Journal of Petroleum Geology, vol.

18 (l),January 1995, pp 29-48

29

DEPOSITIONAL MODELS AND RESERVOIR PROPERTIES OF MIOCENE REEFS, VISAYAN ISLANDS, PHILIPPINES
A. V. Carozzi"

Recent commercial discoveries offshore Palawan have propelled the Philippines into the list of oil- and gas-producing countries, and have focussed on the importance of Miocene reefs as reservoirs. This new situation has motivated the update of earlier depositional-diagenetic models for the Miocene reefs in the Visayan Islands, which is presented in this paper. These reefs consisted of an association of corals, red algae, bryozoans, and encrustingforaminifers, whichformed wave-resistant, constructed, barrierand-atoll systems along the edge of narrow shelves, with associated back-reefpatch reefs and frontal pinnacle reefs. The latter also grew on structural and depositional highs and pla forms among deeper water carbonate mudstones and shales. Reservoirs developed in all the various types of buildups by extensive burial dissolution, often preceded (withthe exception of some pinnacle reefs) b y subaerial exposure generating secondary porosity by vadose tophreatic undersaturated dissolution. Seals were generally provided by overlying basinal carbonate mudstones and shales, and by aizdesitic iwlcaniclastics and basaltic lava flows. Source beds were mature, basinal, bituminous carbonate mudstones and shales, and migration of hydrocarbons was mainly updip, complicated by local structural conditions.

INTRODUCTION
Extensive field work and subsurface exploration provided the foundation for the first depositional model for the Miocene reefs of the Visayan Islands (Carozzi et al., 1976), and portrayed the buildups as shelf-edge complex barriers along narrow shelves accompanied by atolls and by pinnacle reefs on basinal slopes. Based on additional coring and further petrographic study, this paper presents amore complete reef model, accounting for depositional and diagenetic facies development, particularly with regard to burial porosity.

* Department of Geology, 245 Natural History Building, University ofIllinois at UrbanaChampaign, 1301 West Green Street, Urbana, Illinois, 61801-2999, USA.

30

A . V. Cnro::i

GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Philippine archipelago (Fig. 1) developed into an active volcanic island-arc system as a result of Late Cretaceous to Early Oligocene orogenic movements controlled by regional plate tectonics. Early Miocene sedimentary sequences of shallow-marine clastics with incipient reef development are transgressive over a variety of older rocks with an unconformable contact. In continental environments, coal deposition was widespread. Middle Miocene shallow-marine coarse- to medium-grained clastics, grading into deepwater shales, overlay these lithologies. Acid volcanic intrusions and extrusions were common at that time, as well as andesitic volcaniclastic sediments. Typical barrier reefs developed extensively in Middle Miocene times along the margins of major basins, and controlled the pattern of sedimentation over widespread areas (Fig. 2), although redeposited andesitic volcaniclastics interfered constantly with reef growth. Intense differential vertical movements caused Middle Miocene carbonates locally to overlap much older formations. It is not uncommon to observe Middle Miocene reefs growing over PermoCarboniferous metasediments and Mesozoic to Early Cenozoic ophiolitic flysch sequences, but in general they overlie Middle Miocene clastics, coal beds, and basaltic lava flows. I n the Late Miocene, the intrusion of more andesitic volcanic rocks accompanied folding. widespread thrusting. rifting and transcurrent faulting related to collision events. The Plio-Pleistocene transgression was extensive in most basins, draping older structures with reefal carbonates, while uplifted areas generated fluvial conglomerates and sandstones associated with renewed andesitic volcanism. The paleogeographic map of the Miocene reef trends in the Visayan Islands (Fig. 2) is a simplified presentation of the results of field investigations, extending over a period of seven years, and conducted under adverse logistic conditions of island-hopping, using means of transportation ranging from primitive outriggers to helicopters. The map shows the complex pattern of the Miocene reef barriers, and the important fact that, with the exception of some basinal facies which still correspond to present-day narrow marine inter-island basins, Miocene paleogeography was a direct function of contemporaneous plate tectonics, and is as a whole largely independent of the present-day distribution and shape of the Visayan Islands. This paleogeography was characterized by a repeated polarity, consisting of the constant juxtaposition basinwards of the following depositional environments: 1. emerged land; 2. back-reef lagoon with patch reefs; 3. main reef barrier; 4. fore-reef slope grading to inter-barrier shelves and basins with pinnacle reefs.

