University of the Philippines Manila College of Arts and Sciences Department of Biology

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in Biology 196: Undergraduate Seminar

Plant Murder or Plant Suicide? : Examining Different Views on Plant Extinction

Submitted by: Juan Paolo David S. Villena 2008 29009

Submitted to: Mr. Jasper John A. Obico

September 2, 2011

Outline Title: Plant Murder or Plant Suicide? : Examining Different Views on Plant Extinction Objective: Discuss several approaches in understanding plant extinction I. Introduction A. Extinction is defined similarly by Merriam-Webster and Princeton. B. Extinction is evident in animals and plants. C. Plants, being the basis of all life, need to be focused on in extinction and conservation studies. II. There are several approaches in understanding the extinction of plants. A. A new study shows that there is a possibility of having a phylogenetic trend in plant extinction. 1. Increased extinction risks are present in young and fast-evolving lineages. 2. Extinction risk in plants is independent from anthropogenic effects. B. Geography is important in assessing plant extinction risks. 1. Phylogeny and Geography go hand-in-hand in explaining the difference in extinction risks of plant species in the South African Cape and the UK. 2. Ecosystems in tropical climates should have higher diversity and lower extinction risks. 3. The latitudinal biodiversity gradient is being disrupted by the tropical biodiversity crisis. 4. The interplay of many factors predisposes plant species extinction in the tropics. C. Human-induced factors also lead to plant extinction. 1. A scholarly opinion points humans as the cause for the tropical biodiversity crisis. 2. Transformation of lands for agricultural use injures the native flora of a given region. 3. Urbanization is the main culprit in plant extinction to date. 4. Urbanization further effects other ecological disturbances that lead to plant extinction. a. Habitat transformation, fragmentation and destruction effect species loss. b. Physical factors of the environment are damaged. III. Conclusion (Synthesis) A. Ecological debt must be taken into consideration in searching for ways to increase conservation of biological diversity. B. These three different views may magnify the effects of each other, explaining the fast-accelerating extinction rates of plants in different parts of the world. C. Immediately targeting all three trends will enhance chances of preserving the Tree of Life.

Introduction Princeton and Merriam-Webster dictionaries both agree on a single definition of extinction. Extinction, according to these two sources, is the process of being extinct. What then is being extinct? Most of us agree that in the scientific community, particularly of the biological community, this refers to the complete annihilation or extermination of a certain taxa, most often, the species. Bearing in mind this operating definition extinction, we delve deeper into the biological manifestations of such phenomenon. All organisms are categorized into a certain taxon at specific levels. Therefore, extinction is possible to occur in all life forms plant, animal, fungi, bacteria or protist. Though naturally, occurring, such as in the major mass extinctions experienced by the earth in the last four billion years, extinction, nevertheless, poses a threat to biodiversity. The continuous loss of organisms in the Tree of Life reduces the possible traits that may be acquired in the gene pool. According to Davies and his colleagues (2011), present rates of extinction are approaching scales of mass extinctions seen in the past eras. This high magnitude of extinction rate in all life forms, especially plants and animals, is even projected to increase further in the coming years. Most conservation studies are zeroing in on animal species conservation. Vertebrates have certain factors that may predict our vulnerability to extinction and these are: (1) species traits, (2) body size, (3) fecundity and (4) geographic range (Davies et al., 2011). These traits and many others intertwine and decide whether the vertebrate organism is leaning towards extinction. With the alarming rate of animal

