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Potential Difference in Circuits Measuring Current | Circuit Diagrams and Symbols | Ohms Law | Series and Parallel Circuits

Measuring Current As electrons pass through a cell or power supply they gain energy. The difference in energy between electrons entering and leaving the cell is called the potential difference (p.d.) or voltage. There is also a potential difference across every component in a circuit, because energy is transferred to them as the current flows through. he bigger the potential difference across a component, the bigger the current that flows through it. Components resist a current flowing through them. The bigger their resistance, the smaller the current produced by a particular voltage. Resistance is measured in ohms () The p.d. across a component is measured in volts (V) using a voltmeter connected in parallel with the component. The current flowing through a component is measured in amperes (A) using an ammeter connected in series with the component.

Circuit Diagrams and Symbols Circuit diagrams are drawn using the following electrical symbols.

The diagram shows how the current flowing through a lamp and the p.d. across it can be measured. If the voltage of the power supply is altered, the current through the filament lamp and voltage across it would alter as shown in the current-voltage graph below. As more current flows, the filament gets hotter so its resistance increases and current is

no longer proportional to voltage.

Ohm's Law For a resistor at constant temperature current is directly proportional to voltage. This is known as Ohm's Law. potential difference = V= current I x resistance R

or

(volt, V)

(ampere, A)

(ohm, )

A diode only allows current to flow through in one direction, because it has a high resistance in the opposite direction. The resistance of a light dependent resistor decreases as the light intensity increases. The resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature increases.

Series and Parallel Circuits Series Circuit See diagram below The same current flows through each component. Parallel Circuit See diagram below The total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through each component. There is the same p.d. across each component, so each bulb shines brightly, no matter how many are connected.

The total p.d. of the supply is shared between the components, so each bulb glows dimly. As more bulbs are connected, the dimmer they glow. If one bulb blows, they all go off. If one bulb blows, the others stay on. The total resistance of the components is the sum of their separate resistances. When cells are connected in series their total p.d. is the sum of them all.

Energy in Circuits As an electric current flows through a circuit, energy is transferred from the battery or power supply to the components in the circuit. For example, electrical energy is transferred to light and heat by bulbs.

An electric current is a flow of charge. The charge is carried by electrons flowing around the circuit. When charge flows through any resistor, some electrical energy is transferred as heat.

Power Power is the amount of energy an appliance transfers every second. The more powerful it is, the more energy it transfers per second. Power is measured in joules per second, or watts (W). So, 1 J/s = 1W A kilowatt (kW) is 1000 watts. A kettle transfers 2300 joules of energy every second. It has a power rating of 2300 W, or 2.3 kW. A radio only transfers about 12 joules per second. It has a power rating of 12 W. Electrical power can be calculated using the following equation: or power P = = potential difference x V (volt, V) current I (ampere, A)

(watt, W)

For example, if a 230 V fan heater takes a current of 5 A, P=VI P = 230 x 5 P = 1150 W This equation can be used to calculate the size of fuse that should be fitted in a plug. The fuse should have a higher value, but as close as possible to, the current through the appliance when it is working normally. For example, a 230 V kettle has a power rating of 2300 W. P = V I can be rearranged to: I = P V I = 2300 230

I = 10 A The closest fuse above this is 13 A. Charge Electrical charge is measured in coulombs (C). A higher voltage gives more power, because each electron carries more energy. More energy is transferred for a given amount of charge which flows. This is shown in the equation: energy transferred = or E (joule, J) = potential difference V (volt, V) x charge C (coulomb, C)

If a current of 1 ampere flows for 1 second then 1 coulomb of charge is passing. This is shown in the equation: or charge Q (coulomb, C) = = current I (ampere, A) x time t (second, s)

These two equations can be put together. If I x t is substituted for Q into the first equation we get: energy transferred = or E= (joule, J) potential difference V (volt, V) x current I (ampere, A) x time t (coulomb, C)

For example, if a 250 V fan takes 2 A of current, how much energy will it transfer in 10 minutes? E=VIt Time needs to be in seconds so, t = 10 x 60 = 600 s E = 250 x 2 x 600 E = 300000 J

Voltage and Current In the UK, the mains voltage is approximately 230V. It is an alternating current (a.c.) supply. This means the current is constantly changing direction. In the UK, it has a frequency of 50 hertz (Hz) which means it changes direction and back again 50 times per second. The live terminal of the mains supply alternates between a positive and a negative voltage, with respect to the neutral terminal. The neutral terminal stays at a voltage close to zero, with respect to earth. Cells and batteries supply a direct current (d.c.). This means it always flows in the same direction.

Safety Mains electricity can kill if not used safely.


Never overload mains sockets. Never touch electrical connections with wet hands. Replace frayed cables. Don't use dirty plugs they have a high resistance and may overheat. Switch off TVs at night.

Electrical appliances are connected to the mains using cable containing two or three copper wires that are covered in flexible plastic. Copper is a good electrical conductor and plastic is an insulator.

Plugs This diagram illustrates how a plug should be wired. To make plugs safe to use they have: a plastic or rubber case which does not conduct electricity brass pins, because brass is a good conductor the correctly sized fuse, which will blow if too much current flows an earth pin that is connected to the appliance casing and prevents electric shock a cable grip that holds the cable in place and prevents the three wires inside from becoming disconnected

Fuses and Circuit Breakers A fuse is a piece of wire which gets hot and eventually melts if too much current flows through it, due to a fault in the appliance. This breaks the circuit. The fuse in a circuit should have a value higher than, but as close as possible to, the current through the appliance when it is working normally. All metal appliances must be earthed. If a fault in the appliance connects the case to the live wire, and the supply is switched on, a very large current flows to earth and overloads the fuse. A circuit breaker performs a similar function to a fuse. If too much current flows through the circuit a switch is flicked to break the circuit. Transfer of Energy Much of the energy transferred in homes and industry is electrical energy. This is because it is easily transferred as:

heat (thermal energy) light sound movement (kinetic energy)

For example, a hairdryer transfers electrical energy as heat and movement (kinetic). Some energy is wasted as sound.

