Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514523

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Single basin double slope solar still with minimum basin depth and energy storing materials
K. Kalidasa Murugavel a, S. Sivakumar a, J. Riaz Ahamed a, Kn.K.S.K. Chockalingam a, K. Srithar b,*
a b

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Engineering College, Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu 628 503, India Department of Mechanical Engineering, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai, Tamil Nadu 625 015, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Solar still is a simple device which can convert available waste or brackish water into potable water using solar energy. A single basin double slope solar still with an inner basin size 2.08 m 0.84 m 0.075 m and that of the outer basin size 2.3 m 1 m 0.25 m has been fabricated with mild steel plate and tested with a layer of water and different sensible heat storage materials like quartzite rock, red brick pieces, cement concrete pieces, washed stones and iron scraps. It is found that, the still with 3=4 in. sized quartzite rock is the effective basin material. The still is theoretically modeled. In previous researchers work, variation in transmittance is taken as constant. The variations in solar incidence angle and transmittance of the covers are also considered in this work. The theoretical values are compared with actual values. The theoretical water and glass temperatures and the theoretical production rate are having higher deviation with actual. Hence, another thermal model developed for this still is applied to validate the results accurately. It is found that, the theoretical production rate using thermal model agrees well with experimental. 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 14 February 2009 Received in revised form 19 May 2009 Accepted 31 July 2009 Available online 5 September 2009 Keywords: Solar still Layer of water Minimum depth Energy storing materials Transmittance variation Incidence angle variation Still modeling

1. Introduction Clean potable water is a basic necessity for man along with food and air. Fresh water is also required for agricultural and industrial purposes. Direct uses of water from sources like rivers, lakes, sea and underground water reservoirs are not always advisable, because of the presence of higher amount salt and harmful organisms. The higher growth rate in world population and industries resulted in a large escalation of demand for fresh water. The natural source can meet a limited demand and this leads to acute shortage of fresh water. The solar desalination technology using solar still is the cheap and simple process [1]. A black-painted basin contains brackish or sea water. This is enclosed in a completely air tight envelope formed by wooden frame and a transparent cover at top. The black basin absorbs the maximum part of the transmitted radiation through the cover. Consequently, water contained in the basin heated up and evaporates in the saturated condition inside the still. Water vapor rises up until it comes in contact with the cooler inner surface of the cover. There, they condense as pure water, slides down along the cover bottom surface due to gravity and is collected by using drainage. The construction of this type of still can

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 4522482240; fax: +91 4522483427. E-mail address: ponsathya@hotmail.com (K. Srithar). 0306-2619/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.07.023

easily be performed by even people at rural area using the locally available materials. The production capacity of a simple basin type still is very less. This makes the system highly uneconomical. Good number of work has been carried out by researchers, to improve the production capacity of the still by adopting different techniques. Recently, the progresses in improving the effectiveness of the solar still has been reviewed [2]. The basin water depth is having signicant effect on productivity of the basin. Investigations show that, the water depth is inversely proportional to the productivity of still [36]. Around 11% of radiation received by the still basin is reected back without using it [1]. Very simple method of increasing the absorption of the basin water is to add dye with the water [7]. Different types of absorbing materials are used in the basin along with water [8], to increase the absorption of the still basin. Rubber mate and charcoal are some materials used in the basin. Basin lined with charcoal is used to enhance the absorption capacity of the basin [9,10]. Some black materials can store more amount of heat energy and increase the heat capacity of the basin. Glass, rubber and gravel are such materials having these properties [11,12]. Experimental results show that, black rubber with 10 mm size, increase the productivity of the deep basin still by 20% and black gravel with 20 30 mm size, increase the productivity of a shallow basin still by 19% than a conventional still. Solar still was also tested with a

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Nomenclatures A C d h hfg I Kd m M p Q t T U V area (m2) specic heat capacity (J/kg K) glass thickness (mm) heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K) latent heat of water (J/kg) total radiation (W/m2) diffused radiation fraction mass (kg) molecular weight partial pressure of water vapour (N/m2) heat transfer, energy (W) time (s) temperature (C) overall heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K) velocity of air (m/s)

s x
2 Dt

transmittance hour angle (deg) emissivity time step (s)