GEOLOGIC AGE OF THE REEFS

Based on the occurrence of large benthonic foraminifera, the reefs of the Visayan Islands began to develop in the Early Miocene (Lepidocyclina eulepidirza, Lepidocycliriu rirphrolepidina, Spiroclypeus orbitoideus, Spiroclypeirs Irupoldi, and Austrotrillina hondiirii). Depending on the location of particular islands. the reefs reached their final and maximum development either in the Middle or Middle-Late Miocene (Miogypsina rrid~)rie.sierisis, Lepidocyclirza ferreroi, Cycloclypeus kutucycloclypeus. associated with the pelagic forms Sphuerodinellopsis subdekiscens and Globoqriadriria altispira).

DESCRIPTION OF MICROFACIES
The proposed depositional model was derived from detailed petrographic analysis of microfacies and their shallowing-upwards sequences in outcrops and cores, and can be best visualized by combining the plan view of Fig. 3 with the field photographs of Plate 1. Miocene reefs of the Visayan Islands formed along the edges of narrow shelves, and consisted of an association of corals, red algae, bryozoans and encrusting foraminifera

Miocene reefs, Visayan Islands, Philippines

I
1

11.9-

120'

122.

20'

50

18.

t 0 50 100 150 2 0 0

7
31
JAPAN

OOP

S C A L E

16'

AUSTRALIA

.8.

'

SULU

SEA

cj
BORNEO
120.

CELEBES
122'

BEA
124'

126.

Fig. 1. Location map of the Visayan Islands, central Philippines.

32

A. V. Cnro:zi

that formed complex wave-resistant, constructional barriers of coral encrusting-redalgal boundstones/wackestoiies (Plate 1 D). Bioclasts and intraclasts derived froin these baniers were shed as frontal aprons of fore-reef talus. forming coral rudstones (Plate 1 E) and skeletal intraclastic grainstones (Plate 1 F and G), which locally supported pinnacle coralline buildups of branching-coral encrusting-red-algal boundstones/wackestones. Tidal passes filled with skeletal grainstones and intraclasts intersected these aprons. Tidal-pass sediments graded seawards into carbonate turbidites of graded skeletal grainstones; these then interfingered with deep-water (pelagic) argillaceous lime mudstones and shales. Low-energy skeletal-pelletal wackestones. deposited behind the barrier reef in shallow-water lagoons. were intersected by numerous tidal channel deposits of wellsorted skeletal grainstones. These shelf facies display an ecologically zoned succession of small buildups. In a landwards direction, they consist of: (1) finger-coral boundstones (Plate I A and C); (2) large benthonic foraminifera1 Holimedu packstones; and (3) small arenaceous foraminifera] packstones and gastropod red-algal packstones (Plate 1 B). Shoreface deposits consisted of mixed carbonates and andesitic greywackes (Plate 1 H), grading landwards into mangrove tidal flat. beach, and estuarine deposits. The entire reef system was cut in a transverse manner by tidal passes, which connected e4tuarine and shoreface areas across the entire lagoon with carbonate turbidite submarine fans prograding into deep-water pelagic argillaceous mudstones and shales of the basinal en v iron mcn t . Microfacies are described in terms ofjuxtaposed environments numbered consecutively from the coastline in a seawards direction (Fig. 3):