Efficiency The more useful energy an appliance transfers, the more efficient it is. Efficiency can be calculated using the following equation. Efficiency =useful energy transferred by device total energy supplied to device

For example, if the hairdryer transferred 1000 J of electrical energy into 350 J of heat, 150 J of movement energy and 500 J of sound, its efficiency would be calculated as follows. Efficiency = 350 + 150 1000 500 1000 0.5

The amount of energy that an appliance transfers depends on:


how long the appliance is switched on for how fast the appliance transfers energy (its power)

Measuring Energy and Calculating Cost Energy is measured in joules (J), but this is a very small amount of energy. Instead electricity supply companies use a much bigger unit called the kilowatt-hour (kWh), or simply a Unit. The power of an appliance is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW) 1 kW = 1000 W The number of kilowatts-hours (Units) of energy transferred to an appliance is calculated using this formula. Energy transferred (kilowatt-hour, kWh) = power (kilowatt, kW) x time (hour, h)

The cost of this energy can be calculated using this formula. Total cost = number of Units x cost per Unit

For example, if a washing machine has a power rating of 3 kW and is used for 4 hours per week what is the total cost if one Unit of electrical energy costs 8 pence? Number of Units used = power x = 3 x = 12 Units Total cost = time 4

number of Units x cost per Unit = 12 x 8p = 96p

The total amount of electrical energy transferred by a device can be calculated using: energy transferred (joule, J) = power (watt, W) x time (second, s)

So, to calculate the amount of energy transferred by the same washing machine switched on for 4 hours: power in watts time in seconds = 3000 = 4 x 60 x = 14,400 60

energy transferred = power x time = 3000 x 14400 = 43,200,000 J Electrical Charge If two different insulating materials are rubbed together they may become electrically charged. The charge is created because electrons move from one material to the other. Electrons carry a negative charge. The material that loses electrons will become positively charged, and the material that gains them will become negatively charged. Electrically charged objects attract small objects, like pieces of paper, towards them.

If two electrically charged objects are placed near each other they exert a force on each other. They may attract, and move together, or repel and push apart.

Objects which carry the same charge will repel each other. Objects which carry opposite charges will attract each other. A charged object will attract an uncharged object.

A charged object can be discharged by connecting it to earth with a conductor. If a large electrostatic charge builds up on an object it can be dangerous. The greater the charge, the greater the voltage between the object and Earth. If the voltage is big enough the charge can jump from the object to any earthed conductor which is brought near it. Sparks jumping from a car door to a fuel pump could ignite the petrol. Tall buildings have a lightning conductor to carry large charges to Earth, preventing a fire.

Uses of Electrostatic Charges Photocopiers A copying plate is electrically charged and an image of the page you want to copy is projected onto it. Where the light falls on the plate, the charge leaks away, leaving the dark parts charged. These areas attract particles of a black powder. The powder is then transferred from the plate onto a sheet of paper. The paper is heated to make the powder stick, producing a copy of the original page.

Smoke precipitators Burning fuels pollutes the atmosphere with gases and smoke. Smoke contains tiny solid particles. These can be removed before they escape out of chimneys using a smoke precipitator.

As the waste gases pass the charged wire grid the smoke particles pick up a negative charge. They are repelled by the grid, but attracted to the positive charge on large collecting plates. They stick to the plates, which are knocked regularly causing the smoke particles to fall into the dust traps, from where they are removed.

Spray painting Car bodies are given a negative charge. Paint droplets are given a positive charge. The droplets repel each other so spread out into a fine spray. They are attracted to the oppositely charged car body, producing a smooth even coat.

In solid conductors, a current is a flow of electrons. Metals are good conductors because they have free electrons which can move through the metal structure. When some compounds are melted or dissolved in water they conduct electricity, because they form charged particles called ions. Negative ions are attracted to the positive electrode and positive ions are attracted to the negative electrode where they form simple substances. This process is called electrolysis. The mass and/or volume of the substance deposited or released at each electrode increase in proportion to:

The current The time that the current flows for.

Average Speed In any journey the speed of the vehicle will keep changing, but its average speed can be calculated if the total distance and time taken are known. distance average speed (m/s) = travelled (m) time taken (s) So if a cyclist travels 600 metres in 1 minute (60 seconds) his average speed will be: Average speed = 600 60 = 10 m/s

Distance-time Graph If an object moves in a straight line, its distance from a certain point can be represented as a distance-time graph.

The line A-B shows a car travelling at a steady speed. It covers 2 km every 5 minutes. Line C-D also shows a steady speed, but it is travelling slower and covers only 1 km every 5 minutes. The gradient of the slope gives the speed of the object. distance covered time taken 6 km 15 minutes

Gradient =

Gradient of line A- = B

= Gradient of line C= D =

0.4 km/min 2 km 10 minutes 0.2 km/min

The steeper the slope of the graph, the greater the speed it represents. The horizontal line, B-C, shows that the car has stopped. The distance stays at 6 km from where the car set off.

Velocitytime Graph Velocity is speed in a given direction. Velocity-time graphs can represent the movement of an object.