Greek letters ab absorptivity b inclination of the plane cover with horizontal (deg) d sun declination angle (deg) / latitude (deg) g efciency (%) h incidence angle (deg) r StefenBoltzman constant (5.67 108 W/m2 K4)

Subscripts a air atm atmosphere av average b basin c convection e evaporation fw feed water g glass i incident N north o overall r radiation S south sky sky T total w water em energy storing material

special phase changing material as energy storing materials at its basin [13]. Higher depth and energy storing materials are employed to store the excess energy and to increase the night time production. In the regions where the solar intensity is medium or low like India, the still with minimum depth is effective. When minimum mass is used in the still, it will not spread the entire area of the basin and hence additional spreading materials are to be used along with water [14]. The main objective of this work is to study the effect of minimum depth of water with different spreading materials in the basin. In this work, a single basin double slope passive type solar still is fabricated and tested with a layer of water (approximately 57.5 mm depth). The performance of the solar still is to be compared with different types of energy storing materials like quartzite rock, washed stone, cement block pieces, red brick pieces and iron scraps. The above said energy storing materials are not at all used so far in the still. The still is theoretically modeled. The total and diffused radiation variations, incidence angle variations and the transmittance variations of the covers are considered in this analysis. Theoretical performance is compared with actual performance. It is found that the theoretical results are deviated more with actual results. Hence another thermal model is applied to validate the actual results.

The total input energy to the still is the sum of total radiation energy falling on north and south side glass covers for given instant and is given by,

Q i Q iN Q iS

where QiN = AgN IN and QiS = AgS IS. Also the glass areas, AgN and AgS are same and taken as 1.08 m2. The energy available for utilization by the still for given instant is the total solar radiation transmitted through the north and south side covers for given time and it is given by,

Q s Q sN Q sS

where QsN = sN AgN IN and QsS = sS AgS IS. Here, sN and sS are transmittance of the north and south side glass covers, respectively. Commercially available window glasses are used as cover plate. The transmittance of the glass at any time is the function of solar incidence angle, diffused radiation fraction and thickness of the cover plate. Experiments have been conducted using different window glass thicknesses at different inclinations and orientations for different times of the day [15]. A correlation is developed to estimate the transmittance (s) of the window glass with thickness d and for diffused radiation fraction of Kd. The correlation is given by,

s 1:005 104 90 h K d 5:204 103 K d d

0:095 K d2 0:029 K d 3:837 104 90 h d 3:299 103 d 0:028 t 9:117 104 90 h 2:417 10
7 2

2. Theoretical modeling 2.1. Solar radiation transmitted by glass covers North and south covers of the still receives the radiations at different angles and quantities. These radiation and transmittance values are also varying with time. For the calculation of energy available at the basin, the actual radiation energy received at the inclined glass covers and the transmittance variations of the glass covers are to be considered. Whereas, in previous research works, theoretical predictions were carried out by considering the radiation energy in horizontal plane and constant transmittance of glass covers.

90 h2 0:859

where h is the incidence angle, and is calculated using sun earth geometry, location of the place and the angle of inclination of the glass surface [16]. When the angle of inclination of the plane with the horizontal is at angle b and facing south, the incidence angle h on the inclined plane is given by [16],

cos h sin d sin/ b cos d cos/ b cos x

The value of inclination angle b is negative when the inclined plane is facing north.

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2.2. Energy balance equations Radiation transmitted into the still through the glass covers is continuously absorbed by the basin water. This result in increase of water temperature and the heat transfer from water to the glass cover by different modes. A part of this heat transfer is by convection and radiation due to temperature difference between the water and lower surface of the glass. The remaining is by evaporation, due to partial vapour pressure difference between the water surface and lower surface of the glass cover. The evaporated vapour condenses at the bottom surface of the cover and transfer heat to the glass. A small part of heat is lost to atmosphere through basin bottom and side wall by conduction and convection. For shallow basin still, the basin bottom surface and water are assumed as single element [17] and the temperature is taken as constant for basin and water. The raw water is continuously supplied to the basin to keep the water mass in the basin always constant. This compensating water mass takes sensible heat to attain equilibrium with basin water. The transient energy balance equation for the basin water is given as [18],

where the basin area Ab is taken as 1.72 m2 and the convective coefcient from the basin to glass cover is calculated using [18],

hc;wg

 2 pw pg T w 273:15 3 0:884 T w T g 268900 pw

The evaporative heat transfer from the basin water to the cover plate is written as [1],

