Lecture 1

Themes and Theories

What is Development? Development is the physical and psychological changes in the individual over a lifetime Developmental psychology is the systematic and scientific study of changes in human behaviors and mental activities over time Developmental science is the interdisciplinary field of research concerned with studies and explanations of human development

What is Development? Theories are sets of ideas or propositions that help to organize or explain observable phenomena
A good theory goes beyond description and explanation It leads to predictions about behavior

Social policy - programs and plans established by local, regional, or national public and private organizations and agencies designed to achieve a particular social purpose or goal

Five Major Themes in Developmental Psychology How do nature and nurture interact in development? How does the sociocultural context influence development? Is development continuous or discontinuous? How do the various domains of development interact? What factors promote risk or resilience in development?

How do nature and nurture interact in development? Nature-nurture debate - the theoretical controversy over whether development is the result of the childs genetic endowment or environmental influences
Both nature and nurture are essential to all aspects of behavior Children are active players in the process of their own development

How does the sociocultural context influence development? Children grow up within a larger social community The sociocultural context includes unique customs, values, and beliefs about the proper way to rear children and the ultimate goals for their development

Is development continuous or discontinuous? Some view development as continuous

New attainments in thinking, language, and social behavior are characterized by gradual, steady, small quantitative advances

Some view development as discontinuous

A childs progress is explained in terms of a series of stages Abrupt or rapid changes resulting in a dramatic reorganization in how children perceive, think, feel, or behave are interpreted as qualitative advances in development

How do the various domains of development interact? The ultimate aim is to understand the child as a whole individual, not just as someone who undergoes physical, perceptual, emotional, cognitive, or social development

What factors promote risk or resilience in development? Children are exposed to various kinds and levels of benefits and risks during their development
Disease exposure, abuse, divorce, war, etc.

Resilient children seem to most effectively resist the negative consequences of risk
Have a constellation of individual qualities that include a relatively relaxed, self-confident character

The Study Of The Child: Historical Perspectives The concept of childhood

Children in medieval and renaissance times
Children were not coddled or protected like they are today

The Age of Enlightenment

John Locke Tabula rasa Empiricism theory that environmental experiences shape the individual; all knowledge is derived from sensory experiences

The Origins of Developmental Psychology

Charles Darwin and William Preyer: baby biographers G. Stanley Hall: founder of modern child psychology, launched child study in the U.S., used the questionnaire method with children Alfred Binet: studied individual differences and developed the first IQ test James Mark Baldwin: early developmental theorist recognized for his unique perspective on social development and the formation of personality

The Origins of Developmental Psychology Sigmund Freud: the importance of early experience and his psychosexual theory of development Five stages of psychosocial development:
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital Fixation if stages are not fulfilled

Theories Of Development Learning relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of such experiences as exploration, observation, and practice Learning Theory Approaches
Behaviorism Social Learning Theory

Major Types Of Learning

Classical conditioning: a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes a reflexive response and eventually elicits the response by itself Operant conditioning: organism produces a response which is rewarded or not; the consequence influences the likelihood of future responding Social learning theory: theoretical approach emphasizing the importance of learning through observation and imitation of behaviors modeled by others Observational learning: imitation of others behaviors

Piagets Cognitive-Developmental Theory Cognitive-developmental theory theoretical orientation emphasizing the active construction of psychological structures to interpret experience

Piagets Basic Principles Of Cognitive Development Adaptation: Interplay between assimilation and accommodation, resulting in development Organization: Tendency for structures and processes to become more systematic and coherent Scheme: Organized pattern of thought or behavior

Piagets Basic Principles Of Cognitive Development (contd) Assimilation: Person interprets new ideas or experiences to fit existing schemes Accommodation: Person changes existing schemes to fit new ideas or experiences Equilibration: Harmonious balance of a persons schemes and experiences with the environment

Piagets Stages Of Cognitive Development

Information-Processing Approaches Theoretical approach that views humans as having a limited ability to process information, much like computers This approach can be extended to account for development in many other domains, including language acquisition, peer relationships, and even social and personality development

Theories Of Development Eriksons Psychosocial Approach

Greater focus on emotions and personality Gives socialization and society far greater importance in his theory A common theme is the search for identity

Systems Approaches Contextual Approaches

Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner) Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky) Dynamic Systems Theory Ethological Theory

Systems Approaches Bronfenbrenners Theory

Bioecological model development is influenced by experiences arising from broader biological, social, and cultural systems as well as a childs immediate surroundings Microsystem the immediate environment provided in such settings as the home, school, workplace, and neighborhood Mesosystem the environment provided by the interrelationships among the various settings of the microsystem

Systems Approaches Bronfenbrenners Theory

Exosystem environmental settings that indirectly affect the child by influencing the various microsystems forming the childs immediate environment Macrosystem major historical events and the broad values, practices, and customs shared by a culture Chronosystem the constantly changing temporal component of the environment that can influence development

Figure 1.4: Bronfenbrenners Ecological Model

From Garabino, J., Sociocultural Risk: Dangers to Competence, in C. Kopp and J. Krakow (Eds.), Child Development in a Social Context. Copyright 1982. Used by permission of Addison-Wesley.

Systems Approaches Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky)

Emphasizes the importance of cultural tools, symbols, and ways of thinking that the child acquires from more knowledgeable members of the community

Systems Approaches Dynamic Systems Theory

Emphasizes development as the emerging organization arising from the interaction of many different processes

Systems Approaches Ethological Theory

Ethology is concerned with the evolutionary origins of behavior and its adaptive and survival value in animals, including humans Sensitive period a brief period during which specific kinds of experiences have significant positive or negative consequences for development and behavior
Also known as the critical period Imprinting