UNIT 1 Self Assessment Questions 1. Management is the development of people and not the direction of things.

This definition is given by ___Appley ___ 2. Management is a distinct process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling performed to determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and resources..This definition was given by Terry in 1953 3. ___ Management ___ is one of the factors of production together with land, labour and capital. 4. Management is a ___Distinct Process_ consisting of such functions as planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. 5. In recent time, management functions have been regrouped into ___. Four __ categories. 6. Training starts with an ____Organizational ____ analysis. 7. Ceremonial and symbolic role of a manager is called ________Figurehead ___. 8. Vocational and on-the-job training programs can be used to develop ___Technical ____ skill. 9. The average manager spent ___32 __ percent of his or her time performing traditional management. 10. Effective managers spend __ 26 ___ percent of their time in human resource management SUMMARY Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within an organization, then applies that knowledge to make organizations work more effectively (Robbins, 2003). An effective and efficient manager should focus on two key results. Management functions have been grouped into four categories: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. The characteristics of management are goal oriented. Economic resource, distinct process, integrative force, intangible force, a science and an art, results through others, system of authority and multidisciplinary subject. Planning involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving these goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities. All levels of management engage in planning in their own way for achieving their preset goals. Organizing involves designing, structuring, and coordinating the work components to achieve organizational goal. It is the process of determining what tasks are to be

done, who is to do, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made. A key issue in accomplishing the goals identified in the planning process is structuring the work of the organization. Leading involves team building, consensus building, selecting and training. An organization has the greatest chance of being successful when all of the employees work toward achieving its goals. Since leadership involves the exercise of influence by one person over others, the quality of leadership exhibited by supervisors is a critical determinant of organizational success. Controlling involves monitoring the employees behavior and organizational processes and take necessary actions to improve them, if needed. Control is the process through which standards for performance of people and processes are set, communicated, and applied. According to Mintzberg (1973), managerial roles are: Informational roles, Decisional roles and Interpersonal roles. Katz (1974) has identified three essential management skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Luthans (1988) found that all managers engage in four managerial activities: (i) Traditional managementThis activity consists of planning, decision making, and controlling, (ii) CommunicationThis activity consists of exchanging routine information and processing paperwork, (iii) Human resource managementthis activity consists of motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing, and training, and (iv) Networkingthis activity involves socializing, politicking, and interacting with outsiders.

1.9 Answers Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. Appley 2. 1953 3. Management 4. Distinct Process 5. Four 6. Organizational 7. Figurehead 8. Technical 9. 32 10. 26

Unit 2 Self Assessment Questions 1. Buchanan and Huczynski (1997) have defined Organizations as ___Social __ arrangements. 2. Barnard (1938) defined Organizations as system of __Co-operative activities. 3. OB is concerned with the study of the structure, functioning and performance of organizations, and the behavior of groups and individuals within them. This definition was given by __Pugh __ 4. Best Deal retails team is consciously coordinated social unit, composed of a group of players that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals, and thus, it may best be described as: . An Organization (A) A. An organization B. A club C. A company D. A profit centre 5. The issues related to personality, creativity and motivation are related to __Individual _level of analysis. 6. Organization culture and organization structure are aspects related to the _Organizational level of analysis. 7. Eight parameters for level of analysis were proposed by __ Wood _in 1997. 8. Adam Smith stated that organizations and society would reap from the __Division __ of labor. 9. Taylor has proposed ___Scientific __ principles of management. 10. Fayol has proposed ____Administrative ____ theory. 11. ___Psychology _ is the science that attempts to measure, explain, and at times change the behavior of humans and other animals. 12. ___ Social psychology ____ blends the concepts of psychology and sociology. 13. Political science studies the behavior of individuals and groups within a ___Political ___ environment.

Answers
1. Social 2. Co-operative 3. Pugh 4. An Organization (A) 5. Individual 6. Organizational 7. Wood 8. Division 9. Scientific 10. Administrative 11. Psychology 12. Social psychology 13. Political 2.6 Summary Let us sum up what we have studied in this unit: Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within an organization, then applies that knowledge to make organizations work more effectively. Specifically, OB focuses on how to improve productivity, reduce absenteeism and turnover, and increase employee citizenship and job satisfaction. An organization consists of people and so it is also a social system. The field of organizational behavior (OB) draws primarily from the behavioral science disciplines of psychology, social psychology, and cultural anthropology. The areas on which OB focuses are individuals who will often be working within groups, which themselves work within organizations, as well as all the interrelationships between them. Some of the specific themes embraced by OB are personality theory, attitudes and values, motivation and learning, interpersonal behavior, group dynamics, leadership and teamwork, organizational structure and design, decisionmaking, power, conflict, and negotiation. OB is an interdisciplinary field, it has distinctly humanistic outlook, it is performance oriented, it considers external environment as critical, it uses scientific method and it has an applications orientation. The three broad levels of analysis are at individual level, group level and organizational level. Further to this, Wood (1997) provides a useful model for exploring behavioral events. He suggests that different levels of

analysis can be applied when examining the significance of an organizational issue. He proposes eight, namely: individual, team, intergroup, organizational, inter-organizational, societal, international, and global. A large number of people have contributed to the growth of OB as a discipline. Some of the most important works have been done by Adam Smith, Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol, Max Weber, Mary parker Follet, Abraham Maslow, B. F. Skinner, to name a few. Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built upon contributions from a number of behavioral disciplines. The main areas are psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and political science.

UNIT 3 Self Assessment Questions 1. Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by _Pavlov ___. 2. The operant conditioning theory is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in ____Overt __ behavior 3. Social learning has ___Four __ processes. 4. ___Punishment ____is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior 5. ____Extinction _____ is eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior 6. In general, variable schedules tend to lead to ____Higher __ performance than fixed schedules. 7. The typical OB Modification program follows a __Five ___ step problem-solving model 8. OB Modification has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee Productivity 9. Continental Airlines lottery system follows a ___Variable-ratio schedule. 10. Forbes magazine used ___Well pay _ to cut its health care costs 11. Womens absenteeism rates tend to be __Higher __ than those of men. 12. There is a __Negative _ relationship between tenure to absence

13. Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic is called ___Number Aptitude _ aptitude. 14. Interpersonal intelligence means _____People _ smart. 15. Ability to exert force against external objects is called as __ Static Strength __ strength.

