Narayana Thesis

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF WIND ENEGY CONVERSION SYSTEM
A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
(Specialisation: Electrical Systems)

Submitted by NARAYANAREDDY BOMMAREDDY
(ROLL NO: 09/EE/402)

Under the guidance of Dr. T.K.SAHA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DURGAPUR-713 209 INDIA JULY, 2011.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First, I would like to thank my thesis supervisor, Dr.T.K.Saha, for providing me with the right balance of guidance and independence in my research. I am greatly indebted to him for his full support, constant encouragement and advice both in technical and non-technical matters. His broad expertise and superb intuition have been a source of inspiration to me over the past two years. His comments and criticisms have greatly influenced my technical writing, and are reflected throughout the presentation of this dissertation.
I also wish to express my sincere and respectable thanks to our Head of the Department and all faculty members of Electrical Engineering Department for consecutive suggestions and valuable instruction for the execution of this project work.
I gratefully acknowledge to My classmates, Juniors and friends for their support, friendship, help, and cheerfulness. I would also like to thank my good friends in other departments. In addition, I gratefully acknowledge the financial support of our Electrical Engineering department.
Above all, I am extremely grateful to my parents and other family members for their unfailing support to me throughout my career. I owe everything I have achieved until now, to my family.
NARAYANAREDDY BOMMAREDDY 09/EE/402
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DURGAPUR DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Place: N.I.T. Durgapur Date:
Signature
Name : NARAYANAREDDY BOMMAREDDY Roll No. : 09/EE/402
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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DURGAPUR CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that NARAYANAREDDY BOMMAREDDY (Roll Number 09/EE/402), undergoing Master of Technology in Electrical Systems of Electrical Engineering, has carried out the dissertation entitled Performance Analysis of Wind Energy Conversion System and prepared the report under my guidance and supervision. The dissertation is submitted as a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Master of Technology in Electrical Engineering with specialization in Electrical Systems from National Institute of Technology, Durgapur. To the best of my knowledge, the materials in this report have not been submitted earlier as a part of any other academic programme.
Dr. T.K.Saha Asst. Professor Department of Electrical Engineering National Institute of Technology, Durgapur
Dr. N.K.Roy Professor and Head of Department Department of Electrical Engineering National Institute of Technology, Durgapur
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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DURGAPUR CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

The foregoing thesis entitled Performance Analysis of Wind Energy Conversion Sysytem is hereby approved as a creditable study of an Engineering project carried out and presented in a manner satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as prerequisite to the degree for which it has been submitted. It is understood that by this approval, the undersigned do not necessarily endorse any conclusion or opinion therein, but approved the thesis for the purpose for which it is submitted.
Examiner
... Examiner
Examiner
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ABSTRACT
In the past few decades wind power has become one of the most attractive solutions for clean and renewable energy. Recent years have seen a huge application and improvement of wind energy systems particularly with the improvement in power semiconductor technology. Squirrel cage and wound rotor induction machines as well as synchronous machines have found increasing application in the wind energy business which uses the wind turbines, specifically fast wind turbines as their prime movers. The advancement in the embedded system technology has extended a scope for improvement in the drives associated with the control of these Machines particularly for the application on high ended algorithms in the control Aspects. Verification of these algorithms necessitates the modeling of wind turbine in software due to huge size and wind deficiency in the laboratories. Also real time verification of software results requires a turbine model in real time capable of driving an asynchronous or a synchronous machine to generate power without actually constructing one. Works available in literature show such attempts but all of them lack proper modeling of the turbine drive train system. The work reported in this thesis, therefore puts a effort towards the software modeling of a pitch controlled horizontal axis wind turbine and later the turbine model is coupled to an existing stand alone double output induction generator model in software. The thesis ends with hardware description in which experimental setup is designed for the real time implementation of an open loop control scheme for a chopper driven DC machine through DSP controller. This thesis makes a way to real time emulation of wind turbine, by implementing the proposed model by incorporating the chopper controlled dc machine at laboratory level which is the future goal of this thesis work.
List of Figures
1.1 Predicted fuel energy consumption as percentage of total in the year 2010.. 2 1.2 Change in average cost of wind generated electricity.2 1.3 Structure of a typical wind energy system. 4 2.1 Lift and Drag forces of an aerofoil.10 2.2 Tip speed ratio vs. power coefficient 12 2.3 Tip speed ratio vs. torque coefficient.12 2.4 Spring-mass-damper model of the wind turbine.13 2.5 Wind turbine connected to a grid connected squirrel cage induction generator.13 2.6 Ideal wind machine block diagram 14 2.7 Simulation model block diagram......19 2.8 Actuator system block diagram....21 3.1 A grid connected DOIG 24 3.2 DOIG in standalone mode.. 25 3.3 Block diagram for the simulation model of the DOIG... 27 3.4 The vector rotator block..28 3.5 The back to back connected PWM converters with the DC link capacitor 29 3.6 Block diagram of for the rotor voltage derivation 32 3.7 Block diagram of the DC link voltage controller33 3.8 Time vs. wind-gust speed36 3.9 Time vs. turbine speed.36 3.10 Time vs. generator speed...36 3.11 Time vs. turbine torque..36 3.12 Time vs. mechanical torque...37 3.13 Time vs. pitch angle...37 3.14 Time vs. load voltage.............37 3.15 Time vs. dc link voltage.37 3.16 Time vs. power...38 3.17 Time vs. generator speed.. .39
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3.18 Time vs. mechanical torque. 39 3.19 Time vs. pitch angle. 39 3.20 Time vs. output power...................................... 39 3.21 Time vs. turbine speed. 40 3.22 Time vs. turbine torque. 40 3.23 Time vs. dc link voltage... 40 3.24 Time vs. load voltage 40
3.25 Time vs. input wind velocity. 41 3.26 Time vs. turbine speed.. 41 3.27 Time vs. generator speed..42 3.28 Time vs. mechanical torque. 42 3.29 Time vs. turbine torque 42 3.30 Time vs. pitch angle. 42 3.31 Time vs. dc link voltage.. 43 3.32 Time vs. load voltage 43 3.33 Time vs. output power. 43 4.1 Block diagram of hardware.. 45 4.2 Hardware setup.. 46 4.3 Four quadrant chopper47 4.4 Operating region of the four quadrant DC chopper47 4.5 Power supply part of the interfacing gate signal.51 4.6 (a) Interfacing part for the gate signal.51 4.6 (b) Interfacing part for the gate signal 52 4.7 Gate Signal & Supply Voltage vs. Time (secs.) 53 4.8 Gate Signal & Input signal vs. Time (secs.). 53 4.9 Gate Signal & Input signal vs. Time (secs.)54 4.10 Gate Signal & Input signal vs. Time (secs.) 54 4.11 Model of a separately excited DC motor. 55 4.12 Internal architecture and functional units of the DS1104 DSP board..57 4.13 Armature Voltage (V) vs. Time (secs.) 60 4.14 Complementary Armature Voltage (V) vs. Time (secs.). 60
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4.15 Armature Current (A) & Gate Signal vs. Time (secs.).60 4.16 Field Voltage (V), Armature Voltage (V) & Gate Signal vs. Time (secs.)..61 4.17 Armature Current (A), Armature Voltage (V) & Gate Signal vs. Time (secs.)... 61 4.18 Rotor Voltage vs Time (secs.). 61
4.19 Rotor Voltage vs Time (secs.). 61
B.1 Diagram of The IGBT Modules Used.. 72
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List of Tables
1.1 Top 10 Wind Power Countries (February 2011)... 3 2.1 Parameter Values Used In the Turbine Model..20 3.1 Machine Parameters Used In the Simulation....34
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgement Declaration Certificate Certificate of Approval Abstract List of Figures List of tables Index i ii iii iv v vi ix x
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Structure of Wind Energy Conversion Systems......................................................... 3 1.2 Motivation.. 5 1.3 Literature Survey.... 5 1.4 Scope of the Work.. 7 1.5 Contribution.....8 1.6 Thesis Layout..8
CHAPTER 2
Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Structure 9 2.1.1 Lift and Drag of Aerofoil 9 2.1.2 Performance Characteristics of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. 10 2.2 Spring -Mass-Damper Model of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Drive Train..12 2.2.1 Model of The Ideal Wind Machine. 14 2.2.2 Model of The Blade 15
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2.2.3 Model of The Hub... 16 2.2.4 Model of The Gear Box.. 17 2.2.5 Modelling of The Induction Generator Mechanical System 18 2.3 Development of The Simulation Model In Simulink..18 2.3.1 Wind Turbine Characteristic19 2.3.2 Wind Turbine Drive Train19 2.3.3 Induction Generator..20 2.3.4 Speed Controller...20 2.3.5 Actuator21 2.4 Chapter Summary...22
CHAPTER 3
Simulation of a DOIG Driven by Wind Turbine 3.1 DOIG in Standalone Mode.. 23 3.1.1 Grid Connected Systems.. 24
3.1.2 Isolated Systems.25 3.2 Interconnected Model of The HAWT With The DOIG. 26 3.2.1 Development of The DOIG Model.26 3.2.1.1 Vector Rotator Block..28 3.2.1.2 Converter Block.29 3.2.1.3 Flux Estimation and Vector Rotator Block...30 3.2.1.4 Stator Voltage and Rotor Current Control Block..32 3.2.1.5 DC Link Voltage Control Block....33 3.2.1.6 Load and Filter Block....33 3.3 Simulation of The Interconnected Model...34 3.4 Simulation results35 3.4.1 Case Study 1.35 3.4.1.1 Discussion of Results...38 3.4.2 Case Study 2.. 38
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3.4.2.1 Discussion of Results. 40 3.4.3 Case Study 3....40 3.4.3.1 Discussion of Results... 43 3.5 Chapter Summary......44
CHAPTER 4
4 Hardware Description 4.1 Four Quadrant Chopper ... 47

