Peterson 1 Jeanie Peterson Professor Hopes Hum.

314 17 June 2011 Imperium et libertas When Britain first, at heavens command, / Arose from out of the azure main; / This was the charter of the land, / And guardian Angels sung this strain: / Rule, Britannia, rule the waves1 At its peak in 1918, the British Empire controlled roughly a quarter of the worlds population and land surface. Britain dominated both the land and the seas, making it the largest Empire ever recorded.2 However, Britain proved to be a reluctant Empire since they had what no other previous Empire had: history. The Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Austrian, Ottoman, and Mughal were often considered by the British when dealing with their colonies, but never as much as the Roman Empire. Unlike their Roman predecessor, however, the British based their empire on trade and profit rather than conquest. The Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias said it best when he precisely portrayed the motivating principal behind exploration and colonization as, God, Gold, Glory.3 The British were originally more interested in economic enterprise than the glory of territory usurpation. They were actually hesitant to take control over their conquered territories, fearing an end similar to that of the Roman Empire. The shift from a trading to ruling empire began once the British government started to intervene in the affairs of their territories. The British claimed that their rule would be temporary, that they were only present in order to

James Thompson, Rule Britannia!, Britannia: British History and Travel, http://www.britannia.com/rulebrit.html (accessed May 30, 2011). 2 Niall Ferguson, Empire, the Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (London: Allen Lane, 2002), xi. 3 William A. McClenaghan, Europeans Explore the East, Western Civilization, http://mbwillhistory.com/page_88.html (accessed June 3, 2011).

Peterson 2 enlighten the people and turn their societies, from grind and toil to models of progress.4 As the British benefited immensely on the profit that they were accumulating, their foreign territories suffered in return. The British were like an affliction on the peoples of their territories. Not only did they bring war and disease, but they exploited the natives in every way possible. No other trade flourished as much as the slave trade; a gruesome act that still haunts the consciences of the descendants of the aggressors. Despite all the wrongs, there were British individuals that attempted to bring some benefits of their presence, but their efforts proved futile. British rule was resented by both the subjugated as well as their competitors. Britain became the modern Rome that they both desired and wanted to avoid; they made war to provide peace, instructed the benighted, and were guardians of empire.5 And, just as Rome, they were consumed from within. From the beginning, the British were vastly more concerned with accumulating profits rather than building an empire. The British full-heartedly believed in Adam Smiths economic principle that, the first interest of the Sovereign of a people is that their wealth should increase as much as possible.6 Evidence as early as the end of the Seven Years War proves that the British valued profits over acres. During the peace negotiations between the French and British governments, King George III and his officials almost swapped the whole of Canada for the French island of Guadeloupe.7 Until the 1820s, sugar was Britains largest import. Consumption of the product rose to twenty pounds per person a year, five times more than it was at the beginning of the 18th century.8 Caribbean islands were the most effective producers of this precious commodity, proving to be more valuable in the eyes of the British imperialists. Britain
Simon Schama A History of Britain: The Wrong Empire, DVD, directed by Clare Beavan and Martina Hall (New York: A&E Home Video, 2002). 5 Ibid. 6 Sir George Forrest, The Administration of Warren Hastings 1772-1785, (Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, 1892), 13. 7 Piers Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire 1781-1997 (London: Random House Group Ltd., 2007), 15. 8 Brendon, 16.
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Peterson 3 was already earning an exceptional amount of sums from their island equivalent, Jamaica. The government profited from the duties they placed on the imports of Jamaican sugar and to extend this to the island Guadeloupe would further their earnings.9 Not only did the government see the potential earnings of British Caribbean territories, but also investors. Britain was entering into a stage of mass consumption that did not go unnoticed by the contemporaries, like best-selling novelist Daniel Defoe who wrote, England consumes within itself more goods of foreign growth, imported from the several countries where they are produced or wrought, than any other nation in the world10 As more sugar, tea, coffee, and tobacco were imported, the more investors began to take part in this new global trade. Even notorious pirate Henry Morgan invested his plundered money in Jamaican real estate.11 Soon investors began seeing the benefits of furthering British territory, their territory, in other economically sound areas. The investors, usually represented in joint-stock companies, played a key role in the expansion of the British Empire. Participation in the profitable Asian trading system was a chief concern for British investors. The richness of the area drew the investors in, knowing the benefits of monopolizing the trade. Wool, ore, textiles, cotton, jute, tea, and spices were all valuable products that the British imported.12 Robert Clive of the British East India Company took the lead by conquering Bengal, Indias richest province. Clive not only crushed the forces of Suraj-uddaulah, the nawab of Bengal, but also the resulting French opposition, who were allies of the nawab.13 However, once in control, Clive and the company were uninterested in ruling the area. They desired profit.