extinctions, wildlife parks and conservation houses are continuously being constructed to protect these organisms from total annihilation. Not to be undermined, plants are also in danger of extinction. It is important to note that plants also play integral parts in ecosystems; thus, the need to understand why they are becoming alarmingly becoming extinct. Terrestrial and some marine ecosystems depend on plants to fuel the ecosystem with the energy they need, being the producers of the food web and the bases of their respective trophic pyramids. Some animals are very picky when it comes to their food preference. If the preferred food of herbivorous consumers becomes extinct and their bodies do not adapt to this loss, increased reports of death of these herbivores may occur and if worse enough, their species might travel nearer to extinction. A saddening fact mentioned in Extinction risk and diversification are linked in a plant biodiversity hotspot is that, at present, there is very minimal knowledge when it comes to the extinction risks that plants suffer from (Davies et al., 2011). To add to this, recent articles are proposing contrasting views on how and why plant species are nearing the brink of extinction. Because of these contrasting views, difficulties in conservation strategies may arise. This paper aims to discuss the different perspectives that might explain the accelerating extinction rate of plants. This might lead to increased awareness of plant biodiversity conservation and ultimately, reduced extinction rates. Are plant species naturally nearing extinction due to geographical factors and phylogenetic signals? Or are we the culprits why this elevated extinction risk is seen in plants? Are plants being murdered or are they committing suicide?

Discussion Phylogenetic Trend in Plant Extinction A recent study of the flora at the Cape of South Africa, a global diversity hotspot, revealed new and interesting notions regarding the patterns by which plants approach extinction. The pioneering research spearheaded by Davies in 2011 revealed the presence of a phylogenetic signal that may control the extinction risks seen in the flora found in the South African Cape. In their study, they compared the phylogenetic distribution of extinct and extant plants in the Cape of South Africa and in the United Kingdom. The two locations were chosen because almost-complete documentation and phylogenetic information of their respective floras are available. They gathered and assessed taxonomic and phylogenetic data from the IUCNs (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List of Threatened Species (2009), the Joint Nature Conservation Committees Vascular Plant Red Data List for Great Britain (2006) and the South African National Biodiversity Institutes Interim Global Status for Plants (2008). Knapp stated in her paper entitled, Rarity, Species Richness and the Threat of Extinction: Are Plants the Same as Animals?, that the IUCNs Red List of Threatened Species is a good source for assessing the extinction risks of

organisms at the species level as it assesses at a global perspective, comparing each region of the globe (2011). Davies and his group focused their attention on the Cape flora. Intriguingly, they found out that this phylogenetic signal that causes plant extinction in the South African Cape targets young and fast-evolving lineages. They concluded that the most threatened plant species of the Cape cluster at the short branches of the phylogenetic tree (Davies et al., 2011). This is highly in contrast to the

trend in extinction seen in mammals (Knapp, 2011). In mammals, k-selected species, being large, slow-breeding and narrowly distributed, are considered to be highly endangered. Using a generalized linear model, they were able to observe the strengths and patterns of correlation between extinction risks and species richness, diversification rate, and taxon age. The strongest correlation with extinction risk was its negative pattern with taxon age (Davies et al., 2011). Taxon age on the other hand was strongly associated with diversification rate, in a positive pattern; thus, extinction risk is higher within younger taxa that are products of recent diversification (Davies et al., 2011). According to the researchers, this might have been made possible by the mode of speciation exhibited by plants. The mode of speciation observed in plants is associated with small, reproductively isolated populations brought about by occasional longdistance dispersal (Davies et al., 2011). Since the criteria of the IUCN for placing species in their Red List is small range size, this may be the explanation as to why these recently diversified taxa are considered as threatened species (Davies et al., 2011). Davies and his colleagues (2011) mentioned in their paper that these locations with high extinction rates, termed as extinction hotspots, serve as both cradles and graveyards of diversity, a very disturbing paradox. Results of further studies by Davies and his colleagues (2011) showed that extinction hotspots had a very poor correlation with habitat transformation. This suggests that the threat status given to threatened plant species is independent from anthropogenic or human-induced factors, assuming that the primary reason why the plants in the Cape of South Africa is due to the prevalent mode of speciation that is

exhibited by plants, in accordance to the initial findings of their study (Davies et al., 2011).