Between K and L the velocity of the car is 0 m/s. It is stopped. Between L and M the car's velocity is increasing at a constant rate. Every second its velocity increases by 2.5 m/s. A diagonal line shows an object is moving with constant acceleration. The gradient of the line gives the acceleration. Gradient of L-M = change in velocity time taken

= 12.5 5

= 2.5 m/s2 The steeper the slope of the line, the greater the acceleration. Between M and N the velocity stays at 12.5 m/s. A horizontal line shows a constant velocity. The area under a velocity-time graph represents the distance travelled. Area under line L-M = x height of triangle x base of triangle = x 12.5 x 5 = 31.25 So the car covered 31.25 m whilst accelerating. The area under line M-N = height of rectangle x width of rectangle = 12.5 x 2.2 = 27.5 So the car travelled 27.5 m at a constant velocity. The total distance = 31.25 + 27.5 travelled = 58.75 m

Acceleration and Deceleration Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity of an object changes. This equation is used to calculate the steady acceleration of an object, travelling in a straight line. acceleration (m/s2) = change in velocity (m/s) time taken for change (s) If a car accelerates from a velocity of 10 m/s to 50 m/s in 5 seconds its acceleration will be: Acceleration = (50 -10) 5

= 40 5

= 8 m/s2 The rate that an object's velocity decreases is called its deceleration. It is calculated using the same equation. If a car is travelling at 20 m/s and it comes to a halt in 5s, its deceleration is: Deceleration = (20 0) 5 20 = 5 = 4 m/s2

Forces Act in Pairs Whenever two objects interact they exert a force on each other. The size of each force will be the same, but in the opposite direction. They are said to be equal and opposite. The force from the wall equals the force of the car.

Balanced Forces If the forces acting on an object are balanced they will not affect the movement of the object. If the object is still, it will stay still. If the object is moving, it will continue to move at a steady speed. The forward force of the engine is equal to the force of friction from the road and air, so the car travels at a steady speed.

Unbalanced Forces To alter the speed of the car the forces must be unbalanced. If the force from the engine is bigger than friction, the car will accelerate. If friction is greater than the force of the engine, the car will slow down. The greater the size of the unbalanced force, the faster the object will speed up or slow down. A stationary object will begin to move in the direction of the unbalanced force.

Force, Mass and Acceleration To make an object accelerate an unbalanced force must act. The greater the force, the greater the acceleration. The mass of the object also affects the acceleration. If the same force is applied to different sized objects, the object with less mass will accelerate faster. Think about pushing a double-decker bus and a Mini. You would have to apply a much bigger force to make the bus accelerate at the same rate as the Mini. Force, mass and acceleration are related in this equation: Force = mass x acceleration or F = ma (N) (kg) (m/s 2 ) So, a force of one Newton is needed to make a mass of one kilogram accelerate at one metre per second squared. Friction Friction is a force that opposes motion.

A force of friction acts when an object moves through air or water, or when solid surfaces slide across each other. The faster the object moves through a fluid, the greater the force of friction. Friction causes objects to heat up and wear away at their surfaces. Friction is important in cars. Tyres have to have a certain amount of tread on them, otherwise they would not grip the road. Brakes exert a large force of friction to stop the vehicle. The faster a vehicle travels, the bigger the braking force needed to stop it in a certain distance, or a greater distance is needed if the same force is applied. If too great a braking force is applied the car may skid due to too little friction between the road and tyres.

Stopping Distances The total stopping distance of a vehicle = Thinking distance + Braking distance. The thinking distance is how far the vehicle travels during the time it takes the driver to react and put his foot on the brake. The braking distance is how far the vehicle travels after the brake has been pressed. Factors which affect the thinking distance include:

Tiredness Drugs Alcohol Poor visibility Speed of the vehicle

Factors that affect the braking distance include:


Speed of the car Condition of the tyres Condition of the brakes Condition of the road, e.g. wet, ice or oil The mass of the vehicle

Terminal Velocity

When an object falls it will accelerate towards the Earth, due to the force of gravity acting on it. This force can also be called weight. Frictional forces between the air and the object will act in the opposite direction. The faster the object falls, the more air it passes through, so air resistance, or drag, gradually increases. If the falling object has a large surface area, the force of friction will be greater.

A parachute provides a large surface area. When the force of friction acting upwards equals the force of gravity acting downwards on the object, the resultant force will be zero. The object then falls at a steady speed. This speed is called its terminal velocity. When a vehicle has a steady speed, the driving force of the engine is equal to the frictional forces due to the air and the road. Longitudinal and transverse waves Waves transfer energy from one place to another but do not transfer any matter. Waves can be produced in ropes and springs and along the surface of water. All these waves can be reflected, they bounce off surfaces. The waves which travel across the surface of water can also be refracted .

As the waves cross the boundary between two different depths of water they change speed. This causes a change in their direction (refraction), unless the direction of travel of the waves is along a normal, i.e. at right angles to the boundary. A ripple tank can be used to study how waves behave.

There are two main types of wave, longitudinal and transverse . In longitudinal waves the disturbances travel backwards and forwards in the same direction as the wave is travelling. Sound waves and waves which travel through a spring are longitudinal. In transverse waves the disturbances are at right angles to the direction of the wave. Light waves, waves that travel along ropes and waves across the surface of water, are transverse.