3.7 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit. Learning refers to a process that enhances the knowledge, skill and attitude (KSA) of individuals, to increase his/her willingness to adopt those newly acquired KSA and to implement them at the workplace. Characteristics of learning are: learning involves change; change must be relatively permanent; learning is concerned with behavior; and some form of experience is necessary for learning.
There are three theories of learning namely classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by Pavlov. This process involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus does not lead to an overt behavioral response from the organism. This is called as Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Significant stimulus evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. This is called Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to it. It is the Conditioned Response (CR). The operant conditioning theory is proposed by B.F. Skinner. This is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to stimuli. When a particular StimulusResponse (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. The social learning theory was proposed by Bandura. It recognizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura (1977), most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. When a systematic attempt is made to change individuals behavior by directing their learning in graduated steps, it is called shaping behavior. There are four methods of Shaping Behavior. They are: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They

strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency. The typical OB Mod program follows a five-step problem-solving model: Identifying critical behaviors, Developing baseline data, Identifying behavior consequences, Developing and implementing an intervention strategy, and Evaluating performance improvement. The biographical characteristics include gender, age, marital status and tenure. Ability reflects a persons existing capacity to perform the various tasks needed for a given job and includes both relevant knowledge and skills (Cummings & Schwab, 1973). Aptitude represents a persons capability of learning something. In other words, aptitudes are potential abilities, whereas abilities are the knowledge and skills that an individual currently possesses. The abilities include intellectual and physical abilities Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. Pavlov 2. Overt 3. Four 4. Punishment 5. Extinction 6. Higher 7. Five 8. Productivity 9. Variable-ratio 10. Well pay 11. Higher 12. Negative 13. Number Aptitude 14. People 15. Static Strength
Terms Ability Learning Meaning Ability is an Individual's capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour potentially that results from reinforced practice or experience. The process of acknowledging specific behaviors with positive feedback, such as a smile, praise or reward.

Positive Reinforcement

Reinforcement

The practice of providing positive feedback to an individual or groups of individuals after completion of a particular project or achievement of a particular goal.

Unit 4 Self Assessment Questions 1. _Terminal values refer to desirable end-states of existence, the goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime. 2. Social Recognition is ____Terminal __ value. 3. __ Instrumental ___ values refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values. 4. Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s, are called ___Veterans ____. 5. ___ Xers _____ began to enter the workforce from the mid-1980s 6. Power distance measures the ___Social equality _____. 7. __Individualism ___ gauges to what extent individuals in a country consider themselves as distinct entities rather than as members of cohesive groups. 8. Hofstede and Bond (1988) have identified a fifth dimension called ____Long-term orientation _______ 9. There are __Three ___ components of an attitude 10. Festinger has proposed ______Cognitive Dissonance ____ theory. 11. Self-perception ___ theory proposes that attitudes are used to make sense out of an action that has already occurred rather than devices that precede and guide action.

4.6 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit: Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or endstate of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. Types of values include, ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (political, religious) values, social values, and aesthetic values. Values build the foundation for

the understanding of attitudes and motivation of an individual, since; value has a great impact on perceptions. Values shape relationships, behaviors, and choices. The more positive our values, more positive are peoples actions. A significant portion of the values an individual holds is established in the early years from parents, teachers, friends, and others. Rokeach, in his Value Survey (Rokeach Value Survey- RVS), proposed two sets of values. They are: Terminal values and Instrumental values. Each set contains 18 individual value items. Terminal values refer to desirable end-states of existence, the goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime. Instrumental values refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values. Hofstede proposed four dimensions of national culture: Power distance (this dimension measures the 'social equality'), Uncertainty avoidance (this is a representation of a society's tolerance for uncertain situations), Individualism vs. collectivism (individualism gauges to what extent individuals in a country consider themselves as distinct entities rather than as members of cohesive groups and collectivism emphasizes on 'social ties or bonds' between individuals) and Masculinity vs. femininity (this dimension refers to what extent dominant values in a society emphasizes masculine social values like a work ethic expressed in terms of money, achievement and recognition as opposed to feminine social role which show more concern for people and quality of life). Attitudes are evaluative statements that are either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people, or events. Attitudes are not the same as values, but the two are interrelated. There are three components of an attitude: Cognition (the mental process involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension), Affect (the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude) and Behavior (an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something). Festinger (1957), while linking attitudes with behavior, argued that, any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance. The desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by the importance of the elements creating the dissonance, the degree of influence the individual believes he/she has over the elements and the rewards that may be involved in dissonance. Self-perception theory (Bem, 1967) proposes that attitudes are used to make sense out of an action that has already occurred rather than devices that precede and guide action. In contrast to the cognitive dissonance theory, attitudes are just casual verbal statements and they tend to create plausible answers for what has already occurred. Answers to Self Assessment Questions

1. Terminal 2. Terminal 3. Instrumental 4. Veterans 5. Xers 6. Social equality 7. Individualism 8. Long-term orientation 9. Three 10. Cognitive Dissonance 11. Self-perception

Glossary Words
Attitude Ethics Job satisfaction Value

Meaning Persons complexes of beliefs and feelings about specific ideas, situations, or other people. An individual's personal beliefs about what is right and wrong or good and bad. The extent to which a person is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. Stable long lasting beliefs about what is important in a variety of situations.

Unit 5
1. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individuals personality is the molecular structure of the ____Genes __ 2. One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is the_Immediate ____ family 3. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as _____Primary ___ factors. 4. The MBTI classifies human beings into ___Four _____ opposite pairs 5. Locus of control was formulated within the framework of Rotter's ____Social learning ___ theory of personality 6. Holland has proposed __Six ___ themes of people and work environments, within which all jobs can be classified 7. ___Enterprising __ person prefers verbal activities in which there are opportunities to influence others and attain power.