hlicrofacies 1: calcareous siltstones grading to arenaceous skeletal packstones, deposited i n estuarine. mangrotre tidal flat. and beach environments. In thih association otenvironments. which forms the shorewards limit of the depositional model. medium- to fine-grained clastics predominate over carbonates. Microfacies 1 (Plate 2 A ) is a poorly-sorted and weakly-bioturbated arenaceous skeletal packstone, with an interstitial matrix of argillaceous and pyritic lime mud. Non-carbonate sand-size components include abundant grains of deti-ital quartz. plagioclases, hornblende. opaque minerals. wlcanic glass. and lithoclasts of altered intermediate-to-basic volcanics. Carbonate grains include ostracods. thin-shelled pelecypods. gastropods, sponge spicules. and rare foraminifera (miliolids. rotdiids. textularids. and large benthonics).
Microfacies 2: argillaceous foraminiferal packstone. deposited in a shoreface me en 1,i I-on n t . This envii-onnient represents the major transition between clastic and carbonate deposition. Microfacies 2 (Plate 2. B) is a poorly-sorted. coarse- to fine-grained foraminifcral packstone with an interstitial argillaceous lime mud or a bioclastic matrix. Major bioclasts are orbitoids. entire individu~ils Aiiii/ii.vteRiIicr. highly-broken Cyc1orIypm.s. together of ii~i. with O p c r ~ ~ / t / i rotaliids. red algae. echinoids. gastropods. ostracods and small arenaceoiis for a m i n i fe ra. The. non-carbonate fraction consists of lithoclusts of altered volcanics, and grains of quart/. feldspars. and altered mafics.

Microfacies 3: skeletal wackestone, deposited in lagooiial environments. This en\~ironment by far the most variable. Within an extensive background of fineis grained skeletal mxkestones. it displays at least three types of buildups or banks resulting from the localized accumulation of. or construction by, a variety of organisms. These deposits are distributed in a general seawards direction as follows: Mic.i-o$ic,ic~s3 r r : a variety of closely-related packstone lithofacies. which includes small benthonic foraminifera1 packstones. arenaceous foraminiferal packstones. and gastropod branching-I-ed-algal packstones (Plate 2 C , D and E).
u

Miocene reefs, Vistrynn Islaiids. Philippines

33

//

1j
I

BACK-REEF LAGOONS WITH INVESTIGATED PATCH REEFS EMERGED LAND IN MIOCENE TIMES PRESENT-DAY ISLAND COASTLINES WITH MIOCENE LEFT LATERAL 7 0 k m OFFSET OF PHILIPPINE TRANSCURRENT FAULT

/I,

,// ,

Fig. 2. Paleogeographic map of Miocene reef trends in the Visayan Islands. This map takes into account the left-lateral offset of the Philippine transcurrent fault, estimated at 70 km since the Miocene.

34

MICROFACIES
ESTUARIES MANGROVE TIDAL FLATS BEACHES

2
SMALL ARENACEOUS FORAMINIFER BANKS AND GASTROPOD

1I 1

LAGOONAL
iF0E::ER LARGER

TiI
3b

FINOER CORAL PATCH REEFS

3c
4

FINGER CORAL PATCH REEFS MAIN CORAL-= ALGAL REEF B A R R I E R

4a

6
ORE-REEF A P X
WITH PINNACLE REEF OPEN MARINE CARBONATE AND SHALES

7a

7b

8
8a

TURBlDlTE FANS

Fig. 3. Plan view of ideal depositional model.

Mic.rofiic.ies 3b: large benthonic foraminifera, mainly Spiroclypeusand Lepidocvrlirin. deposited together with Halimrdn in a packstone texture. forming buildups (Plate 2 F. G and H). Micrqfcicies 3c: finger-coral boundstones with a lime mud matrix. The general juxtaposition of these buildups or banks indicates a gradual change of the lagoonal environment from restricted-marine conditions on its landward side. to more openmarine conditions along its boundary with back-reef environments. The most seaward type of buildup of the lagoonal environment consists of tnud mounds with finger corals of Microfacies 3c (Plate 3 Bj.

Miocene reefs. Visayan Islaiids, Philippines

35

ENVIRONMENT
ALGAL REF BARRlER

Fig. 4. Cross-section of ideal depositional model.

