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Hawkins formula. While the skin effect is dimensionless, the associated dmage zone is not.

Figure 5-1 is a typical depiction of the near-wellbore condition, with rs and ks being the penetration of damage and permeability, respectively. Outside this zone the reservoir remains undisturbed, with permeability k. A well-known equation relating the skin effect and the above variables has been presented by Hawkins (1956) and is frequently referred to as Hawkins formula. Figure 5-2 provides an easy means for the development of this relationship. If the near-wellbore permeability is the reservoir permeability (i.e., no damage), then a steadystate pressure drop between the outer boundary pressure (ps) and the well would result in a pwf,ideal given by 5-1 If, thoufh, the near-wellbore permeability is altered to ks, then the real bottomhole pressure is related by 5-2 The difference between pwf,ideal and pwf,real is exactly the pressure drop due to the skin effect, ps, which was given in Chapter 2 by Eq. (2-12). Therefore, from Eqs. (5-1), (5-2), and 5-3 EXAMPLE 5-1 Permeability impairment versus damage penetration. Assume that a well has a radius rw equal to 0.328 and a penetration of damage 3 ft beyond the well (i.e. rs=3.328 ft). What would be the skin effect if the permeability impairment results in k/ks equal to 5 and 10, respectively. What would be the required penetration of damage to provide the same skin effect as the latter case but with k/ks=5? Solution: From Eq. (5-4), k/ks=5, and the given rs and rw, 5-5 For k/ks=10 and rs=3.328 then, However, if s=20.9 ad k/ks=5, then similarly, s=20.9. 5-6

This exercise suggests that permeability impairment has a much larger effect on the value of the skin effect tha the penetration of damage. Except for a phase change-dependent skin effect, a penetration of damage such as ghe one calculated in Eq. (5-6) is impossible. Thus, skin effects derived from well tests (frequently ranging between 5 and 20) are likely to be caused by substantial permeability impairment very near the well. This is a particularly important point in the design of matrix stimulation treatments. EXAMPLE 5-2 Pressure drop in the near-wellbore zone versus in the reservoir

With the skin effects calculated in Example 5-1, compare the portions of the pressure drop due to damage within the near-wellbore zone versus the total pressure drop. (The diffefence will be in the reservoir). Assume that A=640 acres (re=2980 ft). Solution: The ratio of the pressure drop due to damage within the near-wellbore zone to the total pressure drop is proportional to s/(ln(re/rw)+s) (for steady-state flow), as can be seen readily from Eq. (2-13). For re=2980 ft and rw=0.328 ft, ln re/rw=9.1. This quantity well be largely constant for almost all drainage/wellbore radius combinations. The skin effects calculated in Example 5-1 for the 3-ft damage zone are 9.3 and 20.9 suggesting that the portions of the total pressure drop due to damage would be 0.51 and 0.70, respectively. Possible elimination of these skin effects, at a constant pe-pwf, would result in production rate increases of 104% and 233% respectively. THE SKIN COMPONENTS. The total skin effect for a well, s, consists of a number of components. Generally these can be added together, and therefore 5-7 where sd is the damage skin, sc+ is the skin due to partial completion and slant, and sp is the perforation skin effect. All pseudo-skins are grouped together within the summation sign. These pseudo-skins include all phase- and rate-dependent effects. Following is a discussion of these skin effects. Subsequent section will discuss the mechanical skin components. The rate-dependent effect has been discussed in Chapter 4 in conjunction with the turbulence in high-rate gas producers. (It can also affect very high-rate oil wells). This skin effect is equal to Dq, where D is the non-Darcy coefficient (see Section 4-4). The skin effect extracted from a well test in a high-rate gas well is likely to be larger and, in certain instances, much larger than the non-ratedependent skin effect. Thus, from a well test, an apparent skin, s can be obtained that is equal to 5-8 Test performed at several different rates can be used t isolate the skin effects, s. A plot such as the one shown in Fig. 5-3 of s versus q suggests that s is the intercept and D is the slope. This is the proper manner for the field determination of D and the forecast of the impact of the ratedependent skin of future well production. Phase-dependent skin effects are associated with phase changes because of the near-wellbore pressure gradient. In the case of oil wells, if the flowing bottom hole pressure is below the bubble-point pressure, then a gas saturation will form, causing a reduction in the effective permeability to oil even if the gas phase is not mobile. A version of Hawkins formula with k/ks substituted by the ratio of the effective (or relative) permeabilities can be used. A similar phenomenon can be observed in the case of gas retrograde condensate reservoir, where liquid is formed around the well, causing a reduction in the gas permeability. This is a particularly adverse occurrence. While in the case of gas that is formed in an oil reservoir the gas will reenter solution at an elevated pressure (e.g., as the pressure builds up when the well is shut in), in the case of a gas condensate reservoir much of the formed condensate will not reenter the gas. Several authors (Fussell, 1973; Cvetkovic et al., 1990) have studied the process of liquid condensate deposition with time an have shown that permeability impairment to gas in gas condensate reservoirs is not eliminated following a shut-in. Thus, after reopening the well, the gas