Ferguson, 10. Daniel Defoe, The Complete English Tradesman, Google Books (1725): 10. 11 Ferguson, 9. 12 Peter N. Stearns et al., World Civilizations the Global Experience, (New York: Pearson Education Inc., 2007), 663. 13 Brendon, 34.
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Peterson 4 Clive and his men were free to extort fortunes by raising heavy taxes and collecting jagir, or land rents.14 The money from their extortion became known as Plassey plunder.15 When the corruption became noticeable to the British government, parliament passed a Regulating Act in 1773, which placed partial government control over the Company. The result was the appointment of the first Governor-General, Warren Hastings.16 Hastings task was to form some kind of orderly rule under the East India Company. However, he found much opposition from the local rulers in Bengal as well as the provinces that surrounded the area. Hastings began to understand that, it was a question of conquering or being conquered and that the Companys trade depended on victory.17 Under the leadership of Hastings and then by successors like Lord Cornwallis and Lord Wellesley, the motives of Indian usurpation changed. The Pitts India Act was passed in 1784, after a devastating famine in Bengal that either may or may not have been due to the heavy taxes implemented under the Company. The Act shifted all power in the subcontinent away from the East India Company and to the British government.18 No longer was territory taken over for purely economic reasons. At first, South Africa was not regarded as a great economic asset for the British Empire. The Dutch were the first to colonize the surrounding area of the Cape of Good Hope known as the Cape Colony. When the French captured Holland during the wars that led up to the French Revolution, Dutch colonies became free for British attack. The British successfully captured the Cape and held onto the territory through the Napoleonic wars. They finally annexed the territory in 1815.19 At that time, the Cape Colony had no economic advantage. The territory proved only
14 15

Forrest, 14. P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914 (London: Longman Group United Kingdom, 1993), 92. 16 Forrest, 59. 17 Brendon, 36. 18 Brendon, 37-38. 19 Stearns, 667.

Peterson 5 useful as a valued sea link to their most precious colony, India. However, in the second half of the nineteenth century, the British discovered precious metals and minerals.20 Mines were built and money was made. Raw materials were shipped to Europe to be manufactured and sold to consumers. Once again, the British dominated the global economic market. Australia was a unique colony that began in an entirely different way than all other British colonies. Despite an interesting and shaky start, however, Australia succeeded in finding an economically sound trade that benefited their British superiors. The Australian colony began as a way to dilute the overpopulated island of Britain by transporting convicts and exiling them on the faraway island. Captain Arthur Phillip led the colony when it was at its roughest. Phillip had imperial dreams, envisioning Australia as a hub of trade and profit.21 The convicts became virtual slaves as they worked to build a civilization fit for the new British colony. Phillip assigned convicts to help and work for the free settlers, who travelled to Australia in the hopes of bettering their lives. At first, living was meager. Aid from the Mother country rarely came; rations shrank to almost nothing.22 For twenty years supplies remained precarious, until finally Australia found an economic foothold. Between the two groups, a permanent settlement and colony was created on the coast of the island. Since sheep was decidedly plentiful in the foreign land, wool began to be harvested and exported to Britain. Wheat was also grown and cultivated for exportation. 23 Australia became more industrial, able to produce and manufacture goods.24 However, they did not begin manufacturing until the second half of the nineteenth century. They primarily functioned as a port that funneled commodities to Europe. The port cities of Australia

P.J. Marshall, 1783-1870: An Expanding Empire, in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, ed. P.J. Marshall, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 40. 21 Brendon,, 63. 22 Ibid., 66-69. 23 Robert Johnson, British Imperialism, (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003), 68. 24 Dane Kennedy, Britain and Empire 1880-1945, (London: Pearson Education Ltd., 2002), 38.