5.5 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit: The term 'personality' has been derived from the Latin term 'persona' which means to 'speak through'. The factors affecting personality development are Heredity, Environment, Culture, Family, and Situation. Personality Traits are underlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive style and they describe the frequency or intensity of a person's feelings, thoughts, or behaviors. Possession of a trait is, therefore, a matter of degree. Early research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of traits, which made it impossible to predict behavior.
According to Sheldon(1940) there is a link between physiological traits and characteristics of an individual with his behavior. There are basically three types-endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph. Cattells (1973) is one of

the most important personality trait theory, where the number of traits have been reduced. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors. The MBTI classifies human beings into four opposite pairs (dichotomies), base on their psychological opposites. These four opposite pairs result into 16 possible combinations. Many researchers argue that five basic dimensions underlie all other personality dimensions (e.g; McCrae and Costa, 1990; Digman, 1997). The five basic dimensions are Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional stability, and openness to experience. A persons perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control. Locus of control was formulated within the framework of Rotter's (1954) social learning theory of personality. Rotter (1975) pointed out that internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an either/or typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control. Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain. Self-esteem is defined as the degree to which people like or dislike themselves (Robbins, 2003). Self-monitoring refers to an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability. Type A personality is a set of characteristics that includes, being impatient, excessively time-conscious, insecure about one's status, highly competitive, hostile and aggressive, and incapable of relaxation. Type B personality is rarely hurried by the desire to obtain an increasing number of things or participate in events demanding an ever-decreasing amount of time. According to Holland (1997), workers are not passive victims of their environments, but actively seek potentially compatible work environments. If an individuals personality and the work environment fit that is, if the personality is congruent with the work environment the individual will most likely enjoy the work and develop and grow in the career. Matching people to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. Genes 2. Immediate 3. Primary 4. Four 5. Social learning 6. Six

7. Enterprising

Glossary Words
Agreeableness Culture

Extraversion

Family

Locus of control

Personality

Meaning A person's ability to get along with others. Broadly, social heritage of a group (organized community or society). It is a pattern of responses discovered, developed, or invented during the group's history of handling problems which arise from interactions among its members, and between them and their environment The quality of being comfortable with relationships; the opposite extreme, introversion, is characterized by more social discomfort Social unit of two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption and having a shared commitment to the mutual relationship. See also household The extent to which people believe their circumstances are a function of their own actions versus external factors beyond their control The relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another.

Unit 6 Emotions
Self Assessment Questions 1. Subjective emotional responses are the result of ___Physiological ___ changes within human bodies. 2. Both feedback from peripheral responses and a __Cognitive ____ appraisal of what caused those responses produce emotions. 3. ___Felt ____ emotions are an individuals actual emotions. 4. Ekman (1999) has found _Six ____ emotions which are universally recognized and applicable. 5. People who suffer from ___Alexithymia ___ rarely cry and are often seen by others as bland and cold 6. The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by ___Goleman ___. 7. Personal competence comprises of ____Three ____ dimensions of emotional intelligence. 8. Social competence comprises of ____Two ____ dimensions

6.5 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit Emotion is used to designate "a state of consciousness having to do with the arousal of feelings (Websters New World Dictionary)." It is "distinguished from other mental states, from cognition, volition, and awareness of physical sensation." Feeling refers to "any of the subjective reactions, pleasant or unpleasant" that one may experience in a situation.
There are many theories of emotion. James-Lange Theory proposes that subjective emotional responses are the result of physiological changes within human bodies. Cannon-Bard theory proposes that emotion-provoking events induce the subjective emotional experiences and physiological arousal simultaneously. Schachter-Singer theory proposes that both feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive appraisal of what caused those responses produce emotions. How one interprets the peripheral response will determine the emotion he / she feels. According to Lazarus' appraisal theory, an individual makes an initial and sometimes unconscious cognitive appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threat; coping action is taken if necessary; and the individual takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he or she is feeling. Weiner, in his theory, proposes that certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once the initial evaluation has been made, the individual looks at what caused the event. These attributions of causality can modify the emotion felt. It is the interaction of the perceived internal and external causes, controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional responses. Felt emotions are an individuals actual emotions. Displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are learned. Felt and displayed emotions may be different. This is particularly true in organizations, where role demands and situations often require people to exhibit emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings. There are two Views of Culture and Emotion. In Universality view, it is believed that emotions are part of human nature and in all cultures universally the same set of basic emotions. Based on his cross-cultural research, Ekman (1999) has found six emotions which are universally recognized and applicable. They are: Anger, Fear, Sadness, Happiness, Disgust, and Surprise. Women are assumed to experience more frequent and intense emotions, whereas men are assumed to be emotionally inexpressive and to have less intense emotional experiences. However, researchers have argued that the stereotype of men as unemotional is more accurate for adult targets than for child targets because males learn to control their emotions as they get older.

Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals cognition of own and others' emotions, feeling, interpretation and action as per environmental demand to manipulate the consequence, which in turn, results in superior performance and better human relationship. The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by Goleman. He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social competences. Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves, whereas social competence determines how we handle our interpersonal relationships. Assuming that emotional intelligence is important, the question of assessment and measurement becomes particularly pressing. Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. Physiological 2. Cognitive 3. Felt 4. Six 5. Alexithymia 6. Goleman 7. Three 8. Two
Words Attribution theory Emotions Emotional intelligence Meaning Suggests that we attribute causes to behavior based on observations of certain The feelings experienced towards an object, person or event. A form of intelligence relating to the emotional side of life, such as the ability to recognize and manage one's own and others' emotions, to motivate oneself and restrain impulses, and to handle interpersonal relationships effectively The set of individual personality traits which enable individuals to manage themselves independently and capably. The ability to achieve personal goals in social interaction while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others over time and across situations