Considering Geography in the Assessment of Plant Species Extinction Davies and his fellow researchers (2011) also compared the UK flora with that of the Cape flora. They found out that there exists a significant difference between the two locations in the taxonomic distribution of extinction risks in plants which is inconsistent with a simple, trait-based model of extinction in plants (Davies et al., 2011). This suggests that not only is there a phylogenetic trend in the extinction of plant species, but there exists a geographic factor that must also be considered in assessing the extinction risks of plant species. Davies and his colleagues (2011) stressed that certain plant traits induced by species diversification in one environment may not successfully be expressed in another environment, implying that there exists a geographical factor in both species diversification and extinction. In a different study, extinction risks of plant species in the tropics were also assessed but in a different location (Vamosi and Vamosi, 2008). It has been a stated fact that ecosystems residing in the tropics are considered to be highly diverse, a great example of which are the tropical rainforests. These may be attributed to the high organic matter in soil, ample amount of sunlight and sufficient moisture among others. Vamosi and Vamosi (2008) explain that the tropical climate is considered old, benign and stable, allowing it to have a smaller extinction risk even when human impacts, up to a certain point, on the ecosystem are considered.

Even though these ideas are prevailing, they deemed it necessary to study the flora of the tropics because of the tropical biodiversity crisis which has the potential to erase the prevailing latitudinal biodiversity gradient that exists as a pattern for species diversity in our world today (Vamosi and Vamosi, 2008). The latitudinal biodiversity gradient is a pattern wherein ecosystems residing in the tropics are observed to have more diverse flora and fauna and this diversity decreases as you go farther away from the tropics. The rise of the tropical biodiversity crisis poses as a risk factor favoring species extinction at the tropics. While it is primarily believed that the tropics possess an increased buffering capacity to extinction, results of their research work imply otherwise. At present, there exists an elevated level of species extinction in the tropics (Vamosi and Vamosi, 2008). In the research done by Vamosi and Vamosi (2008), they related numerous factors that might be assisting in accelerating the extinction rate observed at the tropics, suggesting that the extinction risk of plants is the effect of different motives and mechanisms coming into play. One of the possible reasons for which they attributed the species loss observed is the increased speciation rate compared to other latitudinal zones. Geographically, there is a fewer possibility of mass extinctions to occur in the tropics due to the good conditions that prevail in this zone, but a consequence of this is the high lineage diversification that may possibly lead to the production of species with lower genetic diversity, lower geographic range forming groups with low population densities (Vamosi and Vamosi, 2008). This might explain why there is a high species extinction rate despite the continuous species diversification and relatively low probability of approaching mass extinction (Vamosi and Vamosi, 2008). This is coherent

with the pattern that was seen in the experiment of Davies and his fellow investigators, wherein a phylogenetic trend in species extinction was observed. Vamosi and Vamosi (2008) still observed a disproportionately higher extinction in the tropics even though certain anthropogenic disturbances such as gross domestic product, population density and forest cover change were considered in the statistical analyses they performed. This suggests that anthropogenic effects may possibly not affect the degree to which plants are threatened to be extinct.

Human-Induced Factors on Plant Extinction Arise, Hubbell and Ayala (2008) mentioned in their paper that we have arguably entered the sixth mass extinction episode of our world. What is disturbing is that this mass extinction, they believe is the only one caused by a biotic agent, man (Arise, Hubbel, Ayala, 2008). Although the researches stated above statistically show that anthropogenic disturbances in ecosystems dont lead to plant extinction, William Laurance say otherwise. In his paper entitled, Have We Overstated the Tropical Biodiversity Crisis?, he explains that the recent tropical biodiversity crisis is greatly caused by rapid forest loss and degradation due to human interference. Increased deforestation and logging activities continuously damage the tropical ecosystem and cause species extinction in plants (Laurance, 2006). These human-induced risk factors cut across different locations in the globe. Aruse, Hubbell and Ayala (2008) all agree that the change in the uses of lands brought about by the agricultural revolution of man is a primal cause of plant species extinction. This agricultural transformation, according to Hahs and his colleagues (2008), refer to

