diameter equals the drag forces exertedby the viscosityof the continuouswastewaterphase. A derivation from Stoke's Law enables the calculation of the rate ofrise:
aration
and,
consequently,
govern
equipme
sizes
and
theeconomics.
v1
-~
( Pu,-Po)D2
very
fine
dispersion
can
have
drople
between
to
10jlm
or
even
smaller.
Frequently,
the
eye
detects
these
fine
dispersions
only
as
slight
cloudiness
or
haze
which
mar
beextremely
stable,
evento
the
extent
where
there
mar
beno
appreciableseparation
after
severail
days
ofset-
tling.
The
inherent
properties
of
both
immiscible
con-
stituents
affects
both
therate
and
degree
o~
separation.
Properties
ofinterest
foreach
phase
are:
densfty,
viscosity,
surface
tension,
temperature,
degreeofdispersion
(particle
size)
and
pH.
Properties
oftheemulsion
that
come
into
Where~ v = Ra te of rise of dispersed phase, crn/sec I,' = Gravitational constant, 981 crn/sec2 1/ = Viscosity of water, poise P", = Density ofwater, gm/cc Po = Density ofoil, grn/cc D = Diameter of oil droplets, cm. The manual assumes a worse case droplet size of 150 ~lm and gives the following:
the
piar extent
are
interf~c.ial ofsolubulty
tension, ofthe
ratio phasesandpresen
of
the
cons
ituents, ofsurface
tants
or
gelling
agents.
In
recent
years,
much
work
has
been
don
to
describe
and
quantify
the
very
complexmechanism
ofcoale.cence.
The
objective
is
to
enable
the
design
of
industrial
equip-
ment
to
accomplish
the
necessary
separatic:>ns.
Several
researchersl.2
have
contributed
to
an
understandingof
Where V, = rate of rise of a 150 ~m oil globule in wastewater, ftJmin. With a knowledge of the maximum flow of oil entrainment in actual ft3!min., the size ofthe separator vesselcan he calculated.
the con-
these
phenomena
based
on
droplet
gizes.
~owever,
determination
of
droplet
gizes
distributions
is
too
time
suming
for
industrial
processes.3
Indeed,most
designs
are
not
based
on
theoretical
assumptions,
but
ather
from
experimental
investigationsof
pertinent
mi
tures.
Most
('i,heoretical
investigations
are
based
on
cal
ulations
of
\\~roplet
gizes
for
pure
components.But,
the
edicted
rate
ofcoalescence
for
an
industrial
system
was
six
times
larger
than
the
experimentalvalue.4
Most
predict
on
methods
are
based
on
mean
droplet
size,
but
since
he
extent
of
separation
is
function
of
small
droplets,
droplet-size
distribution
is
more
rational
approach,
eve
though
too
costly
formost
applications.
The
degree
of
difficul.ty
in
making
separ
tion
is
usu-
ally
function
ofthe
emulsion's
stability.
Very
stable
emul-
sions
can
result
from
number
of
causes.
Surfactants
or
emulsifying
agents
can
have
significant
effefts
on
stabi-
lization
even
in
quantities
which
are
difficult
to
detect
by
analytical
methods.
minor
dispersion
ofveIty
fine
solids
will
tend
to
stabilize
the
interfacial
film
which
must
break
for
coalescence
to
take
place.
This
film
will
111so
be
more
stableifit
has
gelatinous
properties
due
to
the
viscosity
of
the
constituents,
fine
solids,
electrical
charges
or
chemi-
cal
properties.
For
two
droplets
to
coalesce
or
for
droplet
to
join
its
mother
phase
layer,
the
film
sepa
ating
them
mustthinout
(or
drain)
untilit
is
so
thint
at
it
finally
ruptures
allowing
two
discrete
droplets
to
become
one
larger
droplet.
Researchers5
havestudied
the
phenomena
leading
to
the
rupture
ofthe
thin
film
and
ve
proposed
mathematical
treatments
for
various
situatio
s.
In
Fig.
1,
single
droplet
is
joining
at
the
interface
atld
in
Fig.
2,
High-efficiency elements handle secondary dispersions. To improve coalescence over that which can be achieved by gravity alone, various fibrous media including felts of polyester and polypropylene, glass mats, stainless steel meshes and glass fibers, both treated and untreated, have been investigated. Separation efficiencyofthese media is affected by factors such as: fiber diameter, drop size, media density, flowrate, depth of the media, its wettability and surface roughness. Researchers7.8 reported that a coalescer made of smaller fiber elements exhibits higher coalescence efficiency. However, smaller fibers algo reduce the size of the droplets leaving the bed. Therefore, using larger fibers in the downstream endofthe media bed was recommended to increase dropletsize leaving the bed which was then settled by gravity. Droplets released from the downstream end of coalescing media are typically in the 150 to 1,000 11m range.9 A common, but not universal theory, states that the dispersed phase must preferentially wet at least one filament ofthe coalescencemedia. Consequently, when organics are the dispersed phase, plastic filaments are frequently used. Selection of materiaIs as well as the fiber size and media densityare critical to the efTiciency and cost-effectiveness ofthe coalescence. A droplet must adhere to a filament long enough to be joined by other droplets and grow in size (Fig. 3).10As the flow velocity through the media increases, there will come a point where the droplets are swept offthe filament before they have a chance to grow. The superficial velocity at which this happens is called tne critical velocity. 1'ypical commercial designs rangefrom 1 to 10 ft/min.
swarm
of
droplets
are
approaching
the
interface.