Q e;wg he;wg Ab pw pg

where the evaporative coefcient from the basin to the glass cover is given by Malik et al. [1] as,

he;wg

Mw hfg pT hc;wg Ma C pa pT pw pT pg

10

The radiation heat transfer from the basin to glass cover is predicted from [1],

Q r;wg r 2wg Ab T w 273:154 T g 273:154

11

The heat loss from the basin to the surrounding is calculated using [1],

mw C w mem C em dT w =dt Q s ab;w Q c;wg Q r;wg Q e;wg Q b;wa Q b;wa Q fw 5

Q b UAS T w T atm

12

The heat taken by the glass lower surface from basin water conducts through the glass thickness. The upper glass surface in turn transfer this heat to the atmosphere by convection and radiation due to the temperature difference between glass, atmosphere and sky. The temperature of glass material is assumed as constant through out the material. It is also assumed that, the heat ow from the basin is uniform over the surface and the both the cover receive same amount of heat. The transient energy balance equation for the glass cover is given as [18],

For the still with deep basin, the reduction in mass of water due to evaporation is negligible. But in the shallow basin still, the effect of mass water evaporated on performance of the still is signicant. Hence it is assumed that the evaporated mass is continuously replaced and mass of water in the basin is assumed as constant. It

mg C g dT g =dt ab;g Q i Q c;wg Q r;wg Q e;wg Q c;ga Q r;ga

2.3. Heat transfer equations The convection heat transfer from the basin water to the cover plate becomes [1],

Q c;wg hc;wg Ab T w T g

Fig. 2. Photographic view of single basin double slope solar still.

Condensate drain Thermo couples

Piezometer 30o inclined cover

Storage tank

Condensate drain Water V2 V3 Water inlet Cement concrete layer Outer basin Flexible hose Control valves V1

Temperature indicator

Glass wool and Thermo cool Insulation

Measuring jar

Fig. 1. Single basin double slope solar still.

K. Kalidasa Murugavel et al. / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 514523 Table 1 Accuracies and error for various measuring instruments. Sl. no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Instrument Thermometer Thermocouple PV type sun meter Anemometer Measuring jar Piezometer Accuracy 1 C 0.1 C 1 W/m2 0.1 m/s 10 ml 10 ml Range 0100 C 0100 C 02500 W/m2 015 m/s 01000 ml 0500 ml % Error 0.25 0.5 2.5 10 10 10

517

is also assumed that, the replaced water is at atmospheric temperature and takes heat from basin. The heat taken by the replaced water is estimated from [1],

Q fw me C w T atm T w

13

The convection heat transfer coefcient from the cover to the atmosphere including the radiation effect is predicted using [19],

hg;ca 5:7 3:8 V

and the convective heat transfer is given as [1],

14

Q g;ca hg;ca Ag T g T atm

15

The radiation heat transfer from the glass to the sky is estimated using [1],

Q gsky r 2g Ag T g 273:154 T atm 267:154

16

The instantaneous water production of the still is calculated [1],

me Q e;wg =hfg
P The overall production of the still = me(t) Dt

17 X

Q e;wg tDt=hfg

18

2.4. Methodology for solving the equations The incidence angles are calculated using the Eq. (4). The energy transmitted through the covers are calculated using the Eq. (2). The transmittances of the cover plates are calculated using the Eq. (3). Usually in the previous works, this transmittance is taken as constant. Calculations are made to study the performance of the still with minimum depth of 0.5 cm. For this depth, the mass of water in the basin is 8.5 kg. Different masses of energy storing materials are used in basin, to maintain uniform depth with minimum mass of water. The theoretical performance of the still is evaluated by solving the heat balance Eqs. (5) and (6). Eqs. (7)(16) are used to calculate the various parameter used in the above heat balance equations. The Eq. (17) is used to calculate the instantaneous production of the still. The partial pressure of water vapour in the air in N/m2, is calculated for given temperature (C) using the following correlation [20].

Fig. 3. Photograph of sensible energy storage materials used in the basin.

p 7235 431:43T 10:76T 2

19

The latent heat of evaporation of water in J/kg, at given basin water temperature (C) is given by the following correlation [21].

hfg 2503:3 2:398 T 1000

20

The specic heat capacity, in J/kg K, of the air inside the still is calculated using the following correlation in terms of average temperature (Tav in C) between glass and basin water [22].