4.1.1 Semikron Power Electronics Converters......48 4.1.1.1 The IGBT Module 48 4.1.1.2 The Bridge Module 49 4.1.1.3 Gate Driver..49 4.1.1.4 Heat Sink and Fan..49 4.1.1.5 DC Capacitor Bank and Snubber Capacitor. 50 4.1.1.6 Temperature Protection..50 4.2 Interfacing Part for the Gate Signal...50 4.2.1 Testing of Power Converters...53 4.3 Separately Excited DC Motor...54 4.4 DSP Board and Interfacing Hardware..56 4.5 Experimental Results58 4.5.1 Considerations59 4.5.2 Discussion of Results.62 4.6 Chapter Summary..62
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CHAPTER 5
Conclusions
Future scope of work.63
Appendix A Determination of Per Unit Turbine Parameters For Simulation Model

A.1 Determination of Turbine Inertia65 A.2 Determination of the Induction Machine Inertia....67 A.3 Determination of the Compliance Between The Generator and The Gear.67 A.4 Determination of the Compliance Between The Blade and The Hub.68 A.5 Determination of the Damping Coefficient of The Blade..68 A.6 Determination of the Damping Coefficient of The Induction Generator...68 A.7 Determination of the Damping Coefficient of The Hub.69
Appendix B Details of the Equipments and Accessories Used
Bibliography
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List of Principal Symbols

lift coefficient drag coefficient P output power of wind turbine torque of wind turbine power coefficient of wind turbine torque coefficient of wind turbine angular velocity of wind turbine pitch angle furling wind velocity inertia of element k D K damping coefficient spring constant per phase stator resistance per phase rotor resistance per phase stator inductance per phase rotor inductance magnetizing inductance per phase value of the resistance used in the filter circuit per phase value of the inductance used in the filter circuit filter capacitance per phase load resistance per phase load inductance C dc link capacitor
frequency in cycles/sec stator current vector rotor current vector d-axis component of stator circuit q-axis component of stator circuit d-axis component of rotor circuit q-axis component of rotor circuit d-axis component of stator voltage q-axis component of stator voltage d-axis component of rotor voltage q-axis component of rotor voltage stator voltage vector rotor voltage vector d-axis component of stator flux q-axis component of stator flux d-axis component of rotor flux q-axis component of rotor flux
value of stator flux at steady state frequency of stator flux in rad./sec electrical speed of rotor in rad./sec slip frequency in rad./sec rotor angle in elect.rad.
time derivative operator angle between the synchronously rotating and stationary reference frames
per unit slip of the rotor
d-axis component of the load current q-axis component of the load current load current vector internal power factor angle load power factor angle including the filter d-axis component of the inverter current q-axis component of the inverter current voltage across the dc link capacitor dc link currents
line current of the stator a-phase line current of the stator b-phase line current of the stator c-phase line current of the rotor a-phase line current of the rotor b-phase line current of the rotor c-phase line voltage of the stator a-phase line voltage of the stator b-phase line voltage of the stator c-phase line voltage of the rotor a-phase line voltage of the rotor b-phase line voltage of the rotor c-phase
stator side converter line currents
rotor side converter line currents
SW1 SW2
switch of the filter circuit switch of the load circuit
line currents in the filter circuit
line currents in the load circuit
voltage across the filter capacitors
current through the filter capacitors
propotional controller gain for the d-axis rotor current propotional controller gain for the q-axis rotor current integral controller gain for the d-axis rotor current integral controller gain for the q-axis rotor current propotional controller gain for the dc link voltage Controller integral controller gain for the dc link voltage controller
modulating waveforms to the stator side converter
modulating waveforms to the rotor side converter
dc machine armature current dc machine armature voltage dc machine armature resistance dc machine torque constant
Note: All quantities with prime are those referred to the stator side Subscript s corresponds to stator quantities Subscript r corresponds to rotor quantities Superscript s corresponds to stator reference frame quantities Superscript r corresponds to rotor reference frame quantities Superscript e corresponds to synchronously rotating reference frame quantities Superscript corresponds to set/reference quantities corresponds to 3 phase quantity corresponds to 3 phase quantity corresponds to 2 phase quantity corresponds to 2 phase quantity , , , , , , ( f is either V or I ) ( f is either V or I )
( f is either V or I ) ( f is either V or I )
Introduction
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
The wind turbine industry has recently gained increased interest as the demand for cheap renewable energy has grown. With increasing global concern about environmental pollution and increasing fossil fuel cost, research initiatives for clean and renewable energy sources have gained momentum. The continued growth and expansion of the wind power industry in the face of a global recession and a financial crisis is a testament to the inherent attractiveness of the technology. Wind power is clean, reliable, and quick to install; its the leading electricity generation technology in the fight against climate change, enhancing energy security, stabilizing electricity prices, cleaning up our air and creating thousands of quality jobs in the manufacturing sector when theyre particularly hard to come by. Figure 1.1 shows the predicted percentage of renewable energy in the year 2010. Wind power has emerged as the most attractive renewable option in economic terms in the recent years. Due to rapid advancement of aerodynamics and mechanical drive train design with the associated breakthrough in power semiconductor technology during last two decades , the cost of energy generation from wind has come down to the competitive level, which is supported by Figure 1.2. Table 1.1 shows the total installed capacity of wind power plants for some leading countries indicating that the use of wind energy has increased significantly contributing an increased percentage of the total global energy generation.
Introduction
Figure 1.1 Predicted fuel energy consumption as percentage of total in the year 2010 (Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration)
Avergae Cost Per Kilowatt-Hour of Wind-Generated Electricity, 1982-2002, with Projection to 2020 :
Figure 1.2 Change in average cost of wind generated electricity (Source: EPI from NREL,EWEA)
Introduction
Table 1.1 Top 10 Wind Power Countries (February 2011) [Source: Wikipedia]
Country Wind Power Capacity (MW)
China United States Germany Spain India Italy France United Kingdom Canada Denmark
44,733 40,180 27,215 20,676 13,066 5,797 5,666 5,204 4,008 3,734
India rank 5th in all over global market of wind energy and there are many number of installations are there for India in 2011.
1.1 STRUCTURE OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS

The major components of a typical wind energy conversion system include a wind turbine, generator, interconnection apparatus and control systems, as shown in Figure 1.3. Wind turbines can be classified into the vertical axis type and the horizontal axis type. Most modern wind
Introduction
Figure 1.3 Structure of a typical wind energy conversion system turbines use a horizontal axis configuration with two or three blades, operating either down-wind or up-wind. A wind turbine can be designed for a constant speed or variable speed operation. Variable speed wind turbines can produce 8% to 15% more energy output as compared to their constant speed counterparts, however, they necessitate power electronic converters to provide a fixed frequency and fixed voltage power to their loads. Most turbine manufacturers have opted for reduction gears between the low speed turbine rotor and the high speed three-phase generators. Direct drive configuration, where a generator is coupled to the rotor of a wind turbine directly, offers high reliability, low maintenance, and possibly low cost for certain turbines. Several manufacturers have opted for the direct drive configuration in the recent turbine designs. At the present time and in the near future, generators for wind turbines will be synchronous generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators, and induction generators, including the squirrel cage type and wound rotor type. For small to medium power wind turbines, permanent magnet generators and squirrel cage induction generators are often used because of their reliability and cost advantages. Induction generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators and wound field synchronous generators are currently used in various high power wind turbines.
Introduction Interconnection apparatuses are devices to achieve power control, soft start and interconnection functions. Very often, power electronic converters are used as such devices. Most modern turbine inverters are forced commutated PWM inverters to provide a fixed voltage and fixed frequency output with a high power quality. Both voltage source voltage controlled inverters and voltage source current controlled inverters have been applied in wind turbines. For certain high power wind turbines, effective power control can be achieved with double PWM (pulse width modulation) converters which provide a bi-directional power flow between the turbine generator and the utility grid.
1.2 MOTIVATION
In practice, synchronous generators and induction generators are used for the generation of electricity from wind energy. Both types of induction generators namely the squirrel cage (SQIM) and the wound rotor (WRIM) find their application in wind power generation. Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) are widely used for this purpose in both grid connected and isolated wind power generation systems for economic reasons. However, further investigation is necessary to optimize the design and operation of such systems as well as to increase their reliability. But in practice it is not possible to install a wind turbine in the laboratory due to its huge size and insufficiency of wind to carry out laboratory experiments on wind power generation. As a solution turbine models are used in software, which does not give a real time solution to the problem. As a first step the turbine including the drive train (i.e. blade, hub etc) has been modelled and simulated using MATLAB; SIMULINK platform. The turbine model is then coupled to a Double Output Induction Generator model and its performance is analyzed. In this work an attempt is made to implement a chopper controlled D.C machine whose speed is controlled by a dSPACE DSP 1104 processor i.e. open loop control.
1.3 LITERATURE SURVEY

Many works related to wind power generation systems have been reported in the past decades. Various schemes and control strategies have been proposed which lead towards the Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) generation system. In our work we have concentrated towards the power generation scheme using the induction generators and mainly the wound rotor type induction generators. Leithead et. al. [1] have presented the modelling and control of a horizontal axis wind turbine. In this work the turbine is modelled as simply consisting of a three 5
Introduction blade rotor with rigid hub and gearbox. The generator is directly connected to the grid operating in the constant speed mode. [2] shows a schematic controller design methodology for variable speed wind turbines. The dependence of the effectiveness of the pitch regulation systems on various turbine design parameters is quantified in [3]. Here the effectiveness of the pitch regulation system is analyzed by varying the number of blades and the blade pitch span. In [4] a variable speed wind turbine is investigated using pitch regulation and generator reaction torque regulation to control the rotor speed and gearbox loads. [5] shows a comparison between the wind, hydro and steam turbines. It also refers to the general control requirement and the interaction between the adjacent wind turbines in a wind farm. Dynamic interaction of wind turbine driven generators on electric utility networks is simulated in [6]. Here it is shown that a high performance of the blade pitch control loop can reduce the mechanical as well as electrical stresses on the system. A digital computer modelling and simulation of wind turbine-generator system is described in [7] along with their equations. The dynamic stability of the system is shown for the variation in wind velocity. From the literature survey it is seen that the turbine models available so far have lacked detailed modelling of its drive train. A detailed modelling of a horizontal axis wind turbine along with its pitch controller and drive train dynamics is presented in [8]. The performance of the simulated turbine speed controller is also analyzed by integrating it with a grid connected squirrel cage induction machine model. Pena et. al [9],[10] have designed a back to back voltage source PWM converters for doubly fed induction generators to have independent control of the active and reactive power drawn from the supply, while ensuring sinusoidal supply currents. Vector control scheme is embedded in the control loops which enable optimum speed tracking for maximum energy capture from the wind [9]. Later they expanded their work for the standalone system [10]. For experimental verification of their scheme they coupled their system to a dc machine,
which runs the induction machine in both sub- and super- synchronous speeds. But in their model they have not given enough stress on the wind turbine modelling. For the analysis and control of induction machines the field oriented control strategies are adopted. [11]-[13] present the basics of field orientation and vector control operation for the induction generators. [14]-[23] describe the operation of self excited induction generators 6
Introduction for both the isolated and grid connected configurations. The induction generator performance and some control strategies are discussed there. The voltage build up procedure in the self excited generators and the requirement for capacitor in the isolated self excited system is also discussed. [24]-[26] show the analysis of the induction generators for variable speed operation in isolated mode. Analysis and design of doubly fed induction machine drives by vector control method requires the theoretical framework of reference frame analysis, which is given in [27]. [28] shows the state variable model and the dynamic response for the doubly fed induction machine whereas [29] shows a mathematical model for the same. [30]-[34] are concerned with variable speed operation of doubly fed induction generators.
1.4 SCOPE OF THE WORK