Describing waves When waves travel along ropes or springs or across the surface of water they set up regular patterns of disturbances. The maximum disturbance, or height of a wave, is called its amplitude. Notice on the diagram that this is the distance from the midline of a wave to the top of a crest or to the bottom of a trough. The distance from a particular point on one wave, to the same point on the next is called the wavelength. This can be represented by the symbol . Wavelength is measured in metres. The number of waves passing every second is called its frequency, f. Frequency is measured in units called hertz (Hz).

The faster a wave is travelling the higher its frequency, but the shorter its wavelength. Wave speed, wavelength and frequency are related in the following equation: wave speed = frequency x wavelength (m/s) (Hz) (m)

or v = f Light waves Light waves are transverse waves and can travel across a vacuum. They do not need particles to travel. This is why light can travel across space. They form part of the electromagnetic spectrum and travel very fast. About 300,000,000 m/s. When light is reflected from a shiny surface the angle at which it meets the mirror (angle of incidence) is the same as the angle at which it leaves it (angle of reflection). Rays of light change direction (are refracted) when they cross the boundary between one transparent substance and another. This is because they change speed. As light travels from air into a more dense substance, such as glass, Perspex or water, it slows down and is refracted towards the normal. If it is travelling in the opposite direction it speeds up and is refracted away from the normal. If the light is travelling along normal its speed still changes but it is not refracted. Total internal reflection When light travels from glass, Perspex or water into air some of the light is reflected from the boundary, whilst the rest is refracted. If the angle of incidence is greater than a certain size, called the critical angle, all of the light is reflected within the substance and none passes out through the surface. This is called total internal reflection.

Total internal reflection is made use of in optical fibres and periscopes. When light travels down an optical fibre, all the light stays inside until it reaches the other end.

This is because light travels down the fibre by repeated total internal reflection. Optical fibres are used to see inside the body, to see down drains and into cavity walls, and in telephone cables.

Sound waves Sound waves are longitudinal waves which travel through solids, liquids and gases. They cannot travel through a vacuum because they need particles to vibrate. Sound travels much slower than light. The speed of sound in air is about 330 m/s. Sound waves travel faster in liquids than gases, and fastest of all through solids. Diffraction Diffraction happens when waves move through a gap or around an obstacle. The shape of their wavefront changes so they spread out from the edges. Their speed and wavelength do not change. Waves that have a longer wavelength are diffracted more strongly. It is because of diffraction that sounds can sometimes be heard around corners and in the shadow of buildings. It is also why radio signals, particularly those with a long wavelength, can be received in the shadow of hills.

Because light and sound can be reflected, refracted and diffracted, just like waves that we can see, this supports the idea that they travel as waves. The Electromagnetic Spectrum Light is one member of a family of waves called the electromagnetic spectrum. All types of electromagnetic radiation can travel across a vacuum and travel at the same speed through space, 300.000.000 m/s or 300,000 km/s. The different types of radiations have different wavelengths. This affects how they are reflected, absorbed or transmitted by different substances and types of surface. When radiation is absorbed, the energy it carries causes the substance to get hotter. It may also create an alternating current with the same frequency as the radiation itself. These, and other properties, determine what each type of radiation can be used for and what its effects are. Type of Radiation Gamma rays Uses To kill harmful bacteria in food. To sterilise surgical instruments.

Wavelength Shortest Wavelength

Frequency Highest Frequency

X-rays

Ultra-violet rays

To kill cancer cells. To produce shadow pictures of materials that X-rays do not easily pass through, e.g. bones and metals. In sunbeds, because u-v causes skin to darken.

Visible light

Special coatings which absorb u-v and emit light are used in fluorescent lamps and security coding. Lighting systems.

Infra-red rays

Optical fibres, e.g. endoscopes, so doctors can see inside patients bodies. In grills, toasters and radiant heaters. In optical fibre

communication. For remote control of TVs and VCRs.

Microwaves Those with wavelengths strongly absorbed by water are used in microwave ovens.

Those that can pass easily through the Earths atmosphere are used to send information to and from satellites and in mobile phone networks.

Radio waves

To transmit radio and TV programmes between different points on Earth.

Longer wavelength waves can be reflected off an electrically charged layer in the upper atmosphere, to be sent between distant points, despite the curvature of the Earth.

Longest Wavelength

Lowest Frequency

Optical fibres can carry more information than sending electrical signals through cables of the same diameter. There is also less weakening of the signal. Effects on Living Cells Microwaves are absorbed by the water in cells. The heat released may damage or kill the cells. Infra-red radiation is absorbed by the skin and felt as heat. If a lot is absorbed it can cause burns. Ultraviolet radiation causes tanning. It can pass through skin to deeper tissues where it can cause cell damage which may develop into skin cancers. High doses kill normal cells.

Darker skins absorb more ultraviolet. Less reaches the deeper tissues, so there is less risk of cancer. X-radiation and gamma radiation mostly passes through the soft tissues, but some is absorbed by the cells. High doses kill cells. Lower doses of these types of ionising radiation can cause normal cells to become cancerous. Digital and Analogue Signals Speech or music can be converted into electrical signals to be transmitted long distances through cables or using electromagnetic waves (radio waves) as carriers. Information can also be converted into light or infra-red signals and sent along optical fibres. As signals travel they become weaker and additions to the signal (noise) may be picked up. Signals which vary continuously in amplitude and /or frequency are called analogue signals, e.g. the sound waves of speech and music. The different frequencies within the signal may weaken by different amounts. Each time the signal is amplified these differences, and any noise picked up, are also amplified. In other words, the signal becomes less like the original. Its quality deteriorates. Signals can be coded into a series of pulses. The signal can only be on or off. These are called digital signals. Digital signals have a higher quality than analogue signals. The information they carry is not changed during transmission. Although the pulses weaken with distance, they are still recognisable as on or off. Any noise picked up is generally of low amplitude, so is interpreted as off and is ignored. More information can also be sent in a given time as a digital signal, whether it is by cable, optical fibre or carrier wave. Loudness and amplitude Sounds are produced when objects vibrate. The sound travels as longitudinal waves.