flow rate is still affected by the nearwellbore permeability reduction. A method to combat this skin effect is by the injection of neat natural gas, which may redissolve the condensate and displace it into the reservoir. This huff and puff operation can be repeated periodically. The skin effects in Eq. (5-7) are those that cause an alteration of the flow near a vertical or inclined well I a radial reservoir. Other skin effects have been introduced for other flow configurations, especially associated with fractures (choke fracture face) or fracture-to-well contact as in the case of a largely vertical fracture intersecting a horizontal well transversely. These skins are addressed in Chapter 18. However, the reader must be alerted here that once a hydraulic fracture is generated, most pretreatment skin effects (Sd, Sc+, Sp) are bypassed and have no impact on the posttreatment well performance. Similar phenomena may be in effect in the case of a deeply penetrating perforation that may bypass the near-wellbore damage. Phase- and rate-dependent skin effects are either eliminated or contribute in the calculation of the fracture skin effects. In general, it is not correct to add pretreatment skin effects to any postfracture skin effects. 5-4 SKIN FROM PARTIAL COMPLETION AND SLANT. Frequently, well are partially completed; that is, the height that is open to the formation is smaller than the reservoir height. Sometimes this is known as partial penetration. This situation can occur as a result of a bad perforation job or by deliberate under completion to retard or retard or avoid coning effects. In certain modern reservoir testing practices, partial penetration may be created to form early-time spherical flow to allow the calculation of the vertical permeability. Late-time radial flow would have the distinguishing characteristics of partial completion. If the well is not completed at the middle of the reservoir height, the problem will be aggravated further. In all of these cases the ensuing bending of the flow lines would result in a skin effect denoted by Sc. The smaller the perforated interval compared to the reservoir height and the more skewed the completion, the larger the skin effect would be. If the completed interval is 75% of the reservoir height or more, this skin effect becomes negligible. While partial completion generates a positive skin effect by reducing the well exposure to the reservoir, a deviated well results in the opposite. The larger the angle of slant, the larger the negative contribution to the total skin effect will be. The skin effect due to slant is denoted by S, and the composite skin from partial completion and slant is denoted by sc-. Cinco-Ley et al. (1975) solved the problem semi analytically and presented tables of these skin effects for various combinations of partial completion, completion elevation, and well deviation. Figure 5-4 shows the relevant variables. Here hw es the perforated height, zw is the elevation of the perforation midpoint from the base of the reservoir, h is the reservoir height, is the angle of well deviation, and rw is the well radius. Tables 5-1 and 5-2 give the results for reservoir dimensionless thicknesses, hD (=h/rw) equal to 100 and 1000, respectively. Relevant ratios are zw/h (elevation ratio) and hw/h completion ratio). The composite skin effect, sc+, and the individual parts, sc and s, are listed. As can be seen, the absolute value of s increases with the angle of slant and in certain cases may render sc+ negative in spite of the positive sc associated with a partial completion. Finally, the corresponding skins for the same completion and elevation ratios are larger when hD=1000 rather than 100, reflecting the longer penetration of flow line distortion. EXAMPLE 5-3 Partial penetration and slant skin effect