Literature survey shows that significant amount of work has been done in past in the area of wind turbine modelling. However, in most of the works reported so far, particularly those, involving hardware emulation, the dynamics of the drive train is not given enough attention. In this work an attempt is made to implement a chopper controlled D.C machine whose speed is controlled by a dSPACE DSP 1104 processor i.e. open loop control. As a first step, the wind turbine along with the drive train dynamics is modelled in details. The performance of the wind turbine model is analyzed by simulation with pitch control. All the simulation results are verified on this hardware platform. The wind turbine model is then coupled with an existing DFIG based VSCF generation system model. The complete model is run in closed loop pitch controlled mode as an isolated wind power generation system. The induction generator supplies a load where the load active power can change unpredictably. This load demand has to be met under randomly varying wind speed condition. A Hardware kit is designed for the real time implementation of a chopper driven separately excited DC machine through DSP controller. And by controlling the duty ratio of the chopper through DSP processor, the armature voltage varies hence the speed changes. Thus, open loop control is performed.
Introduction
1.5 CONTRIBUTION
The following are the main contributions of this thesis. Derivation of the speed torque characteristic of a horizontal axis wind turbine taking into account the effect of pitch angle variation. Modelling of a horizontal axis wind turbine along with its pitch control system and drive train dynamics. Simulation of the interconnected turbine model with a standalone doubly fed induction generator. Implementation of a open loop cont ro l scheme for separ at ely excit ed DC machine in real time by a chopper controlled using dSPACE DS1104.
1.6 THESIS LAYOUT

The thesis has been organized in five main chapters. The work has been divided into three main phases such as, modelling of the wind turbine along with its pitch controller and drive train dynamics, interconnection of the turbine model with a standalone doubly fed induction generator and real time implementation of a chopper controlled dc machine. Chapter 1 presents the introduction, motivation and the scope of the work. A brief literature review on the topic is also given. Chapter 2 describes the derivation of the turbine speed torque characteristics and turbine modelling. Chapter 3 presents the simulation results from the interconnected turbine model with a standalone doubly fed induction generator. Chapter 4 gives the details of the experimental set up for real time implementation of a open loop control scheme for separately excited dc motor controlled by a chopper. Chapter 5 draws the final conclusions.
CHAPTER-2
MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF A HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE
Wind turbines are installed on towers to extract kinetic energy from wind. As flowing air approaches the turbine blades the mass of air, which passes through the turbine rotor disc slows down. Different types of wind turbines (horizontal axis and vertical axis, slow and fast etc.) exist nowadays, but main concern in this thesis work will be on fast Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine commonly known as HAWT.
2.1 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines have their rotor aligned horizontally whereas the blades rotate on a vertical plane. For slow turbines the number of blades can go up to 8 to 24 whereas for fast wind turbines this number is limited to 2 to 4. For fast turbines with the increase in the number of blades the interaction between blades increases along with the inertia of the rotor and cost of the blades. A three bladed turbine will be considered for our discussion throughout the thesis. The characteristics of the wind turbine depends on the blade profile which basically determines the drag and lift coefficients of the aerofoil.
2.1.1 LIFT AND DRAG OF AEROFOIL

Airflow over a stationary aerofoil produces two force, a lift force perpendicular to the airflow and a drag force in the direction of the airflow. This is shown in Figure 2.1. The existence of the lift force depends on the laminar flow over the aerofoil, which means that the airflows smoothly over both sides of the aerofoil. If turbulent flow exists rather than laminar flow, there will be little or no lift force. The air flowing over the top of the aerofoil has to speed up because of greater distance to travel and this increase in speed causes a slight decrease in pressure. This pressure difference across the aerofoil yields the lift force, which is perpendicular to the direction of airflow.
Direction of Translation Of Blade
Lift
Undistributed Wind Negative direction Of Blade Translation Relative wind
Drag
Figure 2.1 Lift and Drag forces of an aerofoil Let the plane area of the aerofoil (or wing area) is s, the wind velocity (or true airspeed) actually passing through the turbine rotor is V and the density of the air is (D) of an aerofoil can be expressed as follows: (2.1) (2.2) The symbols and represent the lift coefficient and drag coefficient respectively. They .Then the lift (L) and drag
depend on the shape of the aerofoil and will later with changes in the angle of attack and other wing appurtenances. The characteristics of any particular aerofoil section can conveniently be represented by graphs showing the amount of lift and drag obtained at various angles of attack, the lift-drag ratio, and the movement of the center of the pressure. The coefficients of lift, drag also depend upon the Mach number and the Reynolds number.
2.1.2 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE

The performance characteristics of a wind turbine express the power and torque output of the turbine with wind speed variation. The power and torque output of a wind turbine is a nonlinear function of the tip speed ratio and the pitch angle of the turbine blades. The output power (P) and torque (T) of a wind turbine can be expressed as 10
(2.3) and (2.4) Where, is the Power coefficient and is the Torque coefficient of the turbine.
R is the radial distance of the turbine blade tip from hub. S is the swept area of the turbine blades. The Tip Speed Ratio of a wind turbine refers to the ratio of the turbine speed at the blade tip and the wind velocity. This can be expressed as (2.5) Where, is the tip-speed ratio and is the angular velocity of the turbine.
It is a common practice to express the turbine power and torque characteristics in the form of vs and vs curves.
And a generic equation is used to model Cp ( , ). This equation, based on the modelling turbine characteristics of (2.6) With (2.7) Where, is the pitch angle. to are: = 0.5176, = 116, =0.4, =5, =21, = 0.0068.
The coefficients
The above equation is taken from the wind turbine block set in the Matlab library. Also, (2.8)
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Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine In order to obtain the vs and vs curves of the wind turbine a Matlab program
is written. The tip speed ratio is varied in steps of 0.1 from 0.1 to 13. The range of pitch angle taken is 0 to 40.The vs and vs curves obtained from the Matlab program are
shown in Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3:
Figure 2.2 Tip speed ratio vs. power coefficient Figure 2.3 Tip speed ratio vs. torque coefficient From the above figures it is seen that with the increase in the pitch angle the power coefficient and torque coefficient decreases. At minimum pitch angle i.e. when the pitch angle is 0, the power and torque output from the turbine is maximum. It is also observed that the output power maximum is occurring at a tip speed ratio of around eight whereas the output torque is maximum at a tip speed ratio of around seven. Also at very high and very low values of tip speed ratio the output power and torque decreases.
2.2 SPRING-MASS-DAMPER MODEL OF HO RI ZO NT AL AXIS WIND TURBINE DRIVE TRAIN

The various parts of a wind turbine like the blade, hub etc. can be represented by an equivalent spring-mass-damper model. The model used for this work is shown in Figure 2.4.
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Generator Electrical System Alpha
Blade Inertia
Hub Inertia
Gear 1:n
Generator Inertia
Ideal Wind Machine
Wind Turbine Drive Train Arrangement
Figure 2.4 Spring-mass-damper model of the wind turbine
Wind Turbine Induction Generator Gear Box
LOAD
Figure 2.5 Wind turbine connected to squirrel cage induction generator Figure 2.5 shows the wind turbine connected with a squirrel cage induction generator. The turbine is driving the generator, which produces electrical energy to supply the load. The K terms in the model represents the springs and the D terms represents dampers in the
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Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine model. Modelling of the different blocks such as blade, hub, gear etc. are given below.
2.2.1 MODEL OF THE IDEAL WIND MACHINE

The Ideal Wind Machine computes the torque speed characteristics of the wind turbine for various wind speed and pitch angle. The Matlab program from the previous section was run to determine the wind turbine C m characteristics and the output values were
stored in a look up table. The ideal wind machine basically contains this look up table. The inputs to this block were the wind speed, the pitch angle and the turbine speed and the output is the turbine torque. The ideal wind machine is shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 Ideal wind machine block diagram The equation incorporated in the block is the turbine torque equation
(2.9) Where, is the turbine torque.
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Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine In the model all the equations are converted to per unit form for generalization. To convert the equations in per unit some base quantities are defined. They are: = Base torque of the turbine. Furling wind velocity. Then, (2.10) Now the above equation can be written as: (2.11) Or, (2.12) where and
2.2.2 MODEL OF THE BLADE

The mechanical equation for the blade can be written as
(2.13) Here we have assumed that
Therefore, (2.14) This assumption will be followed through this thesis.
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Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Apart from the base quantities define above, some other base quantities are defined below: = Base Inertia = =
= Base Angle = Angle traversed per second in radians at base speed = Base value of damping coefficient = = Base value of spring coefficient = Now the above equation becomes = = . .
(2.15) Or
(2.16)
2.2.3 MODEL OF THE HUB