Personal competence

Social competence

Unit 7 Perception
Self Assessment Questions 1. ___Three ___ factors shape perception of an individual. 2. The Context in which objects or events are seen by individuals also influence their attention. 3. Attribution theory was proposed by ____ Kelley 4. __Consensus ___ occurs, if, everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way. 5. The tendency of individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors is called____Self-serving bias _____. 6. The ____Halo effect ___ occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic. 7. The process through which ones reaction is influenced by other persons he has encountered recently is called ___Contrast effect ___. 8. This tendency to attribute ones own characteristics to other people is called __Projection 9. ___ Self-fulfilling prophecy ___ is the tendency for someones expectations about another to cause that person to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations. 10. A negative instance of the self-fulfilling prophecy is called ___Golem Effect ______. 11. Decision-making occurs as a reaction to a _____Problem __. 12. While making a decision, data are typically received from ___Multiple ____ sources. 13. The rational decision making model proposes ____ Six _____ steps. 14. People respond to a problem with a limited information-processing capability. As a result, people seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient. This is called __ Bounded rationality _______

7.8 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit. Indviduals behave in a given manner based not on the way their external environment actually, is but, rather, on what they see or believe it to be. Perception can be defined as s a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Since peoples behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Three factors that shape perception of an

individual are perceiver, target and situation. An important element in perception is attribution process. Attribution theory (Kelley, 1972) suggests that when we observe an individuals behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Internally caused behaviours are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally caused behavior is seen as resulting from outside causes; that is, the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation. Research evidence shows that individuals have a tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors. There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors, such as, ability or effort while putting the blame for failure on external factors, such as, luck. This is called the selfserving bias and suggests that feedback provided to employees will be distorted by recipients. Individuals have a tendency to use a number of shortcuts when they judge others. An understanding of these shortcuts can be helpful toward recognizing when they can result in significant distortions. Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it will be perceived. It is impossible for an individual to internalize and assimilate everything that is seen .Only certain stimuli can be taken in selectively. The halo effect (Murphy & Anhalt, 1992) occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic. Individuals do not evaluate a person in isolation. Their reaction to one person is influenced by other persons they have encountered recently. This tendency to attribute ones own characteristics to other peoplewhich is called projectioncan distort perceptions made about others. When managers engage in projection, they compromise their ability to respond to individual differences. They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really are. Stereotyping is the process of judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs. Generalization is not without advantages (Hilton & Hippel, 1996). Decision-making occurs as a reaction to a problem. Problem is defined as a discrepancy between some current state of affairs and some desired state, needing attention for alternative courses of action. The awareness that a problem exists and that a decision needs to be made is a perceptual issue. Every decision requires interpretation and evaluation of information. The optimizing decision maker is rational. He or she makes consistent, valuemaximizing choices within specified constraints. This also includes the resource crunch and other limitations as well. Most decisions in the real world do not follow the rational model.

Decision-makers generally make limited use of their creativity. Choices tend to be confined to the neighborhood of the problem symptom and to the neighborhood of the current alternative. When faced with a complex problem, most people respond by reducing the problem to a level at which it can be readily understood, due to limited information-processing capability. As a result, people seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient. This is called bounded rationality (Simon, 1947). Individuals operate within the confines of bounded rationality. They construct simplified models that extract the essential features. Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. Three 2. Context 3. Kelley 4. Consensus 5. Self-serving bias 6. Halo effect 7. Contrast effect 8. Projection 9. Self-fulfilling prophecy 10. Golem Effect 11. Problem 12. Multiple 13. Six 14. Bounded rationality

Glossary Words
Attribution theory Bounded rationality

Halo effect

Pygmalion effect

Attribution theory

Meaning Suggests that we attribute causes to behavior based on observations of certain Concept that decision makers (irrespective of their level of intelligence) have to work under three unavoidable constraints Transfer of goodwill or positive feelings about one characteristic (such as pleasing appearance) of a product or person to another, possibly unrelated, characteristics (such as performance). Contrasts with devil's horns. People tend to live up to what's expected of them and they tend to do better when treated as if they are capable of success. These are the lessons of The Pygmalion Effect Suggests that we attribute causes to behavior based on observations of certain

Unit 8 Motivation
Self Assessment Questions 1. In Maslows theory, ___ Physiological ____ needs include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs 2. In theory ____ X _, management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work 3. According to Herzberg, motivators are __Intrinsic ____ factors. 4. Alderfer classifies needs into ___Three ___ categories into hierarchical order. 5. The need to excel and to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed is called need for ____Achievement ____. 6. The perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment used to determine organizational outcomes is called as ___Interactional Justice ____. 7. Employees should have __Tangible _ and specific goals. 8. Rewards should be __Contingent ____ on performance 9. MBO and __Goal-Setting ___Theory is closely linked 10. Employee Recognition Programs has close link with _Reinforcement ______ Theory 11. The professional employees likely to seek more __Intrinsic ___ satisfaction from their work than blue-collar employees.

12. Temporary workers may be motivated if they are provided with ___Permanent __ job opportunity.

8.7 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit: Motivation is the processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. According to Maslows theory, human beings have five needs, which influence their behavior. Those five needs are Physiological, Safety, Social, Esteem, and Self-actualization needs. In theory X and Y, McGregor argued that a managers view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and he or she tends to mould his or her behavior toward employees according to these assumptions. Herzberg (1959) constructed a two-dimensional paradigm of factors affecting people's attitudes about work. These two factors are motivators and hygiene factors and this theory is also called motivation-hygiene theory.
Alderfer classified needs into three categories into hierarchical order. They are: the existence category, the Relatedness category and the Growth category. This theory is very similar to Maslows theory. Existence need corresponds with Maslows physiological and safety needs, Relatedness need corresponds with Maslows social needs and Growth need corresponds with Maslows esteem and self-actualization needs. McClellands theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. According to this theory, people with high need for achievement have a compelling drive to succeed. Individuals high in need for power enjoy being in charge of any situation. Individuals with high need for affiliation motive strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding. Cognitive Evaluation theory proposes that when extrinsic rewards are used by organizations as payoffs for superior performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are derived from individuals doing what they like, are reduced. GoalSetting Theory proposes that challenging goals produce a higher level of output than do the generalized goals. More difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance will be. Reinforcement theory argues that reinforcement conditions human behavior. According to this theory, behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior is environmentally caused. According to Equity theory, employees make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others. If, an individual perceives the input-outcome ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with

whom he/she compares his/herself, a state of equity is said to exist. He/she perceives the situation as fair. If the ratio appears to be unequal, the individual experience inequity. Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