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Peterson 6 acted as centers of finance; they wholesaled and warehoused successfully.25 The economy was also stimulated by whalers and sealers, at the expense of the environment. As early as 1791 Australia petitioned Britain for independence, but the British wished to keep the territory because of the easy way to regulate population as well as to benefit from the newfound economic stimulation. Matters were ignited when prospectors found gold in the area in the 1850s. 26 Australia was suddenly making money and the British were not going to allow them to leave. The sudden British territorial expansion sparked many doubts and fears amongst the British people and parliament. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, classical education was vehemently implemented. The history of the Roman Empire was therefore drilled into the bright young British minds, forever to be reminded of in the future. When imperialism seemed inevitable, the British people often voiced their fears of expansion and warned to stay away, especially from the expanse of India. Charles Grant, a director of the East India Company, once said, the wider British dominion in India spread, the more vulnerable it becomes.27 The British government, at first, seemed to agree, as they rarely pursued expansion in the name of the Empire. The Companies, as already said, did the work for them. However, even though it was investors that spread British influence, the British grew even more fearful of collapse especially after the French revolution. This fear sparked many officials in the British territories to supplant benevolence with the iron fist. Captain John Taylor in Bombay said if they did not change their demeanor the British would say, Adieu to power, influence and respectability, and, finally, Adieu to our possessions in the East28 The fear that the British harbored justified brutal

Thomas R. Metcalf, Imperial Towns and Cities, in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, ed. P.J. Marshall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 231. 26 Brendon, 72-74. 27 Ibid., 43. 28 Brendon., 42.

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Peterson 7 treatment that some officials exercised. Lord Wellesley of India made the formula for his system of authority popular amongst many officials: despotism tempered by paternalism.29 Once in possession of their territories, Britain was unsure of what to do next. As author G.F Leckie said, It is more difficult to preserve than to acquire: that whatever is won, may be lost: and that to cease to acquire is to begin to lose.30 When the power shifted away from the investors and to the British government, more rules began to be implemented. Respect for the natives culture was lost, westernization began to take form in the now British lands, and a new ideology, paternalism, was born. However, the territories were often treated differently as they all presented their own unique challenges. In many of their other colonies, the British adopted Edmund Burkes ideology. Burke believed in imperial trusteeship in order to better the native societies. The government of those unable to rule themselves, for whatever reason, was a trust, to be exercise ultimately for their benefit.31 The idea was that the British control was temporary; they were only to remain supreme in their foreign colonies until the natives were capable to rule themselves. The British prided themselves on the fact that their Empire was built on virtue. They devoted themselves to the unselfish task of eradicating poverty, ignorance, and disease.32 This was often interpreted as westernization, since, to them, that meant progress. This ideology is best represented in India and New Zealand. In India, the British successfully changed one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Social customs were completely made over during the reign of the British Empire. Western education became a priority in the subcontinent; the British replaced the native language in elite
Ibid., 56. Ibid., 31. 31 Ibid., 31. 32 Simon Schama A History of Britain: The Empire of Good Intentions, DVD, directed by Clare Beavan and Martina Hall (New York: A&E Home Video, 2002).
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Peterson 8 Indian schools in favor of English-language instruction. The British believed that having the natives learn English would help build a bridge across the cultural gap between Europe and India as well as bring the actual natives, who are divided by many faiths and languages, closer together.33 Teachers lectured children on the importance of emulating British ways like being punctual and exercising their bodies. Technology reforms were also put in place. Railways and telegraph lines were built to improve transportation and connection. Better records were kept; crop lands were measured and recorded.34 The British attempted to transform Indian society into a prominent subcontinent of the Western world. Evangelicals also, among other things, pushed for the end of one of the most common rituals among Hindu believers: sati. Sati was the religious act of burning the widows of the deceased Hindu husbands on their funeral pyre. This appalled all the British who either heard of or witnessed this act, especially the Christian evangelists. They campaigned to outlaw the act of sati, which the British government granted in 1829.35 The British wished to impart their own sense of moral and social behavior as a way of bettering their society; ending sati provided a way for the British to do just that. Brahmans, the Hindu priests and religious leaders who belonged to the superior caste, complained to the British, claiming that it was a violation of their customs. In reply, Charles Napier, a British official, said: The burning of widows is your custom. Prepare the funeral pyre. But my nation also has a custom. When men burn women alive, we hang them and confiscate all their property. My carpenters shall therefore erect gibbets on which to hang all

