Hydroelectric System Design

HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM DESIGN
A Thesis presented to the Faculty of California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Electrical Engineering
by Timothy McDonnell Brown December 2010
2010 Timothy McDonnell Brown ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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COMMITTEE MEMBERSHIP
TITLE:
Hydroelectric System Design
AUTHOR:
Timothy McDonnell Brown
DATE SUBMITTED:
December 2010
COMMITTEE CHAIR:
Dr. Ahmad Nafisi, Professor
COMMITTEE MEMBER:
Dr. Taufik, Professor
COMMITTEE MEMBER:
Dr. Ali Shaban, Professor
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ABSTRACT Hydroelectric System Design Timothy McDonnell Brown
Hydroelectric power generation is not a viable option as a prime source of electrical energy for the Pico Blanco Boy Scout Camp, as determined by this thesis. The hydroelectric power system can only provide a maximum power capacity of 17kW as limited by the available mechanical energy of the water source. This power capacity is inadequate to reliably supply power to the electrical loads at the camp during peak demand periods. The purpose of this thesis was to study the feasibility of supplying the Boy Scout Camp with a renewable source of electrical energy through an exploration of various hydroelectric system design concepts.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Stanley Crane for providing me with the opportunity to develop this study for the Pico Blanco Boy Scout Camp. Dr. Crane not only created the concept for the thesis, but was also a key factor in its development. He coordinated the site visit of the Camp, led the effort to obtain site data, and identified many of the resources used to develop this thesis. Without him, this thesis would not have been possible. I would also like to thank Dr. Nafisi, Dr. Taufik, and Dr. Shaban for providing me with the technical background in power systems engineering at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. I would finally like to thank Bill Thoma, for providing me with the industry experience used to supplement the development of this thesis. It was during my employment at Thoma Electric, Inc., with the help of Bill Thoma and many others, that I was able to learn about and perform the electrical design of commercial distribution systems.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES .. viii LIST OF FIGURES ...ix CHAPTERS I. Introduction ..1 A. Development of Hydroelectric Power2 B. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Generation..3 C. Site History 7 D. Site Topography ..12 II. III. Design Requirements.15 Site Visit and Survey...22 A. B. C. IV. Existing Distribution System.22 Head Measurements..28 Flow Rate Measurements.31
Civil Design..39 A. Exploitation Scheme Types....39 i. ii. iii. Dam Scheme.......39 Diversion Scheme.......40 Pumped Storage..41
B. Exploitation Scheme Selection..42 V. Mechanical Design......46 A. Hydraulic System Considerations..46 i. ii. Water Flow in Pipes46 Head Losses....53
B. Turbine Types57 i. Reaction Turbine.59

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a. b. ii. a. b. c.
Francis Turbine..59 Kaplan and Propeller Turbine..60 Impulse Turbine60 Pelton Turbine60 Turgo Turbine.64 Crossflow Turbine..65
C. Turbine Selection..66 i. a. b. c. VI. Selection Criteria..66 Cavitation Problems..67 Net Head.68 Range of Discharges Through the Turbine..69
Electrical Design..73 A. Generator Types...73 i. ii. iii. Synchronous Generator.74 Asynchronous Generator...76 Generator Selection....77
B. System Design..81 i. ii. iii. iv. v. VII. VIII. IX. Conductor Sizing and Selection...81 Overcurrent Protection Device Sizing and Selection....88 Overall System Design..89 Motor Starting Considerations..94 Turbine & Generator Control.97
Development and Construction101 Economic Analysis.105 Conclusion...109
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..112
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LIST OF TABLES Table Page
1. U.S. Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Fossil Fuel..5 2. Hydroelectric System Design Requirements..21 3. Existing Diesel Generator Specifications25 4. Existing Manual Transfer Switch Specifications....26 5. Existing Main Panel Specifications..26 6. Existing Panel KA Specifications....26 7. Existing Refrigerator Compressor Specifications...27 8. Existing Freezer Compressor Specifications..27 9. Gross Head Measurements...30 10. Time to Fill Bucket...31 11. Site 1 Depth and Width Measurements...34 12. Site 1 Velocity Measurements...34 13. Site 2 Depth and Width Measurements.......35 14. Site 2 Velocity Measurements...35 15. Site 3 Depth and Width Measurements.......35 16. Site 3 Velocity Measurements...36 17. Site 4 Depth and Width Measurements...36 18. Site 4 Velocity Measurements...36 19. Site 5 Depth and Width Measurements...37 20. Site 5 Velocity Measurements...37 21. Float Method Average Velocity and Volumetric Flow Rate for 5 Sites....38 22. Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity of Water..52 23. Turbine Type and Typical Net Head Range....68 24. Acceptable Variations of Flow and Head for Various Turbine Types......71 25. New Hydro Generator Specifications...80 26. NEC Ampacity Table...84 27. NEC Ch.9 Table 9 AC Resistance Table.85 28. Approximate Project Costs....106