Both
r.:iguresdepic~
droplets
that
have
lower
spelcific
gravity
Whan
the
contlnuous
phase.
Gravity settlers. API's Manual an Dispa.S'a~ Refinery af Wastewater;6originally issued in 1969, gives the design methad for sizing a liquid-liquid coalescerve$sel basedon
HYDROCARBON
Coalescer vessel geometry. The second stageof separation occursafter the droplets havegrownand are releasedto where they settle or rise by gravity. The time required for alI dispersedphasedroplets to forma secondhomogeneous phaseis a functionofthe specificgravity differencebetween the phases,the continuous phase's viscosity, the size of
I NOVEMRER 1991;
PROCESSING
dropletsfonned and the characteristicsofthe thjn interfacial fIlmo The coalescer vessel'sgeometrymust allow for time for the dropletsto reachthe interface.Vessels must havea diarneter which wiil provide the required superficial !velocityand a length to the settling chamber which ailows for complete removal ofthe dispersedphasefrom the continupusphase.It must algO providea place(usually a boot)to control the interface and appropriate instrumentation (Figs. 4 ,nd 5). In vertical-flow coalescers, arrangement must ailow the spacefor the coalesced drops to settle (Fig. 6). !Whilevertical vesselsoffer a smaller footprint, the vessel~ay be larger in diameter than ones for horizontal flow beqausein settling,the droplets have interference from the ~ounter-current flow ofthe continuous phase. Other methods to break emulsions. Ch~cals may beused to precipitareemulsifying agents,to aff~ctthe interracial tension, to neutralize electrical charges,j to adjust or the pH. Electrical processes use a strong el,ctrical field to break someemulsions.While not a common~rocess, is it important in the desalting of crude oil. When the water in Gilemulsionis passedbetweentwo electrodes apd subjected to high-potential pulsating current, the water globulesare attracted electricaily and coalesceto where they canbe separatedby gravity. While these methods are important in specific cases, the most common method of coalescence the physical is processof forcing the emulsionthrough i;;~ a porousmedia.Table2 showsthe most commonly used media for particular applications. "'..~ A specialcaseis the three-phaseseparator where a vapor is separated in :::;~'\C addition to the two liquid phases, Indus;: try has used many arrangements for ': ;:'~ this specialcaseand there is little literature to provide a design basis, b\lt three-phaseseparatorsare not uncommon in refineries as reflux separators :~ when distillation is aidedby stearninjection. Fig. 7 showsan economical type of three-phaseseparator. ~ In whatever type or arrangementof coalescer, initial calculation should an be basedonStokesLaw,to calculare the settling time ofthe larger drops which
8
exitthe coalescing media and therefore, permit calculation ofthe vesselsize. In spite of all the investigative work dane to illuminate coalescing process,testidg is still required under the specificprocessconditions to developa high leve~ "\ of confidencethat the required separation will occur in thi.J planto Testing can be dane in several different ways, each producing a different leveI ofknowledge and confidence: ..Simple bottle testo A samp.leof the dispersion is taken, allowed to settle in a bottle and timed to the point where the proper clarity is reached. ..Bench scale test through media. Small size and short runs demonstrate the ability to break the emulsion and may give a first approximation of processconditions. ..Pilot plant testing. Larger diameter units (approximately 4 in.), and longer runs can producemore definitive data, but changes during shipment and storage of emulsion may introduce doubt about results. ..Slip stream testing at operational planto Testing under actual processconditions can give the most reliable data on which to scale-upto a full size unit (Fig. 8). Molecular forces. The parameters that should be noted in testing with a chosencoalescingmedia are the specific gravity, interfacial tension, viscosity and concentration of both continuous and dispersed phases, velocity of flow through the media, temperature and of course,a measurementof the degree separation.Suchmeasuremen~may be of doneby analysisofthe eflluents, photometric measurement of clarity, conductivity or other physical property. It would be helpful to know the particle size distribution at the inlet and on the downstreamside of the coalescingelement, but since suchmeasurements very expensiveand time con,"~'... are suming, direct measurementof particles is seldomdone. t.J)J Coalescence oftwo immiscible liquid systemsis complex and yet critical to the successfuloperation of a refinery or petrochemicalplanto There exists large databases ofboth pilot and commercialinstallations of porous media which enhancethe performanceoftraditional gravity separators. Whetherthe requirement isadditional capacity,higher separation efficiency or environmental compliance,a knowl-
.M~dia f
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