36

A. V. Corozi

Microfacies 4: finger-coral algal-plate grainstones with intraclasts, deposited as a sand belt in the back-reef environment, the only anomalies being patch reefs of fingercoral boundstone/wackestone of Microfacies 4a. This microfacies is similar to the finger-coral mounds of Microfacies 3c, the main differences being large corals and a slightly coarser interstitial matrix with planktonic foraminifera (Plate 3 C ) . Microfacies 5: coral encrusting-red-algal boundstones/wackestones of the barrier reef. Massive coral colonies, encrusted to a variable degree by red algae, bryozoans and foraminifera (Ccirpenteria), constructed a wave-resistant barrier (Plate 3 D). The dark, bituminous interstitial matrix of silt-to clay-size lime mud displays local concentrations of bioclasts. such as orbitoids, echinoids, ostracods and planktonic foraminifera. Neomorphism of the coral framework into pseudosparite is widespread, and results from freshwater phreatic diagenesis. Although this microfacies represents the highest energy of the entire carbonate system. the constructional framework afforded sufficient internal protection to allow deposition of fine, interstitial matrix material. Microfacies 6: coral rudstones and skeletal intraclastic grainstones, deposited in forereef talus environment. These deposits build a discontinuous zone along the front of the main barrier facing the open ocean. Such high-energy coral rudstones and coarse-grained skeletal-intraclastic grainstones result from the accumulation and slumping of shallow-water barrier-reef dCbris. The presence of large, subangular intraclasts of Microfacies 5 and entire coral colonies detached from their substrate, indicates early submarine cementation within the barrier reef. Intraclasts and bioclasts derived from all the back-reef, lagoonal, and shoreface environments (including lithoclasts of volcanics) demonstrate the important sediment-transport role played by tidal passes. A typical example of Microfacies 6 (Plate 3 E) is a coral intraclastic grainstone/ packstone. with poorly-sorted subangular-to-subrounded fragments of coral colonies, red-algal colonies, encrusting foraminifera, and planktonic foraminifera. Widespread pressure-solution occurs along with interstitial cavity-filling sparite, and rare patches of silt-size pelletal lime-mud matrix occur between grains locally. Microfacies 7: burrowed coral planktonic-foraminifera1 packstone/wackestone. deposited in the fore-reef apron environment. This microfacies (Plate 3 F) is a burrowed skeletal packstone/wackestone with silt-sized lime-mud matrix material. Bioclasts of corals, red algae, bryozoans, encrusting foraminifera, echinoids and large orbitoids are associated with abundant planktonic foraminifera. Bioturbation is well developed. This environment represents the distal end of bioclastic deposits shed by the mechanical destruction of the barrier reef by waves and tides. It consists of a mixture of shelf-derived material and in sitir slope deposits. Locally, this apron supported the deep-water coralline pinnacle buildups of finger-coral boundstones of Microfcicies 7b. Tidal-pass deposits (Microfacies 7a).which extend deep into the lagoonal environment as updip tongues, result from the redistribution of a variety of bioclasts derived from the reworking of lagoonal buildups. Whenever continental sedimentyield was active, lithoclasts of volcanic and metamorphic rocks, as well as grains of plagioclase and hornblende, were also distributed along these major axes of communication between the back-reef lagoon and fore-reef apron. Plate 3A shows a typical tidal-pass deposit. It is a bimodal mixed-skeletal grainstone with abundant cavity-filling sparite cement and local pressure-solution features. Intraclasts of various lagoonal microfacies are associated with bioclasts of encrusting red algae.

Miocene reefs. Visayan Islands, Philippines

31

large orbitoids, Halimeda, echinoids, miliolids, textularids and ostracods, together with common grains of hornblende.