Simon Schama A History of Britain: The Empire of Good Intentions. Stearns, 658. 35 Kenneth W. Jones, Socio-religious Reform Movements in British India, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 30-31.
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Peterson 9 concerned when the widow is consumed. Let us all act according to our national customs.36 The New Zealand Company, funded by Lord Durham, claimed the colony of New Zealand for the British. Its purpose was civilization of a savage people and the acquirement of a fine field for the employment of British industry.37 The Maoris, the native peoples of New Zealand, benefited from European settlement. They thrived off commerce, which, in turn, benefited the British. The Maoris traded timber, flax, potatoes, pork, and grain in return for British trinkets that they found fascinating, especially muskets. Christian evangelists took the lead in reforming and taming the backwards ways of the Maoris. Missionaries were sent to convert the natives with much success. Their Christian ethics changed the Maoris entire way of life. Polygamy was banned, weakening male prestige as well as the security of females. Banning cannibalism, a common practice amongst all Maoris, led to a major protein deficiency in their diet.38 However, the Maoris were left relatively safe from the European diseases that wiped out the Aborigines in Australia. This was often attributed to the Maoris living in the highlands, away from the British settlers. Nonetheless, although the Maoris lifestyle was transformed according to British practices, the European presence did not completely wipe out their civilization. They showed resilience as they built up immunities to the European diseases. They learned European laws and underwent Western schooling. They learned to defend themselves in the courts against the settlers unfair treatment; on a number of occasions many colonial officials actually sided with the Maoris. Above all, the Maoris were able to preserve the value of their culture, despite British involvement.39

36 37

Stearns, 658. Brendon, 87. 38 Ibid., 91. 39 Stearns, 669.

Peterson 10 The Aboriginals in Australia were negatively impacted by the European invasion. The infamous convicts imported into the territory acted as most criminals do. They destroyed the natives hunting and fishing grounds, the essentials to their whole way of life. The convicts also invaded the Aborigine religious and sacred sites, suppressing their cultural identity.40 The close proximity that the British kept with the Aboriginals correlates with their affliction of smallpox, which annihilated half of their population in the area around Sidney. The Aboriginals became dependent on the white settlers. The women prostituted themselves in order to find some livelihood. The men often fought each other for British entertainment to win a bucket of rum, demoralizing them. Their lives were completely transformed, forever changed for the worse by the white British settlers. The British had no intention of colonizing the Caribbean islands. The islands were used for the purpose of profit; the valuable sugar, however, had to be harvested, which gave way to another source of income and profit: slaves. Described as one commodity reaped by another, the value of slaves soon surpassed the product they cultivated.41 Between 1698 and 1807, the British shipped at least 3.36 million slaves from Africa to their Caribbean territories.42 The slaves had no rights, although largely outnumbering their white masters. They were taken from their families, robbed of their humanity and identity.43 Their master took advantage of their slaves, punishing them harshly to retain control. Harvesting sugar was also physically exhausting. To produce sugar, slaves had to dig the clay, plant, manure, cut, and carry the cane. Within 48 hours, sugar has to be crushed and boiled then cooled into crystals. This was a very dangerous process; a knife actually lay beside the machinery during the crushing process in order to cut off any limb
Brendon, 67. Simon Schama A History of Britain: The Wrong Empire. 42 David Richardson and Stephen D. Behrendt, Inikori's Odyssey: Measuring the British Slave Trade, 1655-1807, Cahiers d'tudes Africaines 35 (1995): 599, http://www.jstor.org (accessed June 9, 2011). 43 Sir George Campbell, The British Empire, (London: Cassel & Company Ltd, 1887), 102.
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Peterson 11 that might get caught in the rollers.44 Despite their lamentable state, Africans tried their best to improve their life, they formed new relationships, acquired fresh skills, cultivated their gardens, went to Sunday market in their best Osnaburg clothes45 However, attempts of suicide were common amongst slaves. Thomas Thistlewood, a British slave owner, found his slave, throwing the fire about the cookroomsaying if this be living he did not care whether he lived or died.46 For some Africans, death was celebrated. At no time was there more joyous music than at a funeral, because death, at last, was liberty, death was the return home.47 The slave trade was a profitable trade for the British, but it was a gruesome act against the Africans who suffered, but endured. The decline of the Empire began as early as it started. Each territory provided the British government with challenges that were just too difficult to fully overcome. From the West Indies to Australia, from the slaves to the Aborigines, the internal and external threats that faced Britain in each of their 43 colonies consumed the Empire.48 Competition and mutinies became too much to bare. However, the British were able to remain supreme rulers until the very end. When it became clear that the British no longer could support the territories that so desperately wanted out, they, as gentlemen, decided to keep their paternal word and return the power back to the natives. Competing empires and imperialists threatened British supremacy. The French, German, American, and Russian imperialist endeavors encroached on British territories. The foreboding British industrial and naval force once dominated the rest of the world, making it the most powerful Empire. However, as wars ended and armies grew stronger, the other powers rose up.
44 45