C pa 999:2 0:14339 T av 0:0001101T 2 av

Fig. 4. Photograph of the still with 1 in. cement concrete pieces in the basin.

0:000000067581 T 3 av

21

Table 2 Different types of sensible energy storing materials used in the basin. Sl. no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Name of the material used in the basin in. quartzite rock in. naturally washed stones 3 =4 in. quartzite rock 1 in. cement concrete pieces 11=4 in. red brick pieces Mild steel scraps
4 4
1 = 1 =

Depth in cm 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.5

Mass of water in kg 8.5 8.5 12 12 12 8. 5

Masses of energy storing materials in kg 15.9 17 39.9 22.65 22.45 2

Specic heat capacity in kJ/kg K 0.775 0.745 0.775 0.78 0.84 0.465

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The performance of the still theoretical is evaluated by solving the heat balance Eqs. (5) and (6). The calculations were made for every 10 s interval from 6 A.M. to next day 6 A.M. Using the initial values of water and glass temperatures, initial heat transfer coefcients are calculated using the Eqs. (7)(17). Then, new values of glass and temperatures at the end of rst 10 s interval are calculated using the Eqs. (5) and (6). The production rate is calculated using the Eq. (17). Using these calculated water and glass temperatures, using the same procedure, the water and glass temperatures and production rate at the end of next 10 s interval are calculated. The above step is repeated to calculate the temperatures and production rate from 6 A.M. to next day 6 A.M. For each time interval, the actual metrological conditions are considered. After the each time interval, it is assumed that the distillate water delivered from the still is replaced by fresh raw water and the mass of the water in the basin is always constant. Microsoft Excel package is used for the above calculation.

3. Experimental setup and procedure A single basin double slope solar still has been fabricated with mild steel plate as shown in Fig. 1. The overall size of the inner

basin is 2.08 m 0.84 m 0.075 m and that of the outer basin is 2.3 m 1 m 0.25 m. The gap between the inner and outer basin is air tightly packed with glass wool. The outer basin is made up of mild steel sheet. The top is covered with two glasses of thickness 4 mm inclined at 30 on both sides supported by wooden frame. The outer surfaces are covered with glass wool and thermocole layers as insulation. The condensed water is collected in the V-shaped drainage provided below the glass lower edge on both sides of the still. The condensate collected is continuously drained through exible hose and stored in a measuring jar. A hole in the basin side wall allows to insert the thermocouples for the measurement of the basin water, still and condensate temperature. Four thermocouples were placed in the basin at different locations. Two thermocouples are placed in the each side of the drain to measure the condensate temperature. The hole is closed with insulating material to avoid the heat and vapour loss. Another hole is provided for water inlet. Through this hole, water tube from piezometer is inserted to supply raw water continuously to the basin from storage tank through control valves which regulates the ow, to keep the mass of water in the basin always constant. Fig. 2 shows the photographic view of the solar still with storage tank and temperature measuring system.

Fig. 5. Variation of incidence angle and atmospheric temperature.

800 700

0.90

Radiation on south cover

Diffused radiation fraction, Transmittance

0.80 0.70 0.60

Duration : September to October, 2008

Solar radiation, W/m 2

600 500 400 300 200 100 0 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Radiation on north cover diffused radation fraction on south cover Diffused radiation fraction on north cover Transmiittance of south cover Transmittance of the north cover

0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00

Local Time, h
Fig. 6. Transmittance and radiation variations.

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3.1. Measurements and error analysis The temperatures of water, and vapor were recorded with the help of calibrated K-type thermocouples in combination with a digital temperature indicator. The ambient temperature is measured by calibrated mercury thermometer. The distillate from the still was measured using measuring jar. The raw water was supplied using measuring piezometer tube. The total and diffused radiation on horizontal, inclined plane facing south and north were measured using a calibrated photo voltaic (PV) tracking type sun meter. The diffused radiations on inclined surfaces were measured by blocking the beam radiation on the photo voltaic surface. The ambient air velocity V, was measured with an electronic digital anemometer. Table 1 shows the accuracies and error for various instruments used. Experiments have been conducted by adding different sensible energy storage materials in the basin. Fig. 3 shows the photograph of different energy storing materials used in the basin and Fig. 4 shows the photograph of the still with 1 in. cement concrete pieces in the basin. Table 2 presents the mass of water and different energy storing material used in the basin, their masses and their specic heat capacities [23]. The experiments have been conducted at the open terrace of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Engineering Col-

lege, Kovilpatti (9110 N, 77520 E), a city in southern India during August, 2008 to October, 2008. The observations are taken for 24 h duration starting from 6 A.M. The total and diffused radiations on horizontal and inclined planes, the temperatures of the atmosphere, condensate and basin water, and the masses of raw water supplied and condensate collected are noted for every 30 min.