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page
1. Aftermath of Lightning Fires at Pico Blanco, CA...8 2. Camp Rangers Home after the Fires.9 3. Existing Dam at the Top of the Creek Run...10 4. Topographic Overview of Surrounding Areas .....12 5. Enlarged Topograph of Boy Scout Camp.13 6. Waterfall at the Base of the River Run..14 7. Boy Scout Camp Mess Hall.16 8. Freezer Compressor Nameplate.....17 9. Refrigerator Compressor Nameplate.18 10. Locations of the Compressors.18 11. Compressor Disconnect Switches.19 12. Existing Synchronous Generator Nameplate22 13. Generator Nameplate & Operator Interface..22 14. Existing Boy Scout Camp Electrical Distribution System24 15. Manual Transfer Switch25 16. The Head of the River Flow..28 17. Surveyors Method.29 18. Folsom River Dam..40 19. Diversion Scheme..41 20. Racoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant.....42 21. Downhill View of River Run......43 22. Pipe Emerging From Dam.44 23. (a) Laminar Flow and (b) Turbulent Flow in a Closed Pipe ....49 24. Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow #1.50 25. Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow #2.55 26. Reaction Turbine....58 27. Impulse Turbine..58 28. Francis Turbine...59 29. Horizontal Axis Francis Turbine...59 30. Kaplan Runner60 31. Cross Section of a Nozzle with Deflector...61 32. View of a Two Nozzle Horizontal Pelton....62 33. View of a Two Nozzle Vertical Pelton.63 34. Pelton Runner63 35. Principle of a Turgo Turbine.65 36. Principle of a Crossflow Turbine..66 37. Typical Flow Ranges for Various Turbines70 38. Canyon Hydro Pelton 751-2 Turbine..72 39. Graph of Flux Versus Field Current for Synchronous Generator ..75
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I.
Introduction Boy Scouts of America is a program that aims to develop the character of our youth through team-building and educational activities. This large national program not only teaches lifelong values but also helps to create a future leadership in the United States of America through local councils and dedicated outdoor camping reserves. In the campsite setting, the Boy Scouts are able to learn how to live a sustainable life in which a symbiotic relationship with nature exists. It is only natural then to exhibit sustainability in as many facets of these campsites as possible. Camp Pico Blanco, located in Los Padres National Forest along the central coast of California, is just one of the many outdoor camping reserves that host the Boy Scouts of America program. A map of the Camp and the surrounding terrain is illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 1 Topographic Overview of Surrounding Areas [8]

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Forest fires caused by lightning strikes in this area have damaged much of the infrastructure and associated systems at the Camp. Examples of this damage are shown in the photographs below.
Figure 2 Aftermath of Lightning Fires at Pico Blanco, CA
Figure 3 Camp Rangers Home after the Fires One of the systems in need of replacement due to the fires is the existing diesel generator which serves as the primary electrical power source for the Boy Scout Camp. Diesel generators emit greenhouse gases which pollute the atmosphere and thus do not provide a sustainable solution for the Pico Blanco Boy Scout Camp. The Camp has the
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opportunity to exhibit greater levels of sustainability by replacing the existing diesel generator with a cleaner source of electrical energy. A. Development of Hydroelectric Power The concept of harnessing the energy available in moving water to perform work has been around for thousands of years. Ancient societies captured the energy in moving water through various devices in order to drive pumps, crankshafts, and other various loads. For example, over 2000 years ago, the Greeks were using water wheels to grind wheat into flour. Many cities also used running water to drive water wheels and to pump water throughout the city. Hydropower was even used in the 1700s in the milling lumber and grain industries to pump irrigation water. The invention of the DC generator led to the development of hydroelectric power stations. It wasnt until the discovery of AC power in the late 19th century that hydroelectric power stations began to be widely employed. Previously, hydroelectric power stations generating DC power were limited by the short distances the DC power could be transmitted. AC power can be transmitted much longer distances paving the way for large, centralized generation plants such as hydroelectric power stations. The first hydroelectric power station was installed on the Fox River in Wisconsin in 1882 which delivered approximately 12.5 kW [1]. By 1907 and 1920, hydroelectric power accounted for 15% and 25%, respectively, of the total electricity generated for the United States [2].
B. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Generation In 2008, renewable energy electricity production represented 9% of the total electrical energy generation in the United States [3]. Of this 67% came from hydropower, 15% from biomass, 14% from wind, 4% from geothermal, and 0.2% from solar [4]. Hydropower is the largest and the oldest renewable energy source of electricity generation for utilities in the United States. Hydroelectric power generation provides many advantages. If needed, hydropower can produce electricity at a constant rate given a steady stream flow and head. The energy can also be stored in reservoirs through the control of gate valves. The ability that hydropower systems can control the amount of water flowing through the water turbines makes hydropower a valuable asset of the spinning reserve. This is especially true for systems employing a pumped storage exploitation scheme. The spinning reserve supports the local power grid during power quality disturbances such as in the events that large step-loads are started across the line or large generators are taken off-line. The spinning reserve uses generation units that are already connected to the grid, such as hydropower stations, to maintain system voltage and frequency during these power quality disturbances. Hydropower plants also have lower operating costs compared to other generation sources such as nuclear power plants that depend upon high cost fuel contracts for their operation. Another advantage of hydropower plants is that the upstream reservoirs
created through dams can be used for recreational purposes such as boating, skiing, fishing, and swimming. One of the most important advantages of hydropower is that it is an emission free source of electricity. The major contributor to carbon dioxide emissions are petroleum, coal, and natural gas based prime movers. However, hydroelectric power does not produce any carbon dioxide. This classifies hydro power as a clean source of energy helping to reduce our carbon footprint on the world. The table below outlines the quantity, in million metric tons, of carbon dioxide produced by each of these fossil fuels between the years 1995 and 2002. Table 1 U.S. Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Fossil Fuel [5]
For example, coal, with a carbon content of 78%, emits about 205 pounds of carbon dioxide per million Btu when completely burned [4].
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Large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions destroy the Earths natural ozone layer leading to global warming. Though hydroelectric power does not directly produce any carbon dioxide, the overall system still has negative environmental impacts outlined by the following excerpts. Although electricity generated from water plants is relatively emissions free, significant amounts of methane are produced from the decomposition of plants in the flood areas. In addition to methane, hydropower can have significant environmental effects such as fish injury and impact on downstream water quality. By diverting water out of the water bodies for power, dams remove water needed for healthy in-stream ecosystems thereby disrupting the natural river flows. Dams also slow down the flow of the river. Many fish species, such as salmon, depend on steady flows to flush them down river early in their life and guide them upstream years later to spawn. Slow reservoir pools disorient migrating fish and significantly increase the duration of their migration. [6] To be completely environmentally conscious, it is also necessary to focus on the negative impacts of hydroelectric systems such as the ones listed above. In addition, bacteria present in decaying vegetation can also change mercury, present in rocks underlying a reservoir, into a
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form that is soluble in water. The mercury accumulates in the bodies of fish and poses a health hazard to those who depend on these fish for food. [7] Another disadvantage of hydropower plants are the high capital costs associated with system installation. High initial costs result in longer payback periods and thus reduce the economic feasibility of hydroelectric power systems. As mentioned earlier, the construction of large reservoirs results in upstream flooding. Although providing the advantages of increased recreational use, this also has the negative effect on the environment as explained above and can cause people living in towns and villages near the flooded areas to relocate. II. System Design Requirements The feasibility of the hydroelectric system proposed will be determined by comparing the proposed design against the following conceptual basic design requirements. The hydroelectric power station source must be able to supply reliable power to the Boy Scout Camp throughout the year despite varying water levels and other associated environmental conditions. The rated maximum power capacity must be greater than the Camps current peak energy demands in order to not only meet existing demands but to also allow for possible future load expansion. The design will also require that the installation and continual operation of the power plant exhibit minimal to negligible environmental impact. Finally, the total project cost to design and build the system must
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be economical and within the Camps allotted budget for the diesel generator replacement. The table below highlights each of these requirements. Table 2 Hydroelectric System Design Requirements
Generation Classification Environmental Impact Minimum Real Power Capacity Minimum Reactive Power Capacity Maximum Project Cost Reliability Renewable Minimal 23.9kW* 7.87kVAR* $50,000** Must be capable of supplying full power demand at the Boy Scout Camp while minimizing power interruptions to the camp
*For calculation of the minimum required real and reactive power capacities refer to Section VI(B)(iii) Overall System Design **The maximum project cost was an estimate derived from the insurance money allocated for the generator replacement including anticipated donations from patrons of the Pico Blanco Boy Scout Camp
III.