These waves can be converted into electrical signals which can be displayed on an oscilloscope. The height of a wave, from a midline to the top of a crest or bottom of a trough, is called the amplitude. The louder a sound is, the bigger the vibrations are, and the bigger the amplitude of the wave produced. A soft, or quiet, sound has a smaller amplitude.

Pitch and frequency The number of vibrations per second is called the frequency. Frequency is measured in units called hertz (Hz). The pitch of a sound is determined by its frequency. A high pitched sound has a high frequency, and therefore a short wavelength. A low pitch sound has a low frequency and therefore a long wavelength. The two waves shown below would be of different pitch, but would be the same volume because the amplitude is the same.

Ultrasonic waves The range of sound frequencies that humans can hear is between 20 and 20,000 Hz. Electronic systems can produce electrical oscillations with any frequency. These electrical oscillations can be used to produce ultrasonic waves (ultrasound).

These have a frequency above 20.000 Hz, so are too high to be detected by the human ear. Uses of ultrasonic waves Ultrasonic waves are used in industry for cleaning delicate mechanisms without the need to take them apart. The object to be cleaned is placed in a tank of liquid through which the waves travel, to dislodge the dirt. They are also used for quality control in the manufacture of sheet metals. The diagram shows how ultrasound can be used to monitor the thickness of the sheet. If the sheet is too thin, the detector will detect a higher amplitude of ultrasonic waves and send a signal to the control unit to increase the gap between the rollers. If the sheet is too thick, the amplitude will be smaller and the detector will send a signal to the control unit to decrease the gap between the rollers.

Ultrasonic waves are partly reflected when the meet the boundary between two different substances. The time taken for the reflections to reach a detector, which is usually placed near to the source, is used to calculate how far away the boundary is. The further away it is, the longer it takes for the reflection to be detected. This idea is used in medicine to check the development of a baby in the womb (prenatal scanning). This is much safer than using X-rays, because X-rays damage body cells. In industry the same principle is used to detect flaws in metal castings. The reflected signals are processed by a computer to produce a visual display.

Heat Transfer Heat energy (thermal energy ) is transferred when different parts of a substance are at different temperatures. It is transferred from an area of higher temperature to one at a lower temperature. There are three types of thermal transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction is the transfer of energy without the substance moving. Metals are good conductors because the hotter the metal is the more kinetic energy the vibrating ions in the metal structure have. This energy is transferred to cooler parts of the metal by free electrons which diffuse through the metal and collide with ions and with other electrons. Non-metals are usually poor conductors (insulators). Convection occurs in liquids and gases. The particles can flow from an area at high temperature to one at a lower temperature. When heated the particles in a fluid move faster and further apart, causing the gas or liquid to expand. Warm regions are then less dense than cooler ones, so they rise up and are replaced by cooler, more dense fluid. Convection currents are set up in the fluid which circulates the heat. Thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by waves. It can occur across a vacuum because it does not involve the movement of particles. Infra-red Radiation Infra-red radiation is heat. All hot bodies emit infra-red radiation. The hotter the object is, the more energy it radiates. Dark, matt surfaces emit more radiation than light shiny ones that are at the same temperature. Dark, matt surfaces are also good absorbers (poor reflectors) of radiation.

Light, shiny surfaces are good reflectors (poor absorbers) of radiation. This is why black cars get much hotter in summer than light coloured ones. Energy Efficient Buildings The diagram below show the ways in which heat energy is lost from a typical house.

The losses can be reduced in several ways: Loft insulation uses materials which trap air in tiny spaces. Air is a poor conductor, so less heat escapes through the roof. Double glazed windows have two layers of glass. Between the layers air is trapped. This reduces heat loss by conduction and convection. Cavity wall insulation traps air between two layers of bricks to reduce heat loss through the walls. Draught excluders around windows and doors stops warm air escaping, and stops cold air getting into the house. Carpets also help to prevent draughts, so reduce heat loss by convection. They also trap air, so reduce heat loss by conduction.

Energy consumption in a building can also be reduced by:


switching lights off using low energy bulbs reducing the setting on central heating thermostats by a degree lagging heating pipes and hot water tanks keeping internal doors closed

Wasted Energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be transferred into different forms. Whenever energy is transferred only part of it is usefully transferred into the form it is wanted.

The rest of the energy is transferred into a non-useful form, so is wasted. Both the wasted energy and the useful energy eventually end up being transferred to the surroundings, which become warmer. Heat is therefore the most common form of wasted energy. The energy becomes more and more spread out and increasingly more difficult to use for further useful energy transfers. Sankey Diagrams The energy transfers of a machine can be shown in a sankey diagram.