4. Variation of atmospheric temperature and incidence angle Fig. 5 explains the variations of incidence angle on the covers and on horizontal plane and atmospheric temperatures during the experimental period. The variation of incidence angles on the horizontal plane is close to zero during noon. For both the covers, the incidence angle variations are almost similar. The atmospheric temperature varies between 24 C and 38 C and it is maximum around 2 P.M. Fig. 6 shows the transmittance variations of the covers, total radiation and diffused radiation fraction variations on the covers. The south cover receives higher total radiation and less diffused radiation than the north cover through entire day. The transmittance of the cover is varying inversely with incidence angle for entire day. But during morning and evening due to higher diffused radiation, the transmittance is higher, even though the incidence angles are high.

Fig. 7. Variations of production rate small size materials.

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5. Results and discussion The experiments were conducted with different energy storing materials on different days continuously during September to October, 2008. During this period, the radiation condition is almost same. The observations were considered for comparison for the days, the atmospheric conditions are almost same. If any one of the atmospheric parameter is having higher variation on any one day, the observation for that day is not considered for analysis.

Fig. 7 compares the variations of production rates of 1=4 in. quartzite rock, 1=4 in. naturally washed stones and mild steel turnings in the basin with a layer of water (8.5 kg equivalent to 0.5 cm depth) in the basin along with the average radiation and wind velocity variations during the experimental period. The still with 1=4 in. quartzite rock is found to have higher production rate compared with other materials. The production rates of the still with these materials in basin are also compared with still with same amount of water, without any energy storing material. But

Fig. 8. Variations of production rate higher size materials.

4
3.28

Duration : September to October 2008

3.66 3.33 3.11 3.50 3.30 3.49

Produc tion, l/day

3 2 1 0
Mild steel turnings 1/4" quartzite rock 3/4" quartzite rock 1 1/2" cement concrete pieces 1/4" washed stones 1 1/4" brick pieces Light black cotton cloth

Basin material
Fig. 9. Overall productions different materials.

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while conducting experiment without energy storing material, a light black cotton cloth is used to spread the water through entire basin. The heat capacity of the cloth used is negligible. Due to higher diffusion effect, the still with light cotton cloth has higher production rate than other materials. The next sets of experiments are carried out with increased depth of water and larger size of energy storing and absorbing materials. Around 0.75 cm depth (equivalent to 12 kg of water) is used along with 3=4 1 in. size quartzite rock, cement concrete pieces and red brick pieces as different basin materials. Fig. 8 shows the production variation of the still with different larger size energy storing and absorbing materials in the basin along with the average radiation and wind velocity variations during the experimental period. 1 in. cement concrete piece basin still is having higher production rate and 11=4 in. brick pieces basin still is having

lesser production during morning hours and the inverse is observed during evening. The still with 3=4 in. quartzite rock is having uniform production from morning to night. Fig. 9 compares the overall production of the still with different basin materials. Of all basin materials, 3=4 in. quartzite rock is the most productive material when the water depth is 0.75 cm. At this condition the production rate is enhanced by 6.2% compared with the still with layer water of 0.5 cm depth and light cotton cloth as spreading material. Fig. 10 shows the variations of different parameters for the still with 3=4 in. quartzite rock in the basin. The variations of water and glass temperatures and glassatmospheric temperature differences are proportional with production rate. The waterglass temperature difference reaches maximum during morning hours when the water temperature is around 60 C and there after

80 70 60
Date: 21.09.2008 Basin material: quartzite rock Mass of water: 12 kg

0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15

W ater Temperature

50 40 30 20

Production ra te, l/h

Temperature, o C

Glass temperature

Diff. betw een w ater glass temperatures

0.1

Diff. betw een glass atmospheric temperatures Production rate

10 0

0.05 0

12

15

18

21

24

Local Time, h
Fig. 10. Actual variations of different parameters.