From the assumptions made in the previous section the mechanical equation for the hub can be written as
(2.17) Where, = reflected machine torque on the low speed side of the gear box.
16
Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine To convert the equation in to per unit form the base quantities are taken as in the previous section. With those base quantities the equation can be written as:
(2.18) Or,
(2.19)
2.2.4 MODEL OF THE GEAR BOX

The mechanical equation for the gear box can be written as
(2.20)
Here n is the gear ratio i.e. the mechanical speed at the generator side of the gear is n times the mechanical speed at the turbine side of the gear. the output and input power of the gear box. According to previous assumptions the equation can be written as + (2.21) This equation can be rewritten as = + (2.22) is taken as gear efficiency i.e. the ratio of
17
2.2.5 MODEL OF THE INDUCTION GENERATOR MECHANICAL 2SYSTEM

The generator mechanical part (i.e. the rotor) is connected to the high speed side of the gear box. The mechanical equation for the generator can be written as
(2.23)
Here
is the electromagnetic torque generated by the machine. The above equation is
converted into per unit form using the same base values as used in the previous section as given below.
(2.24)
Now this equation can be written as
(2.25)
2.3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE SIMULATION MODEL IN SIMULINK

The turbine model is developed in Simulink to analyze its performance under different operating conditions. The simulation model block diagram is shown in Figure 2.7.
18
Figure 2.7 Simulation model block diagram In the simulation model the wind turbine is connected to a grid connected squirrel cage induction generator. The wind turbine acts as a prime mover for the generator, which generates electrical power to supply the utility grid. The simulation model is made to run in closed loop where a suitable external speed command on the generator side can be achieved. The different parts of the simulation model are described below.
2.3.1 WIND TURBINE CHARACTERISTIC

The wind turbine torque speed characteristic is obtained by running a Matlab program as described in section 2.2. The values of the torque coefficient for( ) different values of
tip speed ratio ( ) and pitch angle ( ) are stored in the form of a look up table. The inputs to this block are tip speed ratio, wind velocity and pitch angle. The output of this block is turbine torque in per unit form.
2.3.2 WIND TURBINE DRIVE TRAIN

The wind turbine drive train consists of the blade, hub and the gearbox. The dynamic equations for all these are shown in section 2.3.Those equations are all implemented in the drive train blocks. The turbine torque coming out of the wind turbine characteristic block is the input to the drive train and its output is the torque on the high speed side of the gear. This torque acts as the prime mover torque for the next section i.e. the squirrel cage induction generator. Table 2.1 shows all the parameter values used in the turbine model. The 19
Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine conversion of the turbine parameters in per unit values is shown in Appendix A. Table 2.1 Parameter Values Used In The Turbine Model Parameter Name Inertia of Blade Inertia of Hub Inertia of Generator Damping coefficient of Blade Damping coefficient of Hub Damping coefficient of Generator Compliance between blade & Hub Compliance between Generator & Gearbox
Symbol Value in p.u. 0.18 p.u 0.02 p.u 6e-5 p.u 0.05 p.u 0.02 p.u 6.25e-6 p.u 4.6 p.u 13.75 p.u
2.3.3 INDUCTION GENERATOR

The induction generator is connected to the high speed end of the gearbox. Modelling of its mechanical and electrical system is shown separately in section 2.4.2. All those equations are implemented in the model. The input to the induction machine is the torque coming from the gear and the line voltage. The output is the speed and the active power (all in per unit).
2.3.4 SPEED CONTROLLER

The speed controller generates the pitch angle command for the actuator. There is one error block in the speed controller, which has the external speed command and the actual machine speed as its inputs and the output of it is the speed error. The speed error then passes through a proportional integral controller, which generates the required pitch angle command for the
20
Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine actuator to attain the speed. 2.3.5 ACTUATOR The actuator use in the simulation assumed to be a small dc machine, which has inertia coefficient . The block diagram of the actuator system is shown in Figure 2.8. and friction
Pitch Angle Command
Speed Limit
Torque Limit
Integrator
Actual Pitch Angle
Figure 2.8 Actuator system block diagram The actuator accepts the pitch angle command as its input and it generates the torque required to rotate the turbine blade at its output. There are speed and torque limits in the actuator. The speed limit for the actuator is The torque limit is set at The friction coefficient degrees/second i.e. 0.17 rad./second.
times the torque produced by the friction of the actuator. of the actuator is determined from the assumption that the
torque produced by the actuator at its maximum speed is 0.001% of the rated torque produced by the turbine. So we can write
Or,
21
Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine = A time constant of 30 milliseconds has been assumed for the actuator. So, we can write
Or, Now the torque limit is
=0.7242 N m
2.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter presents the derivation of the torque-speed characteristics of a horizontal axis turbine. The effect of pitch angle variation on the characteristics is also included. This chapter also presents the modelling technique of a horizontal axis wind turbine using the spring damper model equivalent model.
22
Simulation of a DOIG Driven by Wind Turbine
CHAPTER-3
SIMULATION OF A DOIG DRIVEN BY WIND TURBINE
The induction machine has extensive applications for wind power generation. The Squirrel Cage Induction Machines also known as SQIMs are widely used for this purpose but in the last few years the Wound Rotor induction machines have become popular due to their property of having all the three stator as well as the rotor terminals available to the user. This property enables the connection of two power electronic converters, one on the stator side and the other on the rotor side, with the machine to give a better control over the machine dynamics and enhanced power output capability. The wound rotor machine can deliver power to the load both from its stator and rotor terminals justifying the name Double Output Induction Generator (DOIG). The two converters connected to the Stator and Rotor side give full control over active and reactive power flow in the machine and give rise to the possibility of having twice the power output as compared to a SQIM of same electrical rating. The double power comes from the capability of the machine to run at twice the synchronous speed at rated torque that is at rated current. The ruggedness of SQIM is sacrificed though and problem appears with the slip ring and brush arrangement of the wound rotor machine.
3.1 DOIG IN STANDALONE MODE

A wound rotor induction machine can be used to generate power in both grid connected and isolated modes. The advantage of this type of machine is that the slip power becomes available for speed control of the machine. The slip power being a small fraction of the total powers of the machine the converter rating and hence the cost becomes substantially reduced making the drive viable for high power applications. Slip power controlled machines are used in variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) generation systems where the mechanical energy from a variable speed shaft is converted to fixed frequency, fixed voltage power supply.
23
3.1.1 GRID CONNECTED SYSTEMS

In the grid connected mode the wound rotor induction machine is operated directly from the line voltage thus running at a nearly constant flux. A wound rotor induction machine mechanically coupled to a wind turbine with its stator connected to the grid and its rotor supplied from a variable frequency source can provide power to the grid over a wide speed range (both sub synchronous and super synchronous). The arrangement of a grid connected DOIG system is shown in Figure 3.1. Here the DOIG supplies the energy to the grid and the power flow for sub synchronous and super synchronous operations are shown in the diagram.
Stator Circuit Blades Sub-Synchronous >0 Super-Synchronous <0 Grid
Gear Box
WRIG
Rotor Circuit LC filter Rotor-Side Converter AC DC Sub-Synchronous <0 DC-Link Grid-Side Converter DC AC Super-Synchronous >0
Figure 3.1 A grid connected DOIG
24
3.1.2 ISOLATED SYSTEMS

In the isolated mode the wound rotor induction machine can be used to generate power at constant voltage and constant frequency to supply isolated loads while the rotor speed varies. When a bidirectional converter is used in the rotor circuit, the speed range can be extended to both sides of the synchronous speed and power can be generated both from the stator and the rotor. This type of DOIG has the advantage that the converters need only be rated for a fraction of the total output power, the fraction being dependent on the allowable sub and super synchronous speed range. This system finds its applications for small domestic or industrial loads and also where the wind site is far away from national grid. Figure 3.2 shows the arrangement for such an isolated wind power generation system. Here the back to back converter configuration is shown where the converters have the capability to operate in all the four quadrants.
Gear
Wind Turbine
I load Ir
Induction machine
Is
Ii
Stator side converter

Load and Filter
Vdc
Rotor side converter
Figure 3.2 DOIG in standalone mode
25
3.2 INTERCONNECTED MODEL OF THE HAWT WITH THE DOIG

To analyze the performance of a DOIG in standalone mode the DOIG model from [37] is taken and interconnected with the HAWT model described in chapter 2. The interconnected model is then run for different wind speeds and load active power demands.
3.2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE DOIG MODEL

The DOIG model is developed in Simulink. A synchronously rotating reference frame aligned with stator flux linkage space vector is considered for modeling. The machine equations in this reference frame are [37]
(3.1)
(3.2)
(3.3)
(3.4)
Where,
and superscript e refers to synchronously rotating reference frame. reference coming from the closed
The rotor side converters are current controlled with the loop dc link voltage controller.
is a free variable which is utilized to optimally distribute
the machine and the load reactive power demand between the stator and the rotor side converters in order to achieve minimum machine loss. The stator side converters are voltage controlled to control the machine flux and hence, indirectly the output voltage and frequency of the rotor side. The governing equations are
(3.5)
26

(3.6)
which in the steady state gives =
and
=F
Figure 3.3 Block diagram for the simulation model of the DOIG
27
Simulation of a DOIG Driven by Wind Turbine 3.2.1.1 VECTOR ROTATOR BLOCK The vector rotator block between the machine and the controller is shown in the below Figure 3.4.
Inverter Block
Vector Rotator Block
Machine Model in reference frame
Figure 3.4 The vector rotator block The rotor position information discrete system where voltage from the inverter required for these calculations is obtained from a separate .The output into
is computed by discrete integration of the rotor speed block are
transformed
stationary reference frame d-q axes voltages machine
and fed to the
block. The below equations show how the three phase machine voltages are
transformed into two phase.
28
(3.7)
(3.8)
3.2.1.2 CONVERTER BLOCK
Figure 3.5 The back to back connected PWM converters with the DC link capacitor The above Figure 3.5 shows the two back to back connected converter blocks along with the dc link capacitor and the PWM control block. In simulation the converters blocks are considered to be consisting of ideal on/off switches instead of real power switches. Both the converters are controlled by SPWM modulation technique. The control voltage
are compared with a triangle wave of 5 Volts peak value and 5KHz frequency. The stator side converter currents can be written as
(3.9) (3.10)
29