This shows the form and amount of energy used by the light bulb and what it is transferred to. The amount of energy used by the bulb must equal the total amount of energy produced. The width of the arrows represents the amount of energy. This light bulb uses 500J of electrical energy which it transfers into 75J of useful light energy and 425J of wasted heat energy. Efficiency Calculations The more efficient a device is, the more of the energy supplied to it is transferred into useful energy. The efficiency of a device is calculated using: Efficiency = useful energy transferred by the device total energy supplied to the device So for the light bulb

Efficiency = 75 500 = 0.15 Sometimes efficiency is quoted as a percentage. This is calculated by multiplying the efficiency by 100 Percentage efficiency = 0.15 x 100 = 15% Therefore 85% of the energy transferred by the light bulb is wasted as heat. Generating Electricity Electricity is a very convenient and widely used energy source, but it has to be generated using other energy resources in power stations. This is why it is called a secondary energy source. Most power stations use a fuel to heat water. Steam is produced which turns turbines . The turbines then derive generators, which produce electricity. The energy transfers for a power station that burns fossil fuels would be: Chemical energy energy in the fuel by the heat energy in the boiler kinetic energy in the steam and turbines electrical produced generators

A lot of energy is wasted as heat in waste gases, steam and due to friction in the turbines and generators. In nuclear power stations the fuel used to release heat to boil the water is usually uranium or plutonium. Non-renewable energy resources Non-renewable energy resources are those which will eventually run out and cannot be replaced. Power stations that use fuels can produce electricity at any time of the day or year. They are reliable energy sources. The time it takes to start them up varies:

Longest start up time --------------------------------------------------------up time nuclear coal oil Fuels are also concentrated sources of energy. There are several disadvantages of using fuels to generate electricity.

shortest start natural gas

Fossil fuels and uranium are non-renewable. Oil is a very useful raw material that we should conserve for other purposes. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide gas which increases the greenhouse effect and global warming. For the same amount of energy released coal produces more carbon dioxide than oil, and oil produces more than natural gas. Burning coal and oil also releases sulphur dioxide gas that causes acid rain. The sulphur can be removed from the fuel before burning, or the sulphur dioxide can be removed from the waste gases before they enter the atmosphere. This increases the cost of the electricity generated. Although nuclear fuels do not produce carbon dioxide or sulphur dioxide gases, and they emit very little radiation or radioactive materials into the surroundings when running normally, there is always the risk of an accident. Large amounts of very dangerous radioactive material may then be released over a wide area. Nuclear power stations produce waste which stays dangerously radioactive for thousands of years. This has to be stored safely, or could increase the incidence of cancers in the population. Fuel costs for nuclear power stations are low, but initial building costs and de-commissioning costs at the end of their useful life, is high.

Renewable energy resources Renewable energy resources are those which can be replaced, so they will not run out. Energy from renewable resources can be used to drive turbines directly. Although there are no fuel costs, the energy is dilute so the capital cost of the generating equipment is high. They do not release pollutant gases into the atmosphere but may have other disadvantages. Renewable energy resource Wind Giant wind turbines turn generators. Disadvantages Unreliable because the strength of the wind varies considerably. Wind farms are usually sited on hills or coasts and are considered

unsightly by some people. Cause noise pollution for people who live nearby. Costly to build. Unreliable because the time and height of tides varies on a monthly and yearly cycle. Tidal barrages built across estuaries destroy the habitat of wading birds and mud living organisms.

Tides A lake fills behind a barrage built across an estuary at high tide and empties at low tide. The fast flowing water turns generators.

Hydroelectric energy A reservoir behind a dam at the top of a hill fills with water. When the water is released it turns turbines. Generally very reliable and can be started quickly to meet sudden demands for electricity. Can be operated in reverse to use surplus electricity from other power stations to pump water from a low reservoir to a higher one. Most of the energy from the surplus electricity is therefore stored instead of being wasted. Geothermal energy Decay of radioactive elements within the Earth releases heat. In some volcanic areas hot water and steam rise to the surface. The steam can be used to drive turbines. Solar energy Electricity can be produced directly from the Suns radiation using solar cells. This is often the best energy source for producing electricity in remote places, e.g. on satellites, or when only small amounts of electricity are needed, e.g. for watches or calculators.

Expensive to set up and few areas are suitable. Flooding upland river valleys destroys habitats and land that may previously have been used for farming or forestry.

Few areas are suitable.

Deep drilling is required which is difficult and expensive.

Unreliable as light intensity from the Sun varies.

Very expensive only nonrechargeable batteries have a higher cost per Unit of electricity produced over their lifetime.

Work and Energy Work is done only when a force makes something move, or tries to stop it moving.

Whenever work is done energy is transferred. The amount of work done is a measure of the amount of energy transferred. work done = energy transferred For this reason work and energy are measured in the same units, joules (J). The amount of work done depends on the size of the force applied and the distance something moves. work done = force applied x distance moved in direction of force (joule, J) (newton, N) (metre, m) If a person who weighs 500N climbs a flight of stairs which have a vertical height of 5m, the amount of work the person does is:

work done = 500 x 5 = 2500 J (or 2.5 kJ) Sometimes the mass of an object is given, instead of its weight. To convert mass to weight use the following equation: weight = (newton, N) Power Power is a measure of how fast work is done, or how fast energy is transferred. The greater the power, the more energy is transferred in a given time. Power is measured in watts (W). power (watt, W) = < U > work done (joule, J) time taken (second,s) 1 watt is equivalent to 1 joule of energy being transferred every second. mass x gravitational field strength (kilogram, kg) (Newton/kilogram, N/kg)

Therefore 1 watt is equivalent to 1 J/s If a weightlifter raises a load of 1500 N through 2 m in 3 seconds, the power developed is:

power = 1500 x 2 3 power = 3000 3 = 1000 W (or 1 kW) Gravitational Potential Energy Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object when it is raised above the ground against the force of gravity. The higher the object is raised, the more gravitational potential energy it stores. change in gravitational potential energy = weight x change in vertical height (joule, J) (newton, N) (metre, m) If someone lifts a 100 N baby 2 m off the floor, it will gain gravitational potential energy: Gain in gravitational potential energy = 100 x 2 = 200 J An object at ground level has zero gravitational potential energy. Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in an elastic object when work is done to change its shape.