the clearing of native and endemic vegetation for the establishment of grazing and crop areas. Hahs and his colleagues (2008) studied the land histories of different urban locations across the globe and came up with the conclusion that whether agricultural transformation came about in the 1600s, 1800s or in the near 1900s, the effects are all the same: species extinction. The changes in the soil profile of these transformed lands may have been the prime-movers of plant extinction. Besides agricultural reforms, the industrial revolution has also affected species diversity and richness negatively (Avise, Hubbell, Ayala, 2008). The industrial revolution paved the way for urbanization to change different aspects in the ecosystem. In a separate study in 2009, Williams and his co-researchers stated that urbanization may be treated as the most intensive and irreversible change in the ecosystem that the plant endures. The disastrous effects of urbanization, I believe, surpass that of the effects of other extinction risk factors. Urbanization may lead to many hazardous situations that threaten the presence of plant species in that area. Habitat transformation is believed to be a key effect that reduces species diversity and eradicates plant species in the Tree of Life. Feeley and Silman (2009) address this problem in their research as they examined the extinction risks of plant species in the Amazon. Upon surveying the flora from the Amazon, they concluded that in a short while, 5-9% of all Amazonian plant species to date will be threatened because if the change in the land use and its associated habitat loss (Felley and Siliman, 2009). Stehlik, Caspersen, Wirth and Holderegger (2007) did a separate study in the lowlands of Sweden. They were able to see the same threat to plant species extinction: habitat loss. The peri-urban landscape that the Swiss lowlands

possess caused habitat destruction to many organisms inhabiting the place. They saw a high correlation between habitat destruction and human population densities. This may be a proof that will warrant humans as the main drivers of habitat loss and destruction, ultimately causing poorer species diversity in various parts of the world. In 2008, Sodhi and his colleagues studied the extinction proneness of tropical angiosperms and its correlation with various factors. Their study revealed that habitat fragmentation, the process by which the location inhabited by species is chipped off into smaller parts, bring about a net species loss. Habitat fragmentation subjects the ecosystems to different abiotic pressures and disturbances that lead to microclimate changes (Sodhi et al., 2008), inducing a net species loss even if alien species were to invade the ecosystem (Williams, 2009). Besides bringing habitat destruction, urbanization has also altered many physical properties of the ecosystem. These alterations pose serious threats to ecosystems and may bring about extinction in plant species. Due to technology, Williams and his colleagues (2009) were able to evaluate the ill effects of technology. Plant species may be forced to be extinct due to high levels of soil and atmospheric pollution (Williams et al., 2009) which are the reservoirs of the raw materials that plants use for food-making. Eutrophication and acidification were also observed to be primal causes for the local loss of endemic plant species that directly translated to global extinction due to their endemicity as exemplified in the Park Green Experiment at the United Kingdom (Frville, McConway, Dodd, Silvertown, 2007). Truly, there are many risk factors that us humans contribute in the extinction of numerous plant species in our world today.

Conclusion In this light I urge the readers of this paper to actively participate in advocacies that are related to conservation biology, especially to plant species conservation. These phylogenetic, geographic and anthropogenic are believed to cause an extinction debt, or the phenomenon wherein there is a delayed manifestation of the effects of extinction (Stehlik, Caspersen, Wirth, Holderegger, 2007). This extinction debt is what makes assessment of threat status hard as it poses the problem of tracking down the history of the species for a long time to view even just the partial effects of extinction factors. There is no one primal culprit as to why plants are currently marching faster towards extinction. Contradictions in the researches may have arisen from the variables that the researchers focused in their studies. It is highly possible for these extinction forces to take on different roles in extinction, causing massive extinction rates today. Each factor may amplify the effect of one another. Because of this, conservation efforts must not only zero in on eradicating the effects of one factor alone. If we want an immediate solution that will give us long-term effects, targeting all three trends will be better. We must do everything that we can in order to minimize the effects that these extinction risk factors pose, especially those that are anthropogenic in nature, such as global warming, hunting and deforestation since we are the culprits in this trend. We must increase our efforts also in regulating the abiotic factors of ecosystems around us and cultivate newly divergent species to allow promulgation of their lineage as we are the earths caretakers. Instead of wasting our time in blaming all the possible routes to extinction, we must relentlessly exhaust all our resources in finding different ways to put an end to this massive species extinction in plants immediately.

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