(3.11)
Similarly the rotor side converter currents can be written as

(3.12) (3.13) (3.14)
are obtained from the vector rotator block and are obtained from the RL load block. The output voltages of the stator side converters are fed to the stator of the induction machine and the output voltage of the rotor side converters are fed to the rotor of the induction machine. For the inverters, equating the
instantaneous power input equal to the instantaneous power output, we have
(3.15)
(3.16)
The dc link voltage dynamics can be written as
(3.17)
3.2.1.3 FLUX ESTIMATION AND VECTOR ROTATOR BLOCK The stator flux magnitude and orientation angle with respect to the stator flux axis
are computed in this block. Taking a balanced three phase system the stator and rotor currents can be computed as
(3.18)
(3.19)
These currents are then transformed into stator reference frame as
30
(3.20)
(3.21)
(3.22)
The magnitude and orientation angle be calculated as = =
of the stator flux in stator reference frame can
(3.23) (3.24) (3.25)
And
(3.26)
The stator and rotor currents obtained in the stator reference frame are transformed to synchronously rotating reference frame by the following equation
(3.27)
(3.28)
The d-q
axes
stator
and
rotor
voltage
commands
are
calculated
in
the
synchronously rotating reference frame in the stator voltage and rotor current control blocks and are transformed into the stationary reference frame variables and then to the respective three phase quantities. The stator and rotor voltage commands are used to generate the control voltages. They are governed by the following equations
31

(3.28)
(3.29)
(3.30) (3.31)
(3.32)
(3.33)
3.2.1.4 STATOR VOLTAGE AND ROTOR CURRENT CONTROL BLOCK
Figure 3.6 Block diagram of the rotor voltage derivation The stator side converter is voltage controlled with
(3.34) (3.35)
Where
and
are the measured values of d-q axes rotor currents in synchronously rotating re the command variables which are kept constant. Rotor side
reference frame. Here F and
currents are controlled by the PI controllers with back emf compensation. Now
32

(3.34) (3.35)
Any error in the actual value of rotor currents will produce rotor voltages to control the switching of the rotor side converter to keep the currents equal to their reference values. Figure 3.6 shows the derivation of the rotor voltage. From the figure we get
(3.36) (3.35)
Similarly,
(3.37)
3.2.1.5 DC LINK VOLTAGE CONTROL BLOCK
Calculation block
Figure 3.7 Block Diagram of DC link voltage controller
The above Figure 3.7 shows the voltage control block. The closed loop dc link voltage controller consists of a PI controller, a current limiter block and the generated from the PI controller and is then fed to calculation block, loop control. 3.2.1.6 LOAD AND FILTER BLOCK After the dc link voltage build up and stabilization the load along with the filter is switched on. The load block consists of an LC filter and RL load. A small value (0.1) of resistance is also included in the filter circuit. Figure 3.3 shows the load and filter block. The load and filter calculation block. is
calculation block through a limiter. In the
is using Pmech, Ploss and Pload values and is then fed back to have closed
33
Simulation of a DOIG Driven by Wind Turbine system equations are

(3.38) (3.39) (3.40)
We can also write

(3.41) (3.42) (3.43)
3.3 SIMULATION OF THE INTERCONNECTED MODEL

The DOIG-HAWT interconnected model is simulated in the Simulink environment. The DOIG parameter values are shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Machine Parameters Used In the Simulation
Parameter Name Turbine Power Output Induction Machine Rating Furling Wind Velocity System Rotational Speed Base Induction Machine Synchronous Speed
Symbol Used
Value 45 KW 5.6 KW 15 m/s 75 r.p.m 750 r.p.m
34
Simulation of a DOIG Driven by Wind Turbine Number of Poles Gear Ratio Gear Efficiency DC Link Voltage Machine Stator Resistance Machine Rotor Resistance Machine Stator Self Inductance Machine Rotor Self Inductance Machine Magnetizing Inductance Stator Voltage(Line to Line r.m.s) Rotor Voltage(Line to Line r.m.s) Rated Stator Current (r.m.s) Rated Rotor Current (r.m.s)
P n
8 20 95% 500 Volts 0.872 ohms 0.8635 ohms 0.03946 Henry 0.03946 Henry 0.0359 Henry 220 Volts 300 Volts 22 A 9.1 A
3.4 SIMULATION RESULTS

3.4.1 CASE STUDY 1: A gust wind speed varying from 0.77 p.u. to 0.83 p.u is given as
input. The load active power demand is varying and initially the load demand is at 0.2 p.u. and at 50 seconds the load demand is changed to 0.6 p.u. With these conditions the interconnected model is run for 100 seconds.
35
Figure 3.8 Time vs. wind-gust speed
Figure 3.9 Time vs. turbine speed
Figure 3.10 Time vs. generator speed
Figure 3.11 Time vs. turbine torque
36
Figure 3.12 Time vs. mechanical torque
Figure 3.13 Time vs. Pitch angle
Figure 3.14 Time vs. load voltage
Figure 3.15 Time vs. DC link voltage
37
Figure 3.16 Time vs. Power 3.4.1.1 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS Figure 3.8 shows the gust wind velo cit y variation with time. The load power demand is changed in steps from 0.2 p.u. to 0.6 p.u at 50 seconds. The DOIG supplies the demanded load with a time delay. Figure 3.9 shows the t urbine speed, which during t he load transient are turbine speed changes. Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15 shows the load voltage magnitude and the d c l i nk vo lt a g e respectively during the simulation period. The dc link voltage dips during the load transient but that dip is observed to be within tolerable limit. The load voltage is dropped after 50 seconds due to the drop in the line. The actual machine speed seems to follow the speed command. Figure 3.13 shows the change in the pitch angle. The pitch angle at first droops from 20 but after that it rises again and then falls. This is due to the wavy nature of the characteristics at very low values of Tip-Speed ratio. For
the first 50 seconds the pitch angle is lower in order to extract more power from the wind to follow the speed command. After first 50 seconds the load power demand is increased and the pitch angle is reduced. Figure 3.16 shows the variation of load power and the power increases as the load increases.
3.4.2 CASE STUDY 2: In this case the wind speed is held constant at a value of 0.8 p.u.
The load active power demand is changed in steps. Initially there is no load and at 20 seconds
38
Simulation of a DOIG Driven by Wind Turbine 0.3 p.u. load is applied and further the load demand is increased to 0.6 p.u. at 30 seconds and further increased to 0.9 p.u at 60 seconds respectively. With these conditions the interconnected model is run for 80 seconds.
Figure 3.19 Time vs. pitch angle
Figure 3.20 Time vs. output power
39
Figure 3.23 Time vs. dc link voltage
Figure 3.24 Time vs. load voltage
3.4.2.1 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS A constant wind velocity of 0.8 p.u. is given as input . The load power demand is changed 40
Simulation of a DOIG Driven by Wind Turbine in steps from 0 p.u. to 0.3 p.u at 20 seconds and further increased to 0.6 p.u. at 30 seconds and further increased to 0.9 p.u. at 60ato seconds. The DOIG supplies the demanded load with a time delay. Figure 3.21 shows the turbine speed, which during t he load transient are turbine speed changes. Figure 3.23 and Figure 3.24 shows the load voltage magnitude and the d c l i nk vo lt a g e respectively during the simulation period. The dc link voltage dips during the load transient but that dip is observed to be within tolerable limit. And the load voltage decreases as the load increases as the drop in the line increases. The actual machine speed seems to follow the speed command. Figure 3.19 shows the change in the pitch angle. The pitch angle at first droops from 20 but after that it rises again and then falls. This is due to the wavy nature of the characteristics at very low values of Tip-Speed
ratio. For the first 20 seconds the pitch angle is lower in order to extract more power from the wind to follow the speed command. After first 20 seconds the load power demand is increased and the pitch angle is reduced and once again reduced at 30 seconds and at 60 seconds because load power demand is increased. Figure 3.20 shows the output power variation.
3.4.3 CASE STUDY 3: The wind speed is varied with a ramp of 0.01 /sec. Initially the wind
speed was 0.8 p.u. Then it is changed to 0.9 p.u. and after 20 seconds once again it is changed to 0.8 p.u. And the load demand is kept constant at 0.2 p.u.. With these conditions the interconnected model is run for 80 seconds.
Figure 3.25 Time vs. input wind velocity
41
Figure 3.30 Time vs. pitchangle
42
Figure 3.31 Time vs. dc link voltage
Figure 3.32 Time vs. load voltage voltage
Figure 3.33 Time vs. output power
3.4.3.1 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS A varying wind profile is given as input and Figure 3.25 shows the wind velocity profile.
43
Simulation of a DOIG Driven by Wind Turbine And t he load power demand is kept co nst ant at a value o f 0.2 p.u. . The DOIG supplies the demanded load with a time delay. Figure 3.26 shows the t urbine speed, which during t he load transient are t urbine speed changes. Figure 3.31 and Figure 3.32 shows the dc link voltage and output voltage magnitude during the simulation period. The dc link voltage dips during the load transient but that dip is observed to be within tolerable limit. The actual machine speed seems to follow the speed command. Figure 3.30 shows the change in the pitch angle. The pitch angle at first droops from 20 but after that it rises again and then falls. This is due to the wavy nature of the characteristics at very low
values of Tip-Speed ratio. Figure 3.27 shows the generator speed going to reference speed after some time limit.
3.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter presents the modeling of a standalone DOIG system and its interconnection with a HAWT. The interconnected model is then simulated under various wind speed, load active power demand and hence the simulation results are observed.
44
Hardware Description
CHAPTER-4
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
The thesis is aimed to have the real time emulation of the wind turbine by a chopper driven DC machine. The experimental set up consists of a four quadrant dc chopper made of IGBTs, the gate driver card, a separately excited dc machine, and the DS1104 DSP board and associated interface circuitry. Figure 4.1 shows the block diagram of the hardware. The actual setup diagram is shown in Figure 4.2. Details of the different parts of the hardware are discussed next.
FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER

220 VOLT DC SUPPLY
+
C + 220 VOLT DC SUPPLY E +15 V GND G GATE DRIVE
+ F FF
Va
AA -
GATE DRIVE
DEDICATED HARDWARE FOR CHOPPER DRIVE

PWM SIGNALS
SIGNAL PROCESSOR (DS1104)
HOST COMPUTER
DATA LINES
Figure 4.1 Block diagram of hardware
45
Gate Interfacing Signal
Power Converter
DSP Interfacing Cable
DS 1104 combo pack
Control Desk
DC Machine
Figure 4.2 Hardware setup
46
4.1 FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER

The Four quadrant chopper is shown in Figure 4.3.
G1 DC Link Capacitor G2
G3
G4 To DC Machine Armature
Figure 4.3 Four quadrant DC chopper
The four-quadrant chopper is connected to the armature of the separately excited dc machine to control the armature voltage. The chopper can apply both positive and negative voltages across the armature and allows bidirectional flow of current. The four quadrant operating region in the V-I plane is shown in Fig. 4.4. The chopper circuit, made of 1200 volts, 75 amperes, SKM75GAR123D and SKM75GAL123D IGBT modules, are supplied from a 400 volts DC supply. A450 volts, 3300 F dc link capacitor is provided for absorbing harmonic current generated by the chopper. The chopper circuit is hardware protected against over-current, shoot through and dc bus over-voltages.
I+
V-
V+
I-
Figure 4.4 Operating region of the four quadrant DC chopper
47
4.1.1 SEMIKRON POWER ELECTRONICS CONVERTER

Semikrons Power Converter system consists of 3-phase uncontrolled rectifier and 3-phase IGBT based controlled inverters. A 3-phase 415 V input is applied to the uncontrolled rectifier (MD8TU100/16) using an Autotransformer (variac).The DC output of the rectifier is fed to the inverter as source to the in inverter. Driver is the interface unit between the power module and controller. Each Driver drives 2 switches in a Module. +15 V/0 V supply is given to Vs and GND. Alternate ON/OFF pulses of 15 V are given to Vin1 and Vin2. Vin1 corresponds to TOP IGBT and Vin2 corresponds to BOTTOM IGBT. Semikrons Power Converter kit consists of IGBT module Diode Bridge IGBT drivers Heat Sink DC link Capacitors Fan Thermal trip SKM75GB123D (3 nos) MD8TU100/16 SKYPER 32 R MDP3/250mm (1 no) (3 nos) (1 no)
Semikron make 3300 F/450 V (2 nos) HICOOL Make 80 Deg C (1 no) (1 no)
All the above components are encapsulated in Acrylic case for protection from electrical shock. 4.1.1 .1 THE IGBT MODULE: SKM75GB123 D MOS input (voltage controlled) Low inductance case Very low tail current with temperature dependence. High short circuit capability, self limiting ti 6 * Icnom Latch-up free Fast & soft inverse CAL diodes Isolated copper base plate using DCB Direct Copper Bonding Technology Non Punch Through type of IGBT with low Vce (sat) which reduces conduction losses,
48
Eon & Eoff and switching losses which is specially advantageous for high switching frequency. Each of these Modules is an Inverter leg & is made up of 2 IGBT with an antiparallel diode. The IGBT is triggered by charging the gate, which is done by applying voltage across the gate and the emitter. 4.1.1.2 THE BRIDGE MODULE: MD8TU100/16 Three phase bridge rectifier Blocking voltage of 1600 V High surge current carrying capability Large slated base plate & Easy mounting Typical applications in power supplied, variable frequency drives, battery charger rectifiers etc. 4.1.1.3 GATE DRIVER: SKYPER 32R It interfaces and isolates the Control Unit/Primary Circuit from the secondary which is directly connected to the high power. Gate Driver controls the IGBTs dynamic behavior and its short circuit protection. Input signal level is 0/15 V. Interlocking time between the input signals is 3 s. It monitors the errors : power supply under-voltage (below 13.5 V), short-circuit between Collector and Emitter. The error rest time is typically 9 s. On detection of error/fault, the Gate driver switched off t he IGBT. The IGBT switching speed is fixed by the resistors 4.1.1.4 HEAT SINK AND FAN The stack assembly is provided with forced air cooling. IGBT modules are mounted on 250 mm heat sink (extruded type). Axial fan is connected to the heat sink to dissipate the heat generated by the IGBTS. and .
49
Air flow from fan is at speed of 3 m/s. Separate Power supply of 1-, 230 V A.C to be provided for the fan. 4.1.1.5 DC CAPACITOR BANK AND SNUBBER CAPACITOR Rectified DC input is given to electrolytic filtering capacitors. Each capacitor is 3300 F / 450 V. 2 capacitors are connected in series to have equivalent capacitance of 1650 F / 900V. Resistors of value 27 k / 20 W are connected across each capacitor for voltage balancing. Snubber Capacitors of 0.22 F / 1500 V dc (3 nos) are connected across the dc link for voltage overshoot protection. The snubbers limit the over-voltages during switch off and as a consequence reduce the losses. They are kept very close to the device to reduce the inductance between the switches and the capacitors. 4.1.1.6 TEMPERATURE PROTECTION Normally Closed Thermal contact switch is used for protection against thermal runaway. The position of the thermal switch normally closed when its temperature is below the threshold temperature (80 deg C) & it opens above 80 deg C. After cooling down, it again retains it normally closed position. Thermal switch is placed at the warmest point on the heat sink. It is recommended to take the feedback of the thermal trip output to the controller.
4.2 INTERFACING PART FOR THE GATE SIGNAL

In the power supply part, as shown in Figure 4.5, the 230 volts ac supply is stepped down to 18 volts by a transformer and are then rectified by a full bridge diode rectifier. The rectified signals are the inputs to LM7815, LM7915 regulator ICs respectively. These ICs generate regulated +15 volts, -15 volts respectively to supply different ICs for the rest of the circuitry.
50
U6 1 LM7815 VI
GND
3 V0
C5 1uF,25v
+15V
D1
D2
1
C1 1000uF,50v
C3 0.22uF,50v
+18V 0 -18V
1N4007
1N4007
C6 D4 C2 1000uF,50v C4 22uF,50v 1N4007
D3
1 1
1N4007
GND
22uF,25v
VI LM7915 U7
V0
-15V
Figure 4.5 Power supply part of the interfacing gate signal
INTERFACING CIRCUIT FOR GATE SIGNAL OF ONE SWITCH
+15V R
R3 1k R1 2 -
C11 1n R8 1k
SIGNAL FROM DSP
1k R2 3 1k TL084 R4 +
R7 1k R9 1k + TL084
TO LM339
11
R6 1k C12 1n 1k
-15V R
Figure 4.6 (a) Interfacing part for the gate signal
51
D3
D4
1 D1 D2
2 U1 LM7815 OUT
GND
IN
C13 R1 2.2k 1n
C14 1n
C15 1n
Q1
C16 1n
C17 1n
R3 4 2.2k R4 1k 5 + LM339 2.2k R5
R2 2.2k, 0.25
R1
FROM TL084
12 Q2
1n C18 45
TO IGBT GATE
1n
C19
U2 LM7815 OUT
GND
IN
C20 1n
C21 1n
C22 1n
Figure 4.6 (b) Interfacing part for the gate signal
The gate driver circuit is shown in Figure 4.6. The PWM signals coming from the DSP processor connects to the input terminals of the TL084. The high pulse is connected to the inverting terminal of the first opamp and the low pulse is connected to the non-inverting terminal. And the output of the first opamp is phase shifted with respect to the input signal. The output phase shifted signal is once again fed to inverting opamp to get the original signal. Therefore, the TL084 IC acts like an isolating and buffering circuit. And from then the signal is connected to the non inverting terminal of the LM 339 IC. And the inverting terminal of the LM 339 IC is always at around 3.56 Volts. When the high pulse comes to the Pin 5, this gives +15 52
Volts as the output and it is fed to the gates of the Push Pull amplifier. This makes Q1 on and Q2 off. The point G being connected as a common emitter load to the transistor passes +15 Volts to the gate terminal of the IGBT. When the low pulse comes to the Pin 5 of LM 399, this gives -15 Volts at the output and it is fed to the gates of the Push Pull amplifier. This makes Q1 off and Q2 on. The point G being connected as a common emitter load to the transistor passes -15 Volts to the gate terminal of the IGBT. The IGBTs thus receive 15 Volts at their input terminals i.e. between gate and source.
4.2.1 TESTING OF POWER CONVERTER
Figure 4.7 Gate signal & Supply voltage vs. Time (secs,)
Figure 4.8 Gate signal & Input signal vs. Time (secs,)
53
The 15 V signal generated is then fed to one IGBT of one leg of the semikrons power converter. The 15 V pulse is connected to the Vin1 pin and + 15 V is connected to Vs pin and ground of the interfacing circuit is connected to GND pin of the power converter. And the power converter is tested by giving those signals and the some waveforms are observed. Figure 4.7 shows the supply voltage of 15 V and input signal i.e. 0 to 5 V pulse coming from dSPACE 1104 DSP processor. Figure 4.8 shows the Gate signal of one IGBT i.e. of 15 V pulse and input signal. Figure 4.9 & 4.10 shows the variation of input signal of the gate interfacing circuit and the output signal of the gate interfacing circuit. In order to avoid the short circuit of two IGBTs in same leg, a dead band of 5 sec is given. And from the waveform it is clearly observed there is a delay of 5 sec between the input and the output signal.
4.3 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR

Figure 4.11 shows a model of separately excited DC motor. When a separately excited DC motor is excited by a field current of and an armature current of flows in the circuit, the is
motor develops a back EMF and a torque to balance the load torque at particular speed. The independent of the
. Each winding are supplied separately. Any change in the armature current
54
ha no effect on the field current. The
is normally much less than
The relationship of the
field and armature are shown in below equations.