8.9 Answer Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. Physiological 2. X 3. Intrinsic 4. Three 5. Achievement 6. Interactional Justice 7. Tangible 8. Contingent 9. Goal-Setting 10. Reinforcement
11. Intrinsic 12. Permanent

Glossary Words
Expectancy theory

Self-Esteem Motivation MBO Management by objectives

Meaning Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it. The extent to which a person believes he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual The forces within an individual that affect his or her direction, intensity and persistence of voluntary behavior. A collaborative goal-setting process through which organizational goals cascade down throughout the organization

Unit 9 Leadership
Self Assessment Questions 1. __Aristotal __ may be said to be a proponent of The Great Man Theory. 2. _Stogdill _ is one the main scholars of trait theory approach to leadership. 3. McCall and Lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified __ Four __ primary traits by which leaders could succeed or 'derail' 4. This theory was developed by the scholars from Ohio State University during _1940-1950 5. The modifications were made by Robert R Blake and __Anne Adams Mccanse ___to covert the managerial grid into a leadership grid. 6. A __Participative __ Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. 7. __ Likert __identified four main styles of leadership, in particular around decisionmaking. 8. _Lewin ____ and colleagues did leadership decision experiments in 1939 and identified three different styles of leadership, in particular around decision-making. 9. Major contribution towards development of situational leadership is made by Hersey and Blanchard 10. The ___Path Goal Theory __ of Leadership was developed to describe the way that leaders encourage and support their followers in achieving the goals they have been set by making the path that they should take clear and easy.

11. In this model leadership is effective when the leaders style is appropriate to the situation, this is proposed in the contingency model developed by _Fiedler ____. 12 Transactional leadership is related to management theories. 13. _ Transformational ___leadership is based on relationship rheories. 14. The transactional leadership style was first described by _Max Weber _ in 1947 15. A leader asking the subordinate How may I help you? __ Servant Leader _____ 16. Such leaders focus on structure, strategy, environment, implementation, experimentation, and adaptation. ____Structural Leader ______

9.8 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit: Leadership is a means of directing. It is the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of goals. It is the human factor that helps a group identify where it is going and then motivates it towards its goals. According to Drucker, "Leadership is the lifting of mans visions to higher sights, the raising of man's performance to a higher standard, the building of man's personality beyond its normal limitations.(1954).
Aristotle may be said to be a proponent of The Great Man Theory as he is quoted as saying, Men are marked out from the moment of birth to rule or be ruled. This theoretical perspective was developed further by historians who studied the lives of respected leaders for clues to their greatness but it has never become part of mainstream organizational psychology. The major assumptions are leaders are born and not made and great leaders will arise when there is a great need. Stogdill is one the main scholars of trait theory approach to leadership. Two of Stogdill's surveys established certain traits which were consistent of leaders. These surveys took place from the 1930s-1950s.Behavioural theory was developed by the scholars from Ohio State University during 1940-1950s. The study was conducted to understand what behaviors make the leaders effective?Similar research was also conducted at University of Michigan and Harvard University. The Managerial Grid was modified by Robert R Blake and Anne Adams McCanse. and it was named as Leadership Grid. Leadership Grid is an approach to understanding a leaders concern for results (production) and concern for people. Kurt Lewin and colleagues did leadership decision experiments in 1939 and identified three different styles of leadership, in particular around decision-making. These are Autocratic, Democratic and Laissez-faire. Rensis Likert identified four main styles of leadership, in particular around decision-making and the degree to which people are

involved in the decision. Situational leadership theories in organizational studies are a type of leadership theory, leadership style, and leadership model that presumes that different leadership styles are better in different situations, and that leaders must be flexible enough to adapt their style to the situation they are in.This was developed by Hersey and Blanchard. The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership was developed to describe the way that leaders encourage and support their followers in achieving the goals they have been set by making the path that they should take clear and easy. Relationship theories (also known as Transformational theories) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. Transactional leadership is based in contingency, in that reward or punishment is contingent upon performance. Management theories (also known as Transactional theories) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. The Four Framework Approach, Bolman and Deal (1991) suggest that leaders display leadership behaviors in one of four types of frameworks: Structural, Human Resource, Political, or Symbolic.

9.10 Answers Answerss to Self Assessment Questions 1. Aristotal

2. Stogdill 3. Four 4. 1940-1950 5. Anne Adams Mccanse 6. Participative 7. Likert 8. Lewin 9. Hersey and Blanchard 10. Path Goal Theory 11. Fiedler 12. Transactional 13. Transformational 14. Max Weber 15. Servant Leader 16. Structural Leader

Glossary Words
Leadership

Leadership Grid

Meaning The process of influencing people and providing an environment for them to achieve team or organizational objectives. A model of leadership developed by by Robert R Blake and Anne Adams McCanse,to indicate the leadership effectiveness based on the concern for people and concern for task

Unit 10 Group Behavior

1. Formal groups come into existence for serving a specific ___Organizational purpose. 2. A ____ Informal ____ group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. 3. All command groups are also __Task __ groups. 4 In the ___Forming ___ stage the members are entering the group 5. The ___ Adjourning ____ stage of group development is especially important for the many temporary groups that are rampant in todays workplaces. 6. Organizations have ___Authority ___ structures that define who reports to whom, who makes decisions, and what decisions individuals or groups are empowered to make. 7. The more formal regulations that the organization imposes on all its employees, the more the behavior of work group members will be Consistent and _predictable ___. 8. Attributes that have a positive connotation in our culture tend to be ___ Positively __ related to group productivity, morale, and cohesiveness 9. No ___Single __ personality characteristic is a good predictor of group behavior. 10. By watching and imitating ___Senior ___ members of a group the new comers learn how to take on their roles effectively and also learn how to play them well. 11. Role __Expectations __ is tuning oneself and behaving in a socially desirable manner is a part of fulfilling role expectations in a given situation in the context of achieving group goals and organizational goals. 12. When a group member is faced with the challenge of playing multiple roles, role _Conflict ___ may occur 13. All groups have ___ Norms __ acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the groups members.