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 W ater temperature - still Theoretical W ater temperature - stil solar Glass temperature -Still solar Glass temperature -still theoretical Production rate - still - solar Production rate - still theoretical

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3

Temperature, o C

20 10 0 6 9 12 15 18 21

Date: 21.9.2008 Basin material: quartzite rock Mass of water: 12 kg

0.2 0.1 0

Local time, h
Fig. 11. Comparison of different parameters.

Production ra te, l/m

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1 0.9 0.8
Date: 21.9.2008 Basin material: quartzite rock Mass of water: 12 kg

Production ra te, l/h m 2

0.7 0.6 Still - Theoretical 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 6 9 12 15 18 21 0 3 6 Still - solar Still - thermal model

Local time, h
Fig. 12. Actual and theoretical production rates.

continuously decreases. Similar behavior is observed for the stills with different basin materials. The maximum water and glass temperature reached is inversely varying with the total heat capacity of the water and basin material. The performance of the still is analyzed using proposed theoretical model by considering the transmittance variations. Fig. 11 compares the actual and the theoretical variation of the still with 3 =4 in. quartzite rock with 12 kg of water in the basin. The variation patterns of actual water and glass temperatures and production rate are closely matching with theoretical. But the deviation between the actual and theoretical quantities is higher. At higher water temperature, the proportion of water vapour present in the air inside the still is high and its effect on performance is not considered in the theoretical analysis. This is the reason for higher deviation between the actual and theoretical quantities. Experiments were conducted with this still for different depths, a thermal model was evaluated to predict the production rate accurately in terms of different temperatures and validated [24]. The thermal model to predict production rate in kg/m2 h is given by the Eq. (22). The theoretical prediction of production rate using thermal model closely agrees with the experimental values as shown in Fig. 12.

mw 0:012T w T g T g T a 3:737 103 T w T g T a 5:144 103 T g T g T a 5:365 103 T g T a 2 0:212T g T a 3:828 10 T w T w T g 5:015 103 T g T w T g 2:997 103 T w T g 2 0:217T w T g 1:182 103 T w T g 1:663 103 T 2 0:106T g 0:065T w 8:352 104 T 2 g w 1:992 22
3

with layer of water equivalent to 0.5 cm depth. To improve the production further, 3=4 in. quartzite rock, 11=4 in. red brick pieces and 1 in. cement concrete pieces are used in the basin with 0.75 mm depth of water. The still has been theoretically modeled. The transmittance and solar incidence variations are considered. The total radiations on the sloped covers are taken as input. The theoretical performance of the still is compared with actual still. Out of different energy storing materials used, 3=4 in. quartzite rock is the more effective which yields higher production per day. Theoretically, the maximum values of production rate, water temperature and glass temperature are varying inversely with heat capacity of basin water and other materials used in the basin. The total production also decreases with the increase of basin heat capacity. The actual water and glass temperatures and production rate are having higher deviation with theoretical values due to the non inclusion of higher proportion of water vapour in the air inside the still, effect of change in evaporative area and absorptivity of the materials used in the basin. The production rate depends on water, glass and atmospheric temperatures, waterglass temperature difference and glass atmospheric temperature difference. The estimated production rate using thermal model in terms of above temperatures closely agrees with experimental values. Acknowledgement The useful discussion with Dr. Soteris Kalogirou, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Sciences and Engineering, Cyprus University is acknowledged. References
[1] S Malik MA, Tiwar GN, Kumar A, Sodha MS. Solar distillation. UK: Pergamon press; 1982. [2] Kalidasa Murugavel K, Chockalingam KNKSK, Srithar K. Progresses in improving the effectiveness of the single basin passive solar still. Desalination 2008;220:67786. [3] Cooper PI. Maximum efciency of single effect solar stills. Sol Energy 1979;15:205. [4] Tripathi Rajesh, Tiwari GN. Effect of water depth on internal heat and mass transfer for active solar distillation. Desalination 2005;173:187200.

6. Conclusion A single basin double slope still has been fabricated and tested for different energy storing materials like 1=4 in. quartzite rock, 1=4 in. washed stones and mild steel scraps have been used in the basin

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