For example a stretched catapult has elastic potential energy. When the catapult is released its elastic potential energy is transferred into kinetic (movement) energy. Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because of its movement. An object has more kinetic energy if it has a greater mass, or a faster speed. kinetic energy (joule,J) = x mass x (kilogram, kg) speed2 [(metre/second)2, m/s2]

The kinetic energy of a 70kg man moving at 2 m/s is: Kinetic energy = x 70 x 22 = 35 x 4 = 140 J Electromagnets Electric currents produce magnetic fields. This is called the magnetic effect of an electric current. It can be used to make things move, for example electric motors and circuit breakers. When a current is passed through a coil of wire, the coil acts like a bar magnet one end becomes a north-seeking pole, the other a south-seeking pole. This is called an electromagnet. Reversing the current in an electromagnet reverses the poles of the electromagnet. The strength of an electromagnet can be increased by:

Increasing the current through the coil Increasing the number of turns on the coil Put an iron core into the coil

Uses of Electromagnets Electromagnets are used in scrap yards, for picking up cars, electric bells, relay switches and circuit breakers. A circuit breaker is a safety device, designed to break a circuit if the current flowing through it rises above a certain value. The diagram shows how a circuit breaker works.

Current flows through the contacts and the electromagnet. If the current gets too high the electromagnet becomes stronger and attracts the iron catch towards it. The spring then pulls the contacts apart and the circuit is broken. To reconnect the circuit the reset button is pressed which pushes the contacts back together.

Motor Effect of an Electric Current When a wire carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field it may experience a force. The diagram shows how the wire is forced to move upwards. If the poles of the magnet or the direction of current through the wire was reversed, the wire would move downwards. This is called the motor effect of an electric current. The force on the wire is stronger if:

The current is increased A stronger magnet is used A longer piece of wire is in the field

An Electric Motor If a coil is placed in a magnetic field it will turn. This is because the current flows in opposite directions along the two sides of the coil.

One side is pushed up and the other is pushed down. This is basically how a motor works. The turning effect is stronger if:

The current is increased A stronger magnet is used There are more turns on the coil

Induced Current Magnetic fields can be used to produce electric currents. This idea is used in generators to produce electricity and in transformers to increase or decrease voltage. If a magnet is moved into a coil of wire that is part of a circuit, a current is produced (induced) in the wire. If the magnet is moved out of the coil, or the opposite pole of the magnet is moved into the coil, the direction of the induced current is reversed. Alternatively, a current can be induced in the wire by moving the wire at right angles across a magnetic field. A voltage is produced between the ends of the wire when the wire, or coil, cuts through the magnetic field lines. The induced voltage causes a current to flow through the wire. The size of the induced voltage increases when:

The speed of movement increases The strength of the magnetic field increases The number of turns on the coil is increased

The area of the coil is greater

Generators A generator uses the idea of electromagnetic induction to produce electricity. A coil of wire is rotated in a magnetic field, or a magnet is rotated inside a coil of wire. Slip rings are fixed to the coil, which turn with it. Carbon brushes push against the slip rings to maintain contact. When the coil is rotated the current induced in the wire is conducted to the external circuit via the brushes. As the coil rotates each side travels up through the magnetic field and then down through it. So the induced current flows first one way, then the other. This is called an alternating current (a.c.) As the coil moves into the vertical position it moves parallel to the magnetic field, so does not cut it. Momentarily there is no induced current.

Transformers Transformers are used to change the voltage of an a.c. supply.

As an alternating current flows through the primary coil it induces a changing magnetic field in the soft iron core. An alternating current is induced in the second coil. If there are more turns on the primary coil than on the secondary coil, the voltage is stepped down. If there are more on the secondary coil, the voltage is stepped up. The voltages across the primary and secondary coils are related as shown: voltage across primary (volt, V) voltage across secondary (volt, V) = number of turns on primary number of turns on secondary

A lab power pack has a step-down transformer in it to reduce the mains voltage from 230 V to 12 V or less. Transmission of Electricity At power stations step-up transformers increase the voltage before the electricity is transmitted through power lines in the National Grid. This means a smaller current is needed to transmit the electrical energy at the same rate. The power cables do not heat up as much, so less energy is wasted. The cables can also be thinner and lighter. The voltage is reduced by a step-down transformer in a substation before the electricity is supplied to factories and homes. Background Radiation

Some substances give out radiation all the time. They are said to be radioactive. Radioactive atoms are unstable and will randomly break down. When this happens the nucleus of some atoms breaks up and gives out radiation. There are radioactive substances all around us in the ground, in air, in building materials and in food. Radiation also reaches us from space. The radiation from all these sources is called background radiation. Types of Radiation There are three types of radiation that are emitted by radioactive substances. Alpha particles not very penetrating. They are absorbed by a few centimetres of air or thin paper. Beta particles moderately penetrating. They pass through air or paper easily, but are absorbed by a few millimetres of metal. Gamma rays very penetrating electromagnetic waves. They are absorbed by several centimetres of lead, or several metres of concrete. As radiation passes through a material it can be absorbed. The thicker the material, the more radiation is absorbed. Dangers of Radiation When radiation from radioactive substances collides with neutral atoms or molecules these may become ionised. This means they form charged particles called ions. If molecules inside living cells become ionised they can cause damage, including cancer. The bigger the dose of radiation, the greater the chance of cancer. Higher doses of radiation can kill cells. When sources of radiation are outside the body, alpha radiation is the least dangerous because it cannot penetrate the skin, so is unlikely to reach living cells. Beta and gamma radiation are the most dangerous because they can penetrate the skin and reach cells of organs, which may absorb them. Workers who may be exposed to radiation have to wear a radiation badge, which