A well with a radius rw=0.328 is completed in a 33-ft reservoir. In order to avoid severe water coning problems only 8 ft are completed and the midpoint of the perforations is 29 ft above the base of the reservoir. Calculate the skin effect due to partial completion for a vertical well. What would be the composite skin effect if =45? Repeat this problem for h=330 ft, hw=80 ft, and zw=290 ft. Solution. The dimensionless reservoir thickness hD is h/rw=33/0.328 100, the elevation ratio is zw/h=29/33=0.875, and the completion ratio is hw/h=8/33=0.25. From Table 5-1 for a vertical well (=0), sc+=8.6, of which sc=8.6 and s=0. If =45, then sc=8.6 but s=-2.7, resulting in sc+ 6. If hD=330/0.338 1000 although all other ratios are the same, from Table 5-2, sc+=15.7 for the vertical well and sc+=10.4 for the 45 slant. 5-5 WELL PERFORATION AND SKIN EFFECT. Modern well perforation is done with perforating guns that attached either to a wire line or to coiled tubing. Figure 5-5 shows a schematic of a gun system with the shape changes arranged in a helical pattern. This pattern allows good perforation density with small phasing (i.e., the angle between adjoin perforations). The perforating string contains a cable head, a correlation device, a positioning device, and the perforation guns. The cable head connects the string to the wire line and at the same time provides a weak point at which to disconnect the cable if problems arise. The correlation device is used to identify the exact position with a previously run correlation log, and frequently it locates casing collars. The positioning device orients the shots toward the casing for more optimum perforation geometry. Sec. 5-5 Well Perfotation and Skin Effect. The perforating guns are loaded with shape changes, which consist of the case, the explosive, and the liner, as shown in Fig. 5-6. Electric current initiates an explosive wave; the phases of the detonation are shown in Fig. 5-6. Perforations with a diameter between 0.25 and 0.4 in. and a tunnel between 6 and 12 in. are typically created.

Perforating is usually done at underbalance; that is, the pressure in the well is less than the reservoir pressure. This facilitates immediate flow back following the detonation, carrying the debris and resulting in a cleaner perforation tunnel. The dimensions, number, and phasing of perforations have a controlling role in well performance. 5-5.1 CALCULATION OF THE PERFORATION SKIN EFFECT. Karadas and Tariq (1998) have presented a semi analytical solution for the calculation of the perforation skin effect, which they divide into components: the plane flow effect, sH; the vertical converging effect, sv; and the wellbore effect, swb. The total perforation skin effect is then 5-9 Figure 5-7 gives all relevant variables for the calculation of the perforation skin. These include the well radius, rw, the perforation radius, rperf, the perforation length, lperf, the angle of perforation phasing, , and, very important, the distance between the perforations, hperf, whick is exactly inversely proportional to the perforation density (e.g., 2 shots per foot, SPF, result in hperf=0.5 ft). Below, the method of estimating the individual components of the perforation skin is outlined, and 5-16 5-18 5-17

The constants a1, a2, b1, and b2 are also functions of the perforation phasing and can be obtained from Table 5-3. The vertical skin effect, sv, is potentially the largest contributor to sp; for small perforation densities, that is, large hperf, sv can be very large. Calculation of swb. For the calculation of swb, a dimensionless quantity is calculated first;

Then

The constants c1 and c2 also can be obtained from Table 5.3. EXAMPLE 5-4 Perforation skin effect. Assue that a well with rw=0.328 ft is perforated with 2 SPF, rperf=0.25 in., (0.0208 ft), lperf= in. (0.667 ft), and =180. Calculate the perforation skin effect if kH/kv=10. Repeat the calculation for =0 and =60. If =180, show the effect of the horizontal-to-vertical permeability anisotropy with kH/kv=1. Solution From Eq. (5-11) and Table 5-3 (=180), 5-19

Then, from Eq. (5-10), 5-20 From Eq. (5-12) and remembering that hperf=1/SPF, 5-21 And 5-22 From Eqs. (5-15) and (5-16) and the constants in Table 5-3,

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