Modern Marvels: Sugar, DVD, (New York: A&E Television Networks, 2005). Brendon, 23. 46 Ibid, 25. 47 Simon Schama A History of Britain: The Wrong Empire. 48 Brendon, 31.

Peterson 12 Germany, the United States, Russia, France, and Japan rapidly built their navies. Soon many of foreign fleets surpassed that of the once greatest navy in the world, outnumbering the British battleships 96 to 62.49 The new great powers began actively secured new colonial territories. Colonies now had multiple purposes that surpassed the desire for pure profit. Empires sought colonies as a method to measure status and greatness as well as a way to secure raw materials and market outlets for the mother country, away from foreign rivals. The competition of the other industrial powers was essential to the downfall of the British Empire. The West Indies were the first to see decline. There is a debate that questions whether or not the fall of economic prosperity in the West Indies is due to the abolition of slavery. Although slavery played its role in the dynamics of the economy, it was the successful rise of competitors that actually caused the downfall of immense profits as well as the initiation of law against slavery. The abolitionist movement became increasingly popular in the early part of the 19th century. Humanitarians in Britain grew in numbers, mobilizing large numbers to support the abolitionist cause. In 1787, near the start of the campaign, around 11,000 people signed a petition in support of the cause in Manchester, nearly 20 percent of the towns population at that time.50 The British of course did not especially want to abolish slavery since it was one of their most profitable commodities. However, the House of Commons soon figured that they could appease the humanitarians as well as reap the benefits of free slave labor by just using the slave population they currently had and abolish the slave trade. The House of Commons plan backfired when the war against France ended 1815. Their competitors, namely France, were resumed the slave trade and began to harvest sugar faster and more sufficiently. During the 1820s, because of the successful production of sugar in territories like Brazil, Cuba, and

49 50

Marshall, 54. Marshall, 44.

Peterson 13 Guadeloupe, the world sugar prices fell, while the cost of manufacturing remained high. Matters grew worse when a major slave revolt took place in Jamaica in 1831. Under such circumstances, the British finally decided to abolish slavery altogether in 1833.51 As the foreign rivals increased their pressure against the British by colonizing in a world that began to seem too small, the internal attacks also increased, threatening the British Empire in a much larger way. The first monumental Indian internal attack was the 1857 Indian Mutiny. Indian soldiers, or sepoys, rose up against the British in Delhi; they forced the British subjects out and burned down the city.52 The mutiny spread; Lord Canning, Governor-General, described it as, more like a national war than a local insurrection.53 Using the admirable useful new invention, the telegraph, the British were able to bring in help to overcome the insurrection. Eventually, using brutal tactics, the British were successful. Westernization was their downfall. The Indian peasants heavily resented the British efforts to convert them to Christianity; that resentment contributed to the popularity of the Indian Mutiny despite the unclear strategy and lack of a united insurgency.54 There was not a major revolt insurrection again until much later in the century. Again, westernization proved to be fatal for the British Empire. Western education unified the Indian population and gave them the knowledge to understand how to hurt the British. The now literate Indian population grew increasingly unrest, feeling that they deserved to rule themselves, as Britain promised. The best evidence of this new-found sentiment was the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.55 Although at first relatively innocent, the act of having Indian political leadership fueled citizens resentment of British rule. In 1905, Indian citizens initiated many strikes and boycotts of British goods that spread the sentiment even
51 52

Marshall, 43-44. Simon Schama A History of Britain: The Empire of Good Intentions 53 Brendon, 133. 54 Brendon, 134 55 Marshall, 71.