14. Social arrangement ___ norms come from informal work groups and primarily regulate social interactions within the group. 15. The ___Reference __ group is characterized as one where the person is aware of the others 16. Status is a ____Socially __ defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. 17. When status inequity is perceived, it creates Disequilibrium that results in corrective behavior. 18. Schein observes that groups may make decisions through __Six __ methods. 19. In Decision by___Minority rule ___, two or three people are able to dominate the group into making a decision to which they agree. 20. Team building is a ___ Collaborative _____ way to gather and analyze data to improve teamwork. 21. In _____Cross-functional_____ team Employees from different work areas but from same hierarchical level, come together to accomplish a task.

10.11 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit: A group may be defined as a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to achieve common goals. Groups can be of two types: Formal and Informal. Formal groups come into existence for serving a specific organizational purpose. Individuals behaviors in this type of group is aimed at achieving organizational goals. An informal group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. The FiveStage Model of group development has five stages: Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing and Adjourning.
Punctuated equilibrium model of group development proposes that temporary groups with deadlines do not seem to follow the model explained above. Rather, they follow it Phase I, transition and Phase II. All work groups are part of larger systems and organizations and therefore cannot exist or work in isolation. It is therefore influenced by mainly external factors which include organizational strategy, authority structures, rules and regulations, access to resources, physical work conditions and organizational culture and performance systems and reward structures. All groups have norms acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the groups members. Norms serve as a guideline for members detailing what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. Though a work groups norms are unique, yet there are still some common classes of norms. A team is a small group of people with complementary skills, who work

actively together to achieve a common purpose for which they hold themselves collectively accountable (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). Team building is a collaborative way to gather and analyze data to improve teamwork (Schermerhorn et al 2002).

10.13 Answers Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. Organizational 2. Informal 3. Task 4. Forming 5. Adjourning 6. Authority 7. Consistent, predictable 8. Positively 9. Single 10. Senior
11. Expectations 12. Conflict 13. Norms 14. Social arrangement 15. Reference 16. Socially 17. Disequilibrium 18. Six 19. Minority rule 20. Collaborative 21. Cross-functional
Words Groupthink Formal Group Role Meaning The tendency of highly cohesive groups to value consensus at the price of decision quality. A designated work group defined by the organization's structure Role is a set of norms or expectations applied to the incumbent of a particular position by the role incumbent and the various other role players Acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the groups members.

Norms

Team

A small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, common performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable

Unit 11 Power and Politics

Self Assessment Questions 1. Formal power may be categorized into__Four ____ types. 2. The opposite of coercive power is __Reward ____ power 3. Expert power is relative, not _____Absolute ___. 4. Where success is less predictable, managers are more likely to use __Assertiveness ___ and sanctions to achieve their objectives 5. US people prefer use of reason in contrast to China where Coalition as a tactic is preferred 6. ___Empowerment____ is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power required to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work. 7. When an organization attempts to move power down the __Hierarchy __, it must also alter the existing pattern of position power 8. Successful coalitions have been found to contain __Fluid ____ membership. 9. More coalitions are likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource ___ Interdependence ______. 10. Coalition formation will be influenced by the ____ Actual ______ tasks that workers perform. 11. Organizational politics is viewed as the art of creative _____Compromise ___ among competing interests 12. Employees who are _____. High ___ self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control 13. The ___Machiavellian _____ personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self-interest and does not see it as an unethical action.

11.7 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit: Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others (French & Raven, 1962). Managers derive power

from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called position power and personal power, respectively. In an organizational context leadership and power are related to each others. Power is used by leaders as a means to attain group goals. In other words, power is a means of facilitating their achievement of goals and objectives that they have set for themselves in view of organizational requirements. Power can be categorized into two types: Formal and informal. Formal Power: is based on the position of an individual in an organization. Formal power is derived from either ones ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the formal authority vested in the individual due to his/ her strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. Formal power may be categorized into four types: Coercive Power, Reward Power, Legitimate Power, Information Power. Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of that individuals position. . Three bases of personal power are expertise, rational persuasion, and reference. Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people is a challenge for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The most common strategies involve: Reason, Friendliness, Coalition, Bargaining, Assertiveness, Higher authority, and Sanctions. Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power required to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work. Moreover, today, managers in progressive organizations are expected to be competent at empowering the people with whom they work. Rather than concentrating power only at higher levels as found in the traditional pyramid of organizations, this concept views power to be shared by all working in flatter and more collegial structures. Individuals who lose power or are out of power seek to increase their power individually. If they fail to do so then the alternative is to form a coalition an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue. The natural way to gain influence is to become a power holder but this may be difficult, risky, costly, or impossible. Politics is defined as those activities that are not required as part of ones formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned means and the art of creative compromise among competing interests.

11.9 Answers Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. Four 2. Reward 3. Absolute 4. 1.Assertiveness 5. Coalition 6. Empowerment 7. Hierarchy 8. Fluid 9. Interdependence 10. Actual 11. Compromise
12. High 13. Machiavellian

Glossary Words
Delegation Empowerment Expert power Power

Politics

Meaning Delegation is defined as granting decision-making authority to people at lower levels Sharing power in such a way that individuals learn to believe in their ability to do the job. The extent to which a person controls information that is valuable to someone else. Power is the social force that allows select persons to mobilize others; to organize others to act in concert; and to melt away resistance to leaders authority. Politics is the use of power to develop socially acceptable ends and means that balance individual and collective interests.

Unit 12 Conflict Management

Self Assessment Questions 1. Who defines conflict "As any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions or behaviours lead to disagreement or opposition between two or more parties." __________ 2. Conflict can occur when individuals or groups perceive they have mutually _________ goals or values 3. Intrapersonal conflict may be of _________ types. 4. _____________________ conflict occurs when a person must choose between two negative and equally unattractive alternatives. 5. _________ conflict occurs among members of different teams or groups 6. Conflict occurs whenever ____________ exist in a social situation over issues 7. The ___________ View of conflict encourages conflict on the grounds that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative group is prone to becoming static and non-responsive to needs for change and innovation 8. ___________ conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. 9. Communication becomes a source of conflict due to _________ in the communication channels. 10. The potential for conflict is greatest where group members are __________ and turnover is __________ . 11. Personal variables include individual value systems and ___________ characteristics.