Site Visit and Survey A. Site Description The Boy Scout Camp is located deep in a valley that is densely populated with trees. The Little Sur River flows through the Camp with many smaller creeks feeding into it. There are vast amounts of fish and other wildlife species that inhabit the Little Sur River. The installation of a hydroelectric power station on the Little Sur River would disrupt the natural ecosystem and thus would violate this design requirement. The small creeks that feed into the Little Sur River, on the other hand, do not harbor fish or other wildlife. The biggest of these creeks results in a small, approximately 15 high waterfall that feeds into the Little Sur River. This waterfall is displayed in the photograph below.
Figure 4 Waterfall Feeding Little Sur River This creek will be the proposed location to install a hydroelectric power station. The creek first appears aboveground at an existing dam a few hundred feet upstream of the waterfall. The dam is displayed in the photograph below.
Figure 5 Existing Creek Dam
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Figure 6 Enlarged Topography of Boy Scout Camp In the figure above, the proposed creek that will power the hydro turbine-generator unit is labeled A. The location of the existing diesel generator and main service panel is labeled B. The proposed location of the hydroelectric power station is the point at which the small creek feeds into the Little Sur River. The distance between this point and the location of the existing main service panel is approximately 630 feet. This distance is used in later sections to determine the minimum required conductor size.
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B. Existing Distribution System and Electrical Loads An evaluation of the Boy Scout Camps existing distribution system and electrical loads provides insight into and a rough characterization of the Camps electrical loads. The majority of the static loads at the Boy Scout Camp consist of various plug loads for appliances, computer stations, and incandescent and fluorescent lighting. The majority of the lighting loads were resistive, incandescent light sources located in the Mess Hall shown in the figure below. The remainder of the lighting load consisted of various fluorescent and incandescent light bulbs located in various offices and buildings.
Figure 7 Boy Scout Camp Mess Hall The majority of the rotating loads consisted of two 208V, 3, 3 wire compressors. The compressors are located on small skids in an outdoor utility room and serve the refrigerator and freezer in the Main Mess Hall. Both compressors are continually connected to the distribution system and are
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cycled on and off as determined by the systems temperature controls. According to the device nameplates, the rated locked rotor amps (LRA) for the refrigerator and freezer compressors were 31A and 82A, respectively. A compressors LRA is defined as the current drawn by the motor when the rotor locks or completely stops. The rotor windings of a motor produce an electrical magnetic force (EMF) that is 180 out of phase with the EMF produced by the stator windings. The back EMF produced by the rotor windings reduce the amount of current that is drawn by the motor. If the rotor is stopped or locked, then there is no back EMF produced and thus the motor will draw its maximum current. Photographs of the compressors and their associated disconnects are displayed in the figures below.
Figure 8 Freezer Compressor Nameplate
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Figure 9 Refrigerator Compressor Nameplate
Figure 10 Locations of the Compressors
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Figure 11 Compressor Disconnect Switches The existing diesel generator supplying power to the Boy Scout Camp is rated 75kVA, 208/120V, 3, 4 wire. The photographs below display the generator nameplate and its associated operator interface.
Figure 12 Existing Synchronous Generator Nameplate
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Figure 13 Generator Nameplate & Operator Interface Contrary to common energy saving practices, the facility managers at the Boy Scout Camp require the light fixtures remain on at all times. This rule is imposed on all of the Camp residents to prevent the damage of the diesel generator. It is common for diesel generators that are lightly loaded to experience wet-stacking. If diesel generators are not loaded to a minimum level as specified by the manufacturer, then the engine prime movers will not be able to reach their designed operating temperature potentially resulting in unburned fuel. If operated under this condition for extended periods of time, the unburned fuel will begin to deposit on exhausts, turbo blades, and exhaust valves. These effects cause the efficiency of the diesel generators to drop and can eventually cause significant equipment damage if left unattended for long periods of time. The existing diesel generator is oversized compared to the total electrical load at the Camp with a maximum power demand utilizing about 25% of its nominal capacity.