Microfacies 8: this microfacies consists of argillaceous lime mudstones with pyrite. argillaceous planktonic-foraminifera1 wackestones with pyrite (Plate 3G), and shales with pyrite, deposited in deep-water open-marine environments. Abundant planktonic foraminifera include globigerinids, orbulinids, Globoquadrina, Sphaerodinellopsis and Globorotalia. as well as monaxon sponge spicules and ostracods. Pyrite concentrations and rare silt-size grains of detrital quartz are scattered throughout the groundmass. This microfacies becomes a mature source rock under burial conditions in inter-island troughs. This microfacies is interrupted locally by prograding submarine fans of graded-bedded skeletal grainstones of Microfacies 8a (Plate 3 H), deposited as carbonate turbidites at the mouth of major tidal passes. A complete graded sequence (Plate 4) begins at the base with a fine-grained mixed-skeletal planktonic-foraminifera1 grainstone, containing a great variety of reworked bioclasts: Amphistegina, Operculina, Miogypsina, Cycloclypeus, Lepidocyclina. rotaliids, dasyclad algae, echinoid plates and spines and ostracods. Associated with these highly-fragmented benthonic constituents are the following pelagic foraminifera: Sphaerodinellopsis, Globoquadrina, Orbulina and Globigerinoides. Accessory mineral grains include quartz, plagioclases, weathered hornblende, volcanic glasses, and opaque minerals. Cementation is by pressure-solution combined with patches of cavity-filling sparite. The basal skeletal grainstone grades upwards into a finer-grained skeletal packstone. The matrix is argillaceous, silt-size lime mud, with small grains of quartz, plagioclases, and abundant muscovite flakes. The middle and upper parts of the turbidite sequence display light-coloured laminae gradually decreasing in importance upwards, and separated by thicker, dark-coloured bands. The light-coloured laminae are argillaceous skeletal mudstones, consisting mostly of pelagic foraminifera, common ostracods and silt-size debris of benthonic constituents, together with abundant very-fine grained detrital quartz, plagioclases, muscovite flakes, altered hornblende, and volcanic glass. The darker bands are similar in composition to the lighter-coloured laminae, except that argillaceous matrix is more abundant than bioclasts and mineral grains. The middle part of the turbidite sequence commonly displays concentrations of flat intraclasts of argillaceous lime mudstone. DEPOSITIONAL MODEL
A tranverse cross-section of the depositional model (Fig. 4) illustrates its main characteristics: variations of the relative energy level of the variousjuxtaposed environments; distribution of the organic and mineral constituents; variations of the general grain-size of the microfacies; and distribution of potential secondary porosity created at depth. The distribution of organic constituents indicates three distinct communities: the first is characteristic of the lagoon; the second of the back-reef and main reef barrier; and the third of the fore-reef talus and apron -with partial overlap between adjacent communities. The distribution of mineral constituents and plant debris emphasizes the extra-basinal supply from volcanic terranes, whereas the presence of intraclasts identifies major areas of intra-basinal reworking processes. The curve of potential secondary porosity indicates that dissolution is concentrated in barrier reef and adjacent back-reef and fore-reef lithofacies. DIAGENETIC SEQUENCE All the Middle Miocene reefs of the Visayan Islands investigated have undergone a diagenetic evolution, which consists of a normal sequence of diagenetic environments