12. There are ___________ direct approaches to conflict management. 13. ____________ occurs when each party gives up something of value to the other. 14. ___________________ is a process where conflicts are reported to the senior levels to reconcile and solve. 15. There are __________ general approaches to negotiation. 16. _________ bargaining strategy is adopted to create a win-win solution. 17. Personality traits have no significant ________ effect on the bargaining process or negotiation outcomes.

12.6 Summary
Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit: Conflict occurs whenever disagreements exist in a social situation over issues (work related or personal). Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about (Thomas, 1992). Conflict can be either constructive or destructive. Constructive conflict prevents stagnation, stimulates creativity, allows tensions to be released. However, excessive levels of conflict can hinder the effectiveness of a group or an organization, lessens satisfaction of group members, increases absence and turnover rates, and, lowers productivity. Functional, constructive forms of conflict support the goals of the group and improve its performance. Conflicts that hinder group performance are dysfunctional or destructive forms of conflict. Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Low-to-moderate levels of task conflict are functional and consistently demonstrate a positive effect on group performance because it stimulates discussion, improving group performance. Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationships. These conflicts are almost always dysfunctional and the friction and interpersonal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding. People at work may encounter conflict at the intrapersonal level (conflict within the individual), the interpersonal level (individual to- individual conflict), the inter-group level, or the inter-organizational level. Negotiation is a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them (Robbins, 2008). There are two general approaches to negotiation: distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. R. W Woodman

2. Exclusive 3. Disagreements 4. Inter-actionist 5. Task 6. Three 7. Avoidanceavoidance 8. Inter-group 9. Noise 10. Younger, high 11. Personality 12. Five 13. Compromise 14. Hierarchical Referral 15. Two 16. Integrative 17. Direct
Words Avoidance Meaning The opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior. Avoidance occurs when the interacting parties' goals are incompatible and the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the attainment of the goals Occurs when the parties' goals are compatible and the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the goals' attainment A disagreement among parties. It has both positive and negative characteristics The process in which two or more parties (people or groups) reach agreement even though they have different preferences

Accommodation

Conflict Negotiation

Unit 13 Stress
Self Assessment Questions 1. Insomnia is __________. 2. Positive stress is called ________.

3. Negative stress is called ___________. 4. ______________is created when role expectations are not clearly understood. 5. Those with an ____________ locus of control believe they control their own destiny. 6. ______________ The confidence in ones own abilities appears to decrease stress. 7. Stress shows itself in _________ ways 8. ____________________ is the simplest and most obvious psychological effect of stress. 9. ______________physical exercise has long been recommended as a way to deal with excessive stress levels. 10. Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through _____________ techniques, such as, meditation. 11. Improved personnel selection and job placement leading to right ______________ thereby reducing chances of non-performance and stress level. 12. The stress reaction is triggered by our __________________ of danger 13. Electronic biofeedback can help you gain __________________ control over such things as muscle tension 14. _________ elements are common to most definitions of crisis. 15. There are __________ types of organizational crises

13.8 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit: Stress has been defined as a physical, mental or emotional response to events which cause mental or bodily tension. In the modern day life stress is a part and parcel of our lives. Stress can manifest itself in a number of ways depending upon the suddenness of an even to be dealt with and types of stressors to be handled by an individual. It may manifest itself either physically, emotionally and / mentally, as certain symptoms. Stress may be classified into two types: positive stress (Eustress) and negative stress (Distress). Moderate and manageable levels of stress for a reasonable period of time can be handled by the body through mobilization of resources and is accompanied by positive emotions, such as, enjoyment, satisfaction, excitement and so on. This beneficial element in stress has been defined by Selye as Eustress (EU- meaning good).
However, an overload of stress resulting from a situation of either over arousal or under arousal for long periods of time causes the following: first an unpleasant feeling, followed by physical damage, fatigue and in extreme cases, even death of an individual. This has been termed by Selye as distress (dys- meaning bad). While environmental factors are forces

outside the organization, which may act as potential sources of stress due to uncertainties and threats that they create for any organization and its members, factors within organization can also act as potential source of stress. Together or singly they may create a tense and volatile working environment which can cause stress for organizational members because the inability of individuals to handle the pressures arising out of these sources. Stress shows itself in three ways physiological, psychological, and behavioral symptoms. As there is a positive side to stress and provides, drive, excitement and motivation for individuals to push themselves to achieve more in their lives in the fulfillment of their set goals, there is no requirement to eliminate stress form ones life. Managing stress should be given importance rather than elimination. The goal should be to find the optimal level of stress that can be handled effectively by an individual which will motivate the person and not overwhelm and distress an individual. It is the systematic attempt to avoid organizational crises or to manage those crises events that do occur. A crisis is a major, unpredictable event that threatens to harm an organization and its stakeholders.

Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. Sleeplessness 2. Eustress 3. Distress 4. Role ambiguity 5. Internal 6. Self-efficacy 7. Three 8. Job dissatisfaction 9. Non-competitive 10. Relaxation 11. Person-job-fit 12. Perception 13. Voluntary 14. Three 15. Four Glossary Words
Distress Meaning The unpleasant stress that

Stress

accompanies negative events A person's adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological or physical demands on that person.

Unit 14 Organizational Change

1. Forces for change are of _____________ types. 2. Organizations are, therefore, forced to change their operational methods to meet the demands of the _____________. 3. Environmental factors such as ___________, ______________, and _____________ factors play a vital role in devising organizational policies and strategy 4. Resistance to change may be of _________ types. 5. Change leads to _______________ among the employees because of its unknown consequences. 6. Change may bring some potential _________to the organizational power to some people. 7. Many people, depending on their basic values and beliefs, move from anger to ___________. 8. ___________ and considerate listening can reduce employees fear and anxiety towards change. 9. This can be a costly proposition when there is more than one _____________ union in the organization, as all the contending parties would fight for power and recognition. 10. Organizational change focuses on ________ change. 11. In Organization-environment relationship, organizations attempt to redefine their relationships with changing _________ and ____________ environment 12. Lewin (1951) proposed a ___________ step sequential model of change process. 13. Action research model is another model of __________ change. 14. Planned change can range from ____________ change to _________ change. 15. According to Bennis, Benne and Chin, _______ basic strategies can be adopted to manage change:

16. According to Nicklos (2004), there can be a ________ strategy in adapting to changes, i.e. environmental-adaptive. 17. ______________resistance argues for a coupling of power-coercive and environmental-adaptive strategies. 18. _________________ populations argue for a mix of all four strategies. 19. Short time frames argue for a _____________strategy. 14.9 Summary Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit. Organizational change may be defined as the adoption of a new idea or a behavior by an organization. It is a way of altering an existing organization to increase organizational effectiveness for achieving its objectives. Forces for change are of two types: Internal forces and external forces. Internal forces are: change in the top management, change in size of the organization, performance gaps and employee needs and values. External forces are technology, business scenario, and environmental factors. Resistance to change may be of two types: Individual resistance and Organizational resistance. There are certain factors that may be related to the resistance to change; these are economic, psychological and social. Change leads to insecurity among the employees because of its unknown consequences. Employees do not know for certain whether the change will bring in better prospects. This results into individual resistance. Change may bring some potential threat to the organizational power to some people. This leads to organizational resistance. The responses to change depend upon the employees perception about the change. Different individuals differ in their attitudes and hence, the perceptions towards change. Three major reactions to change are: Anger, Denial and Acceptance. Some approaches can be taken to reduce the resistance to change, such as, education & communication, employee participation & involvement, facilitation & support, and negotiation & agreement. Organizational change is deliberate, systematic and well thought of. Velocity of change depends on the degree or level of significance and the status quo in the organization is challenged with a long-term focus. Two major theories of change are (i) Force field analysis theory and (ii) Action Research Model. Lewin proposed a three steps sequence of unfreezing, moving and refreezing as the change process in Force Field Analysis Theory. According to Action Research Model, planned change is a cyclical process in which initial research about organizations provides the data to guide the subsequent action to bring the required changes in eight steps. Answers to Self Assessment Questions

1. Two 2. Stakeholders 3. Economic, political and demographic 4. Two 5. Insecurity 6. Threat 7. Acceptance. 8. Empathetic 9. Dominant 10. Long-term 11. Social and political 12. Three 13. Planned 14. Incremental, quantum 15. Four 16. Fourth 17. Strong 18. Large 19. Power-coercive Glossary Words
Refreezing Un freezing Meaning The process of making new behaviors relatively permanent and resistant to further change The process by which people become aware of the need for change

Unit 15 Organization Development

Self Assessment Questions 1. A technique to study symptom patterns and prescription to the organization. True/False 2. Organization development (OD) is a planned approach to improve _______and _________ effectiveness by conscious interventions in those processes and structures that have an immediate bearing on the human aspect of the organization.

3 ________ is a strategy of planned change for organizational improvement. This planned emphasis separates OD efforts from other kinds of more haphazard changes that are frequently undertaken by organizations. 4. Laboratory training is popularly known as __________ training. 5. Exploitive authoritative system exhibits an autocratic ______________ approach to leadership. 6. The most distinguishing feature of QWL program is the development of ________________ work groups which consist of multi-skilled workers. 7. The __________ step in OD process involves understanding and identification of the existing and potential problems in the organization. 8. Any OD activity is incomplete without proper _____________. 9. Sensitivity training is also known as __________. 10. _________ is basically based on grid organization development developed by Blake and Mouton. 11. In order to gather data and make a diagnosis information is collected from various sources thorough the use of ________, ______________ and_________about the problems, spelled out at the initial stage. 12. Organization must formulate the _________of OD programme very clearly and specifically. 13. Only fully competent _________ should be pressed for the service and he should develop understanding with internal change agents

15.7 Summary Organization development (OD) is a planned approach to improve employee and organizational effectiveness by conscious interventions in those processes and structures that have an immediate bearing on the human aspect of the organization (Ramanarayan, Rao, and Singh 1998). OD is an organization-wide planned effort, managed from the top, to increase organizational effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organizational processes, using behavioral science knowledge.
A number of special characteristics together distinguish organizational development from other approaches to managing and improving organizational function. Behavioral science base approach is primarily concerned with improving the organization by focusing on aspects that have a bearing on human and social improvement. Leavitt (1972) has viewed an organization as a social system consisting of different subsystems such as task, structure, technology and human resource, interlinked by various processes.

The concept of OD has emerged from four stems: (i) Laboratory training background, (ii) Action-research/survey-feedback background, (iii) Participative management, and (iv) Quality of work life (QWL) approach. Any change in one part or process has implications for other parts or processes relevant to the system. Action-research model is a data based, problem solving model that replicated the steps involved in the scientific method of inquiry (French and Bell 1991). OD, using this model, involves a systematic process of diagonising organizational problems through data collection and analysis, feeding the data back to the organizational client group, discussing the findings, planning collaborative action and implementing proposed solutions. A typical OD process can be divided into phases, such as, Problem identification, Data collection, Diagnosis, Structural analysis, Processes analysis, Function analysis, Domain analysis, Planning and implementation, and Evaluation and feedback. Organization development, however, has invited sharp criticism as a strategy to increase organizational viability and effectiveness because many OD programmes have failed. Only fully competent OD consultant should be pressed for the service and he should develop understanding with internal change agents. Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1. False 2. Employee and organizatuional 3. OD 4. T-group 5. Top-down 6. Self-managing 7. First 8. Change 9. T-Group 10. Grid Training 11. Questionnaires, observations, and interview 12. Objectives 13. OD Consultant

Glossary Words
Diagnosis

Organization Development

QWL

T-Groups

Meaning Diagnosis is the process of assessing the functioning of the organization or departments to discover sources of problems and areas of improvement Organization Development (OD) is a response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values and structure of organization so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges, and the dizzying rate of change itself QWL programs, in general, require joint participation by union and management in the process of workdesigning, which consequently result into high level of task variety, appropriate feedback and employee discretion Training Groups- T-groups are designed to provide members with experiential learning about group dynamics, leadership and interpersonal relationships. The basic T-group training or sensitivity training is to change the standards, attitudes and behavior of individuals by using psychological techniques and programs.