Peterson 14 further. Revolutionary efforts continued, but were temporarily disrupted when World War I broke out. During which, however, the people grew even more restless as the cost of war led to shipping shortages and meager compensation, but were kept silent by the British promise to move towards self-government.56 When the war ended, the British did pass the MontaguChelmsford reforms in 1919 that gave Indian legislatures more power, but their efforts were offset by the passing of the Rowlatt Act later that same year. The Rowlatt Act gave the British permission to imprison anyone suspected of terrorism without trial.57 The people of India, including political leader Mohandas Gandhi, were outraged by this law. Many people loudly protested the law, especially in the area of Punjab. Lieutenant-Governor Sir Michael ODwyer was greatly disturbed by the outrage of the Indian population, which led him to open fire on a group of Hindu worshipers at the Golden Temple, an act later referred to as the Amritsar Massacre.58 The massacre increased mobilization amongst the Indian population. Gandhis peaceful campaigns also grew in popularity. The British, however, maintained India as a dominion until they finally decided that they could not survive another revolt. After the Second World War, India was granted independence. The British Empire monopolized the world. They rapidly secured countries and territories in search of profit. In 1792 there were thirty-two British colonies in 1816 that number grew to forty-three.59 They conquered people, places, and their own fear. They soon became the supreme ruler of more than a quarter of the worlds population. As rulers, the British both succeeded and failed. Their paternalistic outlook both helped as well as destroyed the people they controlled. Westernization and progress took place, giving the natives a way to communicate and transport

56 57

Stearns, 771. Ibid., 771. 58 Brendon, 267. 59 Brendon, 30.

Peterson 15 easily. Cultures suffered in return, promoting a resentful sentiment that grew in popularity in every area that the British held. External wars and competition lessened the economic profits that resulted from colonial rule. Internal attacks from all over the world threatened the livelihood of the Empire. Indian nationalism led to uprisings against their British rulers. The white colonies like Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, where a large amount of British settlers migrated to, also felt worthy to rule themselves. Eventually, the British slowly pulled away from their territories, not able to ignore the pleas of the people as they grew louder every year they were subjugated. The British Empire legacy is still felt today, their impression still lives on in the language, architecture, art, and people of the territories they cultivated.

Peterson 16 Bibliography Brendon, Piers. The Decline and Fall of the British Empire 1781-1997. London: Random House Group Ltd., 2007. Cain, P.J. and Hopkins, A.G. British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914. London: Longman Group United Kingdom, 1993. Campbell, Sir George. The British Empire. London: Cassel & Company Ltd, 1887. Defoe, Daniel. The Complete English Tradesman. Google Books (1725). Ferguson, Niall. Empire, the Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power. London: Allen Lane, 2002. Forrest, Sir George. The Administration of Warren Hastings 1772-1785. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, 1892. Jones, Kenneth W. Socio-religious Reform Movements in British India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Johnson, Robert. British Imperialism. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003. Kennedy, Dane. Britain and Empire 1880-1945. London: Pearson Education Ltd., 2002. McClenaghan, William A. Europeans Explore the East. Western Civilization. http://mbwillhistory.com/page_88.html (accessed June 3, 2011). Metcalf, Thomas R. Imperial Towns and Cities. In The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, edited by P.J. Marshall, 224-253. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Modern Marvels: Sugar. DVD. New York: A&E Television Networks, 2005.

Peterson 17 Richardson, David and Stephen D. Behrendt. Inikori's Odyssey: Measuring the British Slave Trade, 1655-1807. Cahiers d'tudes Africaines 35 (1995). http://www.jstor.org (accessed June 9, 2011). Simon Schama A History of Britain: The Empire of Good Intentions. DVD. directed by Clare Beavan and Martina Hall. New York: A&E Home Video, 2002. Simon Schama A History of Britain: The Wrong Empire. DVD. directed by Clare Beavan and Martina Hall. New York: A&E Home Video, 2002. Stearns, Peter N., et al. World Civilizations the Global Experience. New York: Pearson Education Inc., 2007. Thompson, James. Rule Britannia! Britannia: British History and Travel. http://www.britannia.com/rulebrit.html (accessed May 30, 2011).