38

A. 1 C</ro.xr .

as follows: marine phreatic; freshwater vadose (with occasional subaerial exposure); freshwater phreatic (undersaturated and saturated); and burial, where most secondary porosity was generated. The rricirine phreatic eni*ironrnentis recorded by a number of characteristic textural features, such as endolithic algal perforations (Plate 5A), micritization of bioclasts (Plate 5B), isopachous fibrous rim cement (Plate 5A and B), highly-developed fascicularoptic calcite cement (Plate 5C and D), and geopetal deposits of fine pelletal and bioclastic internal sediments (Plate 5 C and D). Freshwater vcidose rind irndersutinrcrted phrentic eri~iror~rnents followed the marine phreatic environment. Dissolution channels partially filled with vadose silt resulted from these freshwater environments (Plate 5 E).Freshwater phreatic sparite cement subsequently occluded most dissolution porosity developed in these stages. Large-scale neomorphism occurred in the sutirrtrtedfresh\.veit4rplzreutic eriviroiinteiit. changing aragonitic coral frameworks into clear pseudosparite mosaics, and dark, interstitial carbonate mud into dark pseudomicrosparite (Plate 5F and H). In some instances, the interstitial mud remained unaffected (Plate 5 G). Cavity-filling sparite, displaying a marginal bladed texture, grading into mosaic at the centre of voids (Plate 5A to E), occluded voids developed during previous diagenetic stages. For all practical purposes, porosity in Visayan reef-related lithofacies was completely occluded in this diagenetic environment. The bur-icil empironment is characterized by dissolution processes which, in places generated the first subcommercial reservoirs of the Philippines, as in the Nido reef, offshore Palawan (Durkee and Hatley. 197 I ; Hatley. 1978 a, b), followed by commercial reservoirs which were discovered in the same general area, as a result of a surge in offshore exploration (Shirley, 1992). Samples from cores in the Panay Basin investigated in this study indicated a maximum measured porosity of 32.8%. and maximum permeability of 146 md. Secondary burial porosity can be classified in temporal order of development as follows: microporosity in red-algal bioclasts and colonies; biomouldic porosity created by fabric-selective dissolution of sparite or silt-size lime-mud fillings of chambers of benthonic foraminifera such as Lepidocyclinids and Lenticulinids (Plate 6A and B), or by fabric-selective dissolution of neomorphosed coral labyrinthine frameworks (Plate 6C) and the outside walls and septae of horn corals (Plate 6 D); biomouldic porosity, enlarged to vuggy porosity. at the expense of all types of bioclasts. such as large benthonic foraminifera. red algae. Hcilirnedci. and corals (Plate 6E, F, and G), except for some Lrriric~uliritrand Amphistegirici. The final stage of dissolution is vuggy, in which non-fabric dissolution involved all biogenic constituents, neomorphosed or not, cavity-filling sparite, and appreciable amounts of the predominant.interstitia1 silt-size lime-mud matrix (Plate 6 H). The demonstration of the burial nature of the above-described extensive secondary porosity is afforded, for example, by the fact that it developedat the expense of neomofphosed biogenic debris and cavity-filling sparite cement, which are constituents generated in the overlying and earlier saturated freshwater phreatic environment.

POROSITY DEVELOPMENT
Refervoir facies were mainly developed in complex constructional barriers and atolls, immediately-adjacent frontal aprons and back-reef bioclastic carbonates, as well as in pinnacle reefs on basinal slopes. Porosity (reaching 32.8%) and permeability (reaching 146 md) result from a locally-variable combination of the effects of subaerial exposure introducing secondary porosity by minor vadose to freshwater-phreatic undersatured dissolution, followed by extensive burial dissolution.

Miocerre reefs, Visnycm Islands, Philippines

39

Fig. 5. Depositional model of Pleistocene uplifted reef tract of Barbados, West Indies (modified from Mesolella et aL, 1970).

OIL AND GAS CONSIDERATIONS

Commercial reservoirs developed mainly within the complex barrier systems and atolls, in frontal bioclastic talus, and in pinnacle reefs on deeper basinal slopes by the effect of extensive burial dissolution. Effective seals were generally provided by basinal shales, and locally by andesitic volcaniclastics and basaltic flows. Source beds consist of contemporaneous or older, mature pelagic carbonate and bituminous shales deposited in deep inter-island troughs, and migration of hydrocarbons was generally in an updip direction complicated by local structural conditions.

COMPARISON WITH PLEISTOCENE ANALOGUES

The closest analogue to the depositional model of the Middle Miocene reefs of the Philippines is represented by the uplifted Pleistocene reef tract of Barbados, West Indies (Fig. 5 ) . Although the available study (Mesolella et al., 1970) is more concerned with facies geometries within these reefs and their relationship with eustatism and tectonics than detailed microfacies and diagenesis, the two models display striking similarities. The main difference in Barbados is the presence of an older, inactive carbonate shoreline and the lack of contemporaneous andesitic volcanism.

CONCLUSIONS
Middle Miocene reefs ofthe Visayan Islands consist of wave-resistant complex barriers and atolls built by an association ofcorals, red algae, bryozoans, and encrusting foraminifera along the edges of narrow shelves surrounding active volcanic island arcs, and of pinnacle reefs developed on basinal slopes. Low-energy and ecologically-zoned lagoons with patch reefs behind the barriers graded into mangrove tidal flats and estuaries and communicated with the open sea through numerous tidal passes cutting across the barrier systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Author is grateful to Milagros V. Reyes and Victoriano P. Ocampo, his former associates, of Philippine Oil Development Co., for their devoted collaboration for many yea-s. and the company itself for permission to publish. Gratitude is expressed to Clif Jordan (independent consultant, Carrollton. Texas) for his invaluable help during updating and revision of the data on which this paper is based. Many thanks are owed to Jessie Knox for drafting the figures.

REFERENCES
CAROZZI. A. V.. REYES. M. V. and OCAMPO, V. P.. 1976. Microfacies and microfossils of the Miocene reef carbonates of the Philippines. Philippines Oil Development Company. S p x i d Pcrbliccrfio/z 1, Manilla. 80 pp. 19 plates. DURKEE. E. F. and HATLEY. A. G.. 1971 , The Philippines: is a second exploration cycle warranted? Oil mid Grrr J o i i r - r i . , 69. 86-90, HATLEY. A. G.. 197821.The Nido reef discovery in the Philippines. its significance. Oil o/zdGo.s5011171.. 24, 13-16. . 1978b. Palawan oil spurs Philippine action. Oil ctrzd Grrs Jourrr.. 76,112-1 18. MESOLELLA. K. J.. SEALY. H. A. and MAITHEWS. R. K., 1970.Facies geometries within Pleistocene reefs in Barbados. West Indies. AAPG Bull.. 54, 1899.1917. SHIRLEY. K . . 1991. Activity heats up in the Philippines. AAPG Esplorer. November Issue. 20-22.

Plate 1 (page 41). Field photographs. A. Conical patch reef of finger-coral boundstones in lagoonal setting (Dinagat Island). B. Red-algal packstone bank in lagoonal setting (Dinagat Island). C. Finger-coral buildup with abundant carbonate mud matrix in back-reef to lagoonal environments (Ticao Island, north of Masbate). D. Main barrier reef of coral encrusting-red-algal boundstone, with tightly juxtaposed coral colonies (Tablas Island). E. Upper part of fore-reef talus, with completely overturned coral colonies (lower right) and scattered black pebbles of basalt and andesitic volcanics (Iloilo Basin, Panay Island). F. Proximal portion of well-bedded fore-reef apron, consisting of coarse, skeletal grainstones with primary dip (Leyte Island). G. Distal portion of fore-reef apron, consisting of weakly-bedded to massive skeletal grainstones (Iloilo Basin, Panay Island). H. Andesitic volcanic seals between superposed barrier reefs, formed by poorly-sorted epiclastic greywackes with smectitic clays and shales (Negros Island).

Miocrrie reefs, Visayari Zsltrr7ds, Philippiries

41

32

A. V. Caror5

Plate 2 (page 43). Photomicrographs of Microfacies 1-3b: A. Microfacies 1: arenaceous skeletal packstone, estuary to tidal-flat environments. B. Microfacies 2: argillaceous foraminifera1 packstone, shoreface environment. C. Microfacies 3a: burrowed Operculina packstone/grainstone, foraminiferal bank deposit, lagoonal environment; major bioclasts are, in decreasing order of importance: small arenaceous foraminifera, textulariids, miliolids, Operculina, echinoids, rotaliids, ostracods, dasyclad algae, pelecypods, and rare planktonic foraminifera. D. Microfacies 3a: burrowed Amphistegina packstone with a bituminous silt-size pelletal limemud matrix and with a mixture of bioclasts: rotaliids, miliolids, textulariids, echinoids, gastropods, and bryozoans; foraminiferal bank deposit, lagoonal environment. E. Microfacies 3a: branching-red-algal packstone with bituminous silt-size pelletal lime-mud matrix with red-algal colonies (commonly encrusted by bryozoans) and associated pelecypods, miliolids, textulariids, echinoids and ostracods; algal-bank deposit, lagoonal environment. F. Microfacies 3b: Hafimeda-foraminifera1 packstone, with interstitial silt-size lime-mud matrix and local pressure-solution features and subordinate constituents of Amphistegina, echinoids, ostracods, and rare finger corals; algal-bank deposit, lagoonal environment. G. Microfacies 3b: Spirocfypeus packstone, foraminiferal-bank deposit, lagoonal environment. H. Microfacies 3b: Lepidocycfina grainstone, foraminiferal-bank deposit, lagoonal environment. All photomicrographs: plane-polarized light.