+
Figure 4.11 Model of a separately excited DC motor
Instantaneous field current Where and are the field resistor and inductor respectively.
Instantaneous armature current Where and are the armature resistor and inductor respectively.
The Motor back EMF which is also known as speed voltage is expressed as
Where
is the Motor Constant (V/A-rad/s) and
is the motor sped (rad/s).
The torque developed by the motor is
Where (
) is the torque constant (in V/A-rad/s)
55
For normal operation, the developed torque must equal to the load torque plus the friction and inertia i.e.
Where B = Viscous friction constant (Nm/rad/s) = Load Torque (Nm) J = Inertia of the Motor (kg.m2) Under steady state operation, a time derivative is zero. Assuming the motor is not saturated For field circuit, The back emf is given by The armature circuit equation is,
The Motor speed can be easily derived
If
is a small value (which is usual), or when the motor is lightly loaded, i.e.,
is small
That is the if field current is kept constant, the speed of the motor depends on the supply voltage. These observations lead to the application of variable DC voltage to control the speed and torque of DC motor.
4.4 DSP BOARD AND INTERFACING HARDWARE

DSPACE DS1104 is a controller board installed in the PCI slot of the PC. It contains two processors. The main processor is a MPC8240 PowerPC with a clock speed of 250MHz and 32 kB internal cache memory. It acts as the master processor with TMS320F240 DSP as the slave containing 4 K Word of dual port ram. Figure 3.15 shows the internal architecture and functional units of the DSP 1104.
56
Figure 4.12 Internal architecture and functional units of the DS1104 DSP board (Source: DS1104 Features)
The master PowerPC consists of an interrupt controller, a synchronous DRAM controller, a PCI interface (5 Volts, 32 bit, 33MHz) and 6 timer devices. It allows the control of some standard I/O features i.e. ADCs, DACs, Bit I/Os and Serial Interfaces. The ADC unit consists of two different types of A/D converters, one multiplexed to four channels and four parallel A/D converters. The multiplexed A/D converters have 16 bit resolution range. The parallel A/D converters have 12 bit resolution Volts input voltage
10 Volts input voltage range. The
converters provide an interrupt at the end of the A/D conversion. Starting A/D conversion can be synchronized with PWM signal generation or an external trigger source. The signal conditioning for the ADCs is already discussed in the sensing and protection part. The DAC unit consists of eight parallel DAC channels each of 16 bit resolution and +10 Volts output voltage range. There are 20 digital Bit I/Os present in the master PPC with a
57
selectable direction for each individual pin. They have TTL voltage range for input and output and +5 mA maximum outputs current. The master PPC provides two incremental encoder interfaces supported for both single ended TTL and differential RS422 signals. The encoder interface has 24 bit position counter and 1.65 MHz maximum encoder line count frequency is supported. The encoder interfaces take two quadrature axis pulses and one index pulse all with their corresponding complementary pulses. The slave DSP is a TMS320F240 floating point DSP. It has got a clock frequency of 20 MHzs 4K*16 Bit dual port memory is used for communication with the master PPC. The slave DSP features 14 bit digital I/O, timing I/O and Serial Peripheral Interface. The timing I/O unit can be used to generate and measure PWM and square wave signals. There are four single phase PWM signals with variable polarity, frequency and duty ratio. Apart from this there are inverted and non inverted outputs for 3 phase PWM signal generation. Programmable dead bands are also provided for the digital PWMs. The buffering of the output PWM signals from the DSP is already discussed in the sensing and protection part.
4.5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

A 3-phase 415 V input is applied to the uncontrolled rectifier using an Autotransformer (variac). By varying the autotransformer, the dc bus voltage varies and finally the voltage is maintained at 220 V. This dc bus voltage acts as the input to the inverter circuit which consists of three phases. And the armature terminals of the DC motor are connected between R and B phases. On the other hand, the field winding is supplied from a single phase auto transformer and then rectified to DC through a diode bridge rectifier and some capacitors are provided to filter out the harmonics and the field voltage is maintained at 220 V and the field current is 0.7A respectively. And the gate interfacing signals are connected to the skyper circuit of the power converter. An interfacing cable is connected between the DSP combo pack and the hardware circuit, which acts as a data line. Regarding the gate signals, a 15 V pulse is connected to the top IGBT in R-phase and to the bottom IGBT in the B-phase and whenever + 15 V appears the armature is supplied with positive voltage. A complementary 15 V pulse is connected to the bottom IGBT in R-phase and 58
similarly to the top IGBT in B-phase and whenever + 15 V of the complementary signal appears the armature is supplied with negative voltage. From the DSP processor, the duty ratio of the pulses can be varied from -1 to 1 so that the armature is supplied with variable DC voltage i.e. -220 V to +220 V. Thus the open loop speed control of the DC machine is achieved. But, this thesis aim is to have the closed loop control of DC motor, which will be possible with some current and speed feedback signals. Due to time limitation, this work cannot be completed and will remain as the scope for future work.
4.5.1 CONSIDERATIONS
The field voltage is maintained at 200 Volts D.C and current of 0.8 A is flowing in the field winding. The dc link voltage is maintained at 220 Volts, which is the input to the inverter circuit of the power converter. And the four quadrant chopper operation is limited to only two quadrant i.e. voltage can be both positive and negative but current flow is unidirectional only. With a duty ratio of 0.5, the voltage across the armature is a symmetric signal of 200 Volts which corresponds to the average value is zero. As the average value of the armature voltage is zero the motor is at standstill condition and its value depends on the duty ratio which can be controlled through dSPACE 1104 DSP processor. If the duty ratio is 0.5, the average armature voltage is zero and the dc motor is in standstill condition. If the duty ratio is varying from 0.5 to one, the average armature voltage varies from 0 V to 200 V and the motor starts rotating. If the duty ratio is varying from -0.5 to one, negative voltage i.e. the average armature voltage varies from 0 V to -220 V respectively and the motor starts rotating in opposite direction. A small AC voltage (15 Volt, 50 Hz) is applied to the stator terminals of the 3-phase induction machine and the variation of frequency of rotor voltage is observed with respect to the change in speed. Here, initially the machine is running at 610 rpm which corresponds to duty ratio of 0.464 and then the speed is increased to 900 rpm which corresponds to duty ratio of 0.682 suddenly and the change in frequency of the rotor induced voltage is observed. The induction machine rated speed is 750 rpm. At duty ratio of 0.464, the induction machine is running at sub-synchronous speed i.e. 600 rpm. Suddenly, the duty ratio is increased to 0.682 and the speed goes to 900 rpm which will be the super synchronous speed to the induction machine. Here, the pattern in which frequency of the rotor voltage is varying from sub-synchronous speed to synchronous speed and further to 59
super-synchronous speed has been observed. All the above considerations are observed and the waveforms are shown below.
Figure 4.13 Armature Voltage (V) vs. Time (secs.)
Figure 4.14 Complementary Armature Voltage (V) vs. Time (secs.)
Figure 4.15 Armature Current (A) & Gate Signal vs. Time (secs.)
60
Figure 4.16 Field Voltage (V), Armature Voltage (V) & Gate Signal vs. Time (secs.)
Figure 4.17 Armature Current (A), Armature Voltage (V) & Gate Signal vs. Time (secs.)
Figure 4.18 Rotor Voltage vs Time (secs.)
Figure 4.19 Rotor Voltage vs Time (secs.)
61
4.5.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Figure 4.13 shows the armature voltage and Figure 4.14 shows the complementary armature voltage. Figure 4.15 shows the armature current of 2 A magnitude and gate signal of 15 V magnitude. Figure 4.16 shows the field voltage of 200 V DC line and armature voltage of 200V amplitude and the gate signal of 15 V magnitudes. Figure 4.16 shows the combination of armature current, armature voltage and the gate signal. From the waveform, whenever the gate signal is + 15 V, positive voltage is applied to the armature and when the gate signal is 15 V, negative voltage is applied. And the average value of the armature voltage depends on the duty ratio. Figure 4.17 shows the induced voltage in the rotor circuit ant its variation with respect to the change in speed. A small AC voltage (15 Volt, 50 Hz) is applied to the stator terminals of the 3-phase induction machine and the variation of the rotor voltage is observed with respect to the change in speed. Here, initially the machine is running at 610 rpm which corresponds to duty ratio of 0.464 and then the speed is increased to 900 rpm which corresponds to duty ratio of 0.682 suddenly and the change in frequency of the rotor induced voltage is observed. Figure 4.18 gives the clear incremental change in frequency of the rotor voltage.
4.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter describes some hardware description that is mainly the real time implementation of a chopper driven DC machine and its speed control through DSP 1104 dSPACE. In this chapter, some experimental results are taken and the results demonstrate the satisfactory performance of the DC machine.
62
Conclusions
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
The work reported in this thesis is concerned with the modelling, simulation of a pitch controlled Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. The model has been coupled to an isolated Double Output Induction Machine (DOIM) to verify the performance of the interconnected system. And an experimental set up is designed for the real time implementation of a chopper driven DC machine through DSP controller. The thesis starts with a detailed derivation of the torque coefficient vs. Tip speed ratio and power coefficient vs. Tip speed ratio characteristics of a horizontal axis fast wind turbine involving the effect of pitch angle variation. The turbine model has been developed as an equivalent spring mass damper system in simulink, where the turbine generated torque is calculated using the above mentioned torque coefficient vs. Tip speed ratio characteristics. The turbine model is then integrated with an existing isolated DOIG model and the combined system is run in simulink. The interconnected system is run under different wind speeds and load active power demands and the simulation results are observed. Finally, the thesis ends with hardware description in which experimental setup is designed for the real time implementation of a chopper driven DC machine through DSP controller. This thesis makes a way to real time emulation of wind turbine, by implementing the proposed model by incorporating the chopper controlled dc machine at laboratory level which is the future goal of this thesis work.
5.1 FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK

The work represented in this thesis represents the modelling, simulation of a pitch controlled horizontal axis wind turbine and some hardware description. There are several refinements that can be incorporated in the turbine model in future to make it more realistic. The length of the turbine blade causes a difference in the wind speed faced by different parts of the blade itself i.e.
63
Conclusions when the blade in the extreme top or bottom position. This is known as Wind Shear and it changes the turbine torque speed characteristics significantly. Also the tower shadow effect introduces some harmonics in the turbine torque speed profile. The turbine Yaw control action enables the wind turbine to track the variation in the direction of the wind velocity. All these features can be implemented in the turbine model in future. And further regarding with the hardware description, by adding some current sensors and some feedback signals the horizontal axis wind turbine has been emulated in real time by a chopper driven separately excited DC machine. This also remains as a scope for future work.
64
Appendix A
APPENDIX A
DETERMINATION OF PER UNIT PARAMETERS FOR SIMULATION MODEL TURBINE
The turbine parameters (i.e. compliance and damping coefficients of the blade, hub etc.) are determined for the simulation model. All the parameters are converted to per unit values to make the simulation model a general one. The parameter values are all taken from [6] and converted to the system base used for the simulation. For the simulation the base quantities taken are = Base power of the turbine = 45 Kw. = Rated turbine speed = 75 r.p.m. = = Rated turbine torque.
To convert the turbine parameters of [6] to the system base the following parameters are defined =Base Power of bigger turbine, =Base Torque of bigger turbine, =Base Speed of bigger turbine, =Radius of bigger turbine, =Inertia of bigger turbine, =Base Power of smaller turbine. =Base Torque of smaller turbine. =Base Speed of smaller turbine.
=Radius of smaller turbine. =Inertia of smaller turbine.
Determinations of the parameters are shown below:
A.1 DETERMINATION OF TURBINE INERTIA

For the large and small turbines, we can write
65
Appendix A
Here we have assumed Again,
where, Now,
mass of the bigger turbine,
mss of the smaller turbine and m
From [6] we have
in machine base. We want to convert it to the system turbine
base. The induction machine rating is 5.6 Kw and the turbine rating in the referred paper is 1 Mw. So, we can write
Where,
Per unit inertia in machine base.
The turbine inertia can be determined as .
66
Appendix A Now our equivalent turbine inertia is 0.2 p.u, which we will divide in 9:1 ratio between the blade and the turbine hub. So, we get 0.18 p.u and 0.02 p.u.
A.2 DETERMINATION OF THE INDUCTION MACHINE INERTIA

From the retardation test of the induction machine we found its inertia to be 0.04366NW-m/Sec2. Now we convert it to the turbine base by our definition:
So,
p.u.
A.3 DETERMINATION OF THE COMPLIANCE BETWEEN THE GENERATOR AND THE GEAR
From [6] we have K = 70 p.u torque/electrical rad. in machine base. Now the basic relationship is
where T is the torque applied, We know, where
i the small change in mechanical angle, K is the compliance.
The electrical angle and P = The number of poles = 8 here.
We know that
67
Appendix A
S0,
A.4 DETERMINATION OF THE COMPLIANCE BETWEEN THE BLADE AND THE HUB
The compliance between the blade and the hub is taken to be one third of the compliance between generator and gear and is taken to be 4.6 p.u approximately. So,
A.5 DETERMINATION OF THE DAMPING COEFFICIENT OF THE BLADE

We assume that the power loss in the blade is 5% of the turbine base power. So, we get
A.6 DETERMINATION OF THE DAMPING COEFFICIENT OF THE INDUCTION GENERATOR

We have assumed that at rated machine speed the power loss is 2% of the rated power. So, we can write,
68
Appendix A 0.02
So, we get
A.7 DETERMINATION OF THE DAMPING COEFFICIENT OF THE HUB

The power loss at the hub is taken to be 2% of the rated turbine power. So, we get
69
Appendix B
APPENDIX B
DETERMINATION OF EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES USED
B.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF THE IGBT MODULES USED (Source: Semikron IGBT Datasheet)
Modules Used: SKM 75123D Features MOS input (voltage controlled) Very low tail current with low temperature dependence High short circuit capability, self limiting to 6 Latch-up free Fast & soft inverse CAL diodes Isolated copper base plate using DCB Direct Copper Bonding Technology Large clearance (10 mm) and creepage distance (20 mm)
Absolute Maximum Ratings Symbol IGBT Conditions
, unless otherwise specified Values Units
1200 75 60 150
V A A A V
10
70
Appendix B Inverse Diode 75 50 150 480 Freewheeling Diode 95 65 200 720 Module 200 -40...+150 -40...+125 AC, 1 min. 2500 V A A A A A A A A A
Characteristics Symbol IGBT 4,5 Conditions min.
, unless otherwise specified typ. max. Units
5,5 0,1 1,4 1,6
6,5 0,3 1,6 1,8
V mA V V
71
Appendix B 22 30 2,5 3,3 f = 1 MHz 0,5 0,22 500 5 44 56 8 380 70 5 per IGBT 0,27 500 100 100 100 ns ns mJ ns ns mJ K/W 28 38 3 4,4 0,6 0,3 m m V nF nF nF nC
Figure B.1 Diagram of the IGBT modules used 72
Appendix B
B.2 MACHINES USED FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

B.2.1 INDUCTION MACHINE NAME PLATE DETAILS
Output Power: KW, Speed: 750 R.P.M, Connection: Delta/Star Stator: Voltage:220 V , Current: 22 A Rotor: Voltage:300 V , Current: 9.1 A
B.2.2 DC MACHINE NAME PLATE DETAILS

Output Power: 2 HP, Speed: 1500 R.P.M Armature Voltage: 220V, Current: 8A Excitation Voltage 220V, Current: 0.8A
B.2.2.1 MEASUREMENT OF ARMATURE RESISTANCE
Voltage (V) 28.8 25.7 22.6 18.80 15.3
Current (A) 7.8 7 6.1 5 4
Resistance (ohms) 3.69 3.67 3.70 3.76 3.82
73
Appendix B 11.5 7.7 3.1 2.0 3.70 3.85 Avg. Value = 3.74
B.2.2.2 MEASUREMENT OF ARMATURE INDUCTANCE Voltage (V) 30 40 60 70 Current (A) 0.9 1..0 1.6 2.2 Impedance (ohms) 33.33 40 37.5 31.81 Avg. Value = 35.66
Armature Inductance = B.2.2.3 MEASUREMENT OF FIELD RESISTANCE Voltage (V) 100 Current (A) 0.11 Resistance (ohms) 909.09
74
Appendix B 120 140 160 180 200 220 0.14 0.16 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.28 857.14 875 800 818.18 833.33 785.71 Avg. Value = 839.77
B.2.2.4 MEASUREMENT OF FIELD INDUCTANCE Voltage (V) 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 Current (A) 0.25 m 0.275 m 0.3 m 0.32 m 0.34 m 0.351 m 0.369 m Impedance (ohms) 400 K 436.36 K 466.66 K 500 K 529.411 K 569.8 K 596.20 K
B.2.2.5 RETARDATION TEST ON DC MACHINE On no load 75
Appendix B
Ni (rpm) 750 750 750 750 750 750 750
Nf (rpm) 408 402 378 366 300 246 230
Vi Vf (volts) 100 56 100 54 100 50 100 49 100 - 40.7 100 34 100 - 32.9
If (Amp.) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Time taken in secs. 2.84 2.65 250 2.47 2.40 2.33 2.04
Ni ----- Initial speed of the set in rpm. Nf ---- Final speed Vi ---- Initial Armature voltage of DC machine Vf ---- Final Armature Voltage of Dc machine The expression for final voltage is, Where mechanical time constant of the set = .
By using the above expression and making the calculations, average
Viscous Coefficient (B) is calculated from the Speed-Torque characteristics of the DC machine: B= And the Moment of inertia (J) can be calculated as
76
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www.mathworks.com http://www.dspace.de
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PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF WIND ENEGY CONVERSION SYSTEM

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(Specialisation: Electrical Systems)

(ROLL NO: 09/EE/402)

NARAYANAREDDY BOMMAREDDY 09/EE/402

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DURGAPUR DECLARATION

Place: N.I.T. Durgapur Date:

Name : NARAYANAREDDY BOMMAREDDY Roll No. : 09/EE/402

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DURGAPUR CERTIFICATE

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DURGAPUR CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

B.1 Diagram of The IGBT Modules Used.. 72

Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

4 Hardware Description 4.1 Four Quadrant Chopper ... 47

Appendix A Determination of Per Unit Turbine Parameters For Simulation Model

Appendix B Details of the Equipments and Accessories Used

List of Principal Symbols

per unit slip of the rotor

stator side converter line currents

rotor side converter line currents

switch of the filter circuit switch of the load circuit

line currents in the filter circuit

line currents in the load circuit

voltage across the filter capacitors

current through the filter capacitors

modulating waveforms to the stator side converter

modulating waveforms to the rotor side converter

1.1 STRUCTURE OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS

1.3 LITERATURE SURVEY

1.4 SCOPE OF THE WORK

1.6 THESIS LAYOUT

Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

2.1 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE

2.1.1 LIFT AND DRAG OF AEROFOIL

Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Direction of Translation Of Blade

Undistributed Wind Negative direction Of Blade Translation Relative wind

2.1.2 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE

Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

shown in Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3:

2.2 SPRING-MASS-DAMPER MODEL OF HO RI ZO NT AL AXIS WIND TURBINE DRIVE TRAIN

Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Generator Electrical System Alpha

Ideal Wind Machine

Wind Turbine Drive Train Arrangement

Figure 2.4 Spring-mass-damper model of the wind turbine

Wind Turbine Induction Generator Gear Box

2.2.1 MODEL OF THE IDEAL WIND MACHINE

(2.9) Where, is the turbine torque.

2.2.2 MODEL OF THE BLADE

(2.13) Here we have assumed that

Therefore, (2.14) This assumption will be followed through this thesis.

2.2.3 MODEL OF THE HUB

2.2.4 MODEL OF THE GEAR BOX

Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

2.2.5 MODEL OF THE INDUCTION GENERATOR MECHANICAL 2SYSTEM

is the electromagnetic torque generated by the machine. The above equation is

Now this equation can be written as

2.3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE SIMULATION MODEL IN SIMULINK

Modelling and Simulation of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

2.3.1 WIND TURBINE CHARACTERISTIC

2.3.2 WIND TURBINE DRIVE TRAIN

2.3.3 INDUCTION GENERATOR

2.3.4 SPEED CONTROLLER