monitors the amount of radiation the person has been exposed to over a period of time. The badge contains a piece of photographic film. The film darkens if exposed to radiation. The more radiation a worker has been exposed to, the darker the film goes. If radioactive sources are inside the body, alpha radiation is the most dangerous because it is strongly absorbed by the cells. Beta and gamma radiation are less dangerous because they can penetrate the tissue. Half-life The radiation emitted by a radioactive source gradually gets less as the unstable atoms decay. The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half the radioactive atoms to decay. So, it is the time for the count rate for the original substance to fall to half its initial value. A Geiger-Mller tube, or G-M tube, is used to detect and measure radiation. The amount of radiation is measured in counts per second.

The half-life of this substance is 15 minutes. The more unstable the nuclei the shorter the half-life. Substances with long half-lives are often the most dangerous because they stay radioactive for many years. Uses of Radiation

To kill cancer cells. To kill harmful micro organisms To monitor and control the thickness of manufactured materials, for

example, paper, rubber and metal sheets.

A beta source is usually used. If the sheet stays the correct thickness the detector picks up and displays a steady reading. If the reading goes up, the sheet is too thin, if it falls the sheet is too thick. As radioactive tracers in hospitals to build up a picture of what is happening inside the body.

The radioactive sources used are usually gamma emitters, so the radiation passes through the body to a detector and little is absorbed by the cells. They have fairly short half-lives so that they decay quickly to minimise any cell damage. Atomic Structure Atoms are made up of three tiny particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. Particle Proton Neutron Electron Position in atom Nucleus Nucleus In energy levels (shells) outside the nucleus Charge Positive No charge Negative Mass 1 1 Negligible

Atoms have no overall electrical charge because the number of positive protons and negative electrons are equal, so they cancel each other out. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines what element it is. Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. At the centre of an atom is the nucleus , which is very small. It has a positive charge because it contains protons.

It is very dense because it contains protons and neutrons which make up most of the mass of an atom. This model of the atom was developed by Rutherford and Marsden. They directed a beam of alpha particles at a very thin piece of metal. Most particles went straight through the metal atoms, suggesting that most of the atom must be empty space. A few particles were scattered at different angles. Alpha particles carry a positive charge, so Rutherford concluded that they must be repelled by a small area of great positive charge. He called this the nucleus. This model replaced an earlier plum pudding model. The earlier model described an atom as having negative charges embedded in a positive dough. Rutherford and Marsdens scattering experiment disproved this theory.
'Plum pudding' model of an atom

The total number of protons and neutrons (nucleons) in an atom is called its mass number, or nucleon number. Isotopes Atoms of the same element which have different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes . Carbon exists in three forms: 12 C 6 number of protons number of electrons number of neutrons 6 6 6 13 C 6 6 6 7 14 C 6 6 6 8

Some isotopes are radioactive. These are radioisotopes or radionuclides. Their nuclei are unstable and can spontaneously split up, emitting radiation and producing a new atom, with a different number of protons. This is called radioactive decay and is a random process you dont know which atoms may suddenly undergo a nuclear change. Examples of isotopes Element Carbon Stable isotopes Carbon-12 Carbon-13 Potassium Potassium-39 Potassium-41 Uranium Unstable isotopes Carbon-14 Potassium-40 Uranium-234 Uranium-235 Uranium-238 Where found Air, plants and animals Rocks, plants and sea water Rocks

Radioactive Dating Radioactive materials gradually decay and form new atoms. The time it takes for half the atoms in a sample to decay is called its half-life, so older samples emit less radiation. This idea is used to work out how old plant, animal and rock specimens are. Carbon-14 is used to date things that were once living. Uranium isotopes have very long half-lives and decay via a series of short-lived radioisotopes to produce stable isotopes of lead. The relative amounts of uranium and lead in a sample of igneous rack can be used to date the rock. Potassium-40 decays to form argon. The proportions of radioactive potassium and stable argon can be used to date igneous rocks from which the gaseous argon has been unable to escape. For example, the half life of uranium-238 is 4500 million years. If a rock sample contains three times as many lead atoms as uranium atoms, and we assume there was no lead in the rock when it was formed, we can calculate its age. After 4500 million years half the atoms would be uranium-238 and half would be lead. After another 4500 million years half of these uranium atoms would have decayed to lead, producing a rock containing three times as much lead as uranium. The age of the rock would therefore be 9000 million years. Nuclear Fission

Inside a nuclear reactor, unstable atoms with large nuclei are bombarded with neutrons. This causes the nuclei of the atoms to split into two smaller nuclei. This is called nuclear fission . Further neutrons are released which can hit other atoms causing further nuclear fission. This is called a chain reaction.

The new atoms formed are also radioactive. Many of these have very long half-lives, so will be dangerous for many years. Large amounts of energy are released during radioactive decay or nuclear fission. This energy can be transferred into electrical energy in a nuclear power station, or used destructively as with a nuclear bomb. Types of Nuclear Radiation There are several types of nuclear radiation. Alpha particles are helium nuclei, so they have two protons and two neutrons, but no electrons. They carry a 2+ charge. Beta particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus of an atom. They carry a negative charge. Gamma rays are very short wavelength electromagnetic waves which travel at the speed of light. They do not have a charge.

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