Miocene reefs. Visayan Islands, Philippines

43

Miocerie reefs. Visayan 1,skinds. Philippines

45

Plate 3 (page 44). Photomicrographs of Microfacies 3c-8: A. Microfacies 7a: tidal pass across lagoon. B. Microfacies 3c: finger-coral boundstonelwackestone with dark, silt-size lime-mud matrix, locally pelletal, in which neomorphosed coral individuals are distributed at random with accessory constituents of sponge spicules, ostracods, miliolids, and Elphidium. C. Microfacies 4: back-reef environment with finger-coral patch reefs. D. Microfacies 5: main coral encrusting-red-algal barrier reef. E. Microfacies 6 fore-reef talus environment. : F. Microfacies 7: fore-reef apron environment. G. Microfacies 8: open-marine pelagic environment. H. Microfacies 8a: carbonate turbidite. All photomicrographs: plane-polarized light. Plate 4 (above). Microfacies 8a: carbonate-turbidite fan environment. Composite thinsection of complete turbidite unit. Plane-polarized light.

A. V. Cn,o:ri

Plate 5 (page 47). Diagenetic sequence. A. Marine phreatic environment. Perforations by endolithic algae in alternating encrusting bryozoans and red algae, filled with isopachous, fibrous rim cement followed by freshwater phreatic sparite. B. Marine phreatic environment. Micrite envelopes around various bioclasts, isopachous rim cement (arrows) and freshwater phreatic sparite. C. Marine phreatic environment. Incomplete fascicular-optic calcite cement at roof of cavity, separated by freshwater phreatic sparite (related to fracture) from floor of internal sediment. D. Marine phreatic environment. Fascicular-optic cement developed over geopetalinternal sediment. with remaining portion of cavity filled with freshwater phreatic sparite. E. Freshwater vadose environment. Solution crack filled with vadose silt overlain by freshwater phreatic sparite. F. Freshwater phreatic environment. Neomorphism of aragonite coral framework into clear pseudosparite and of silt-size lime mud filling of cavities into dark pseudomicrosparite. G. Freshwater phreatic environment. Neomorphism of aragonite coral framework into pseudosparite, with filling of cavities by bituminous silt-size lime-mud matrix left unaffected. H. Freshwater phreatic environment. Incomplete neomorphism of aragonite coral framework to clear pseudosparite and of filling of cavities to pseudomicrosparite. All photomicrographs: plane-polarized light. Plate 6 (page 48). Burial porosity types. Porosity of thin sections impregnated with blue plastic is shown in shades of grey, by arrows or letter p. A. Biomouldic porosity, by selectivedissolution of filling of Lepidocyclina chambers (blackarrows). B. Biomouldic porosity, by selective dissolution of filling of Lenticulina chambers (black arrows). C. Biomouldic porosity, by selective dissolution of neomorphosed coral framework (p). D. Biomouldic porosity, by selective dissolution of horn coral septae (white arrows) and outside walls. E. Biomouldic porosity, enlarged by dissolution of bioclasts of red algae and large benthonic foraminifera (p). F. Biomouldic porosity, enlarged by dissolution of bioclasts of corals, red algae, Halimeda, and large benthonic foraminifera (p). G. Biomouldic porosity, enlarged to vuggy porosity by dissolution of large benthonic foraminifera, red algae, Halimeda, corals, and interstitial silt-size lime-mud matrix (p). H. Vuggy porosity, by dissolution of all types of bioclasts and large amounts of interstitial siltsize lime mud matrix (p). All photomicrographs: plane-polarized light.

Miocene reefs, Visriyuri Islmds. Philippiries

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