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The following single line diagram represents the Camps existing distribution system as determined through the site survey.
Figure 14 Existing Boy Scout Camp Electrical Distribution System A photograph of the existing manual transfer switch is shown in the figure below.
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Figure 15 Manual Transfer Switch The switch positions are labeled Backup Gen, Off, and Main Gen. There is currently no backup generator but the intention to eventually install one is apparent through the switch labels. The specifications for the existing electrical equipment depicted in the single line diagram above are listed in the following tables.
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Table 3 Existing Diesel Generator Specifications Manufacturer Elliot Magnetek Power Systems Model Number 70 QL Serial Number BU05J265 Apparent Power Rating at 75kVA 3 Real Power Rating at 3 60kW Real Power Rating at 1 46kW Power Factor at 3 0.8 Power Factor at 1 1 Rated Speed 1800 RPM
Table 4 Existing Manual Transfer Switch Specifications Manufacturer Model Number Serial Number Voltage Configuration Number of Poles Bus Rating Bus Bracing NEMA Enclosure Square D E-1 82354 240V, 3, 4W 3P 200A 10kAIC 3R
Table 5 Existing Main Panel Specifications Manufacturer Model Number Serial Number Voltage Configuration Bus Rating Bus Bracing Main Circuit Breaker Rating NEMA Enclosure Square D NQOD442L225 240/120V, 3, 4W 225A 10kAIC 200A/3P 3R
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Table 6 Existing Panel KA Specifications Manufacturer Model Number Serial Number Voltage Configuration Bus Rating Bus Bracing Main Circuit Breaker Rating NEMA Enclosure Square D NQOD442M150CU 240/120V, 3, 4W 150A 10kAIC 150A/3P 3R
Table 7 Existing Refrigerator Compressor Specifications Manufacturer Model Number Serial Number Voltage Rated Horsepower Locked Rotor Amps Power Factor Copeland REK3-0125-TFC-212 98B14819 208V, 3 1.5 HP 31 A 0.85
Table 8 Existing Freezer Compressor Specifications Manufacturer Model Number Serial Number Voltage Rated Horsepower Locked Rotor Amps Power Factor Copeland CS27K6E-TF5-970 04J12761B 208V, 3 3 HP 82 A 0.85
The generator operator interface displays the real-time phase current drawn by each of the phases. The operator interface displays the current drawn by phase 3 to be 62A at 206.3V. The load currents for phases 1 and 2 were noted as 48A and 56A at 207V and 210V,
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respectively. The phase currents are unequal and thus the system is unbalanced resulting in a neutral current. The design will assume a balanced system with a maximum phase current demand of 70A at the nominal 208V. These assumptions are necessary to ensure the design of a reliable system that meets the current peak demand requirements as well as allows for the future load expansion at the Camp. The apparent power demand at the Boy Scout Camp is calculated below: 3 3 70 208 25.2 (3-1)
This apparent power demand will be used in later sections to determine if the creek can deliver enough power to the Boy Scout Camp. C. Head Measurements
Figure 16 The Head of a River Flow [9] The gross head of a water resource is defined as the absolute vertical distance between the points of entry of the intake system to the point at which the water imparts onto the turbine. It is illustratively
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depicted in the figure above. The net head is defined as the gross head minus all pipe losses due to friction and turbulence and is used to calculate the available power capacity of the water resource. To determine the net head, the rivers gross head must be measured and pipe losses calculated. The pipe losses are calculated using the dimensions and characteristics of the penstock.
Figure 17 Surveyors Method The gross head was measured at the Boy Scout Camp using the surveyors method. This method is illustratively depicted in the figure above. At the Boy Scout Camp, the proposed location of the pipeline intake and the water turbine is at the existing dam and at the top of the waterfall, respectively. The data collected for the horizontal and vertical distances measured are recorded in the table below.
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Table 9 Gross Head Measurements (measured in feet)
*THD: Total Horizontal Distance *VD: Vertical Distance

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The total vertical distance measured is the sum of the values in the vertical distance (VD) columns and is 235.9 feet. With a horizontal distance of 936 feet and a vertical distance of 235.9 feet, the length of the associated penstock is calculated as: 936 D. Flow Rate Measurements The flow rate of the creek was first measured using the bucket fill method. The bucket fill method measures the time it takes to fill a container of known volume. A 5 gallon plastic bucket was used at the Boy Scout Camp. The flow rate data measured using this method is recorded in the table below. Table 10 Time to Fill Bucket Trial 1 2 3 4 Average Bucket Volume (gallons) 5 5 5 5 5 Time to Fill (s) 13.2 15.1 14.3 13.7 14.1 235.9 965.3 (3-2)
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From this data the average volumetric flow rate of the creek can be calculated: 0.355 (3-3)
or 0.355 1 0.0474 0.0474
7.481
An alternative method to measure flow rate is the float method. In this method, the time it takes a buoyant object to float along a section of the creek of known length and depth is measured. The cross sectional area in this particular section of the creek is calculated using the measured width and average depth. Five locations along the creek were used to take these measurements. The data collected from these measurements is recorded in the tables below. For reference, the first measurement was taken immediately downstream of the existing dam (Site 1) and last measurement was taken immediately upstream of the waterfall (Site 5).
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Table 11 Site 1 Depth and Width Measurements Width [ft] Depth Measurements [ft] 3 0.083 0.25 0.375 0.33 0.16 0.16 0.226333
Average Depth [ft] Average Cross Sectional Area [ft2]
0.679
Table 12 Site 1 Velocity Measurements Time [s] 8.89 12.56 9.51 13.53 Average Distance [ft] 4 4 4 4 Velocity [ft/s] 0.449944 0.318471 0.42061 0.295639 0.371166
Site 1 Average Volumetric Flow Rate: 0.252022 ft3/s
Table 13 Site 2 Depth and Width Measurements Width [ft] Depth Measurements [ft] 2 0.083 0.145 0.208 0.208 0.083 0.1454
0.2908
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Table 14 Site 2 Velocity Measurements Time [s] 3.47 3.78 3.78 Average Distance [ft] Velocity [ft/s] 3 0.864553 3 0.793651 3 0.793651 0.817285
Site 2 Average Volumetric Flow Rate: 0.237666 ft3/s Table 15 Site 3 Depth and Width Measurements
Width [ft] Depth Measurements [ft]
6.66 0.166 0.25 0.479 0.5 0.25 0.229 0.312333
2.08014
Table 16 Site 3 Velocity Measurements Time [s] 3.98 3.98 3.72 3.99 Average
Distance [ft] 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Velocity [ft/s] 0.628141 0.628141 0.672043 0.626566 0.638723
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Table 17 Site 4 Depth and Width Measurements Width [ft] Depth Measurements [ft] 2.5 0.02 0.166 0.166 0.125 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.333 0.201111
0.502778
Table 18 Site 4 Velocity Measurements Time [s] 15.92 12.4 10.07 11.22 7.61 Average Distance [ft] 9 9 9 9 Velocity [ft/s] 0.565327 0.725806 0.893744 0.802139 1.182654 0.833934
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Table 19 Site 5 Depth and Width Measurements Width [ft] Depth Measurements [ft] 3 0.166 0.25 0.25 0.333 0.333 0.208 0.125 0.237857
0.713571
Table 20 Site 5 Velocity Measurements Time [s] 12.93 13.58 11.42 12.9 Average Distance [ft] 8 8 8 8 Velocity [ft/s] 0.618716 0.589102 0.700525 0.620155 0.632125
The table below compiles all of the average fluid velocities and volumetric flow rates for the five different sites.
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Table 21 Float Method Average Velocity and Volumetric Flow Rate for 5 Sites Location Fluid Velocity [ft2/s] 0.371166 0.817285 0.638723 0.833934 0.632125 0.6586466 Cross Sectional Area [ft2] 0.679 0.2908 2.08014 0.502778 0.713571 0.853 Volumetric Flow Rate [ft3/s] 0.252022 0.237666 1.328633 0.419 0.451 0.538
Site 1 Average Site 2 Average Site 3 Average Site 4 Average Site 5 Average Total Average
The gross head and flow rate data will be used later to calculate the maximum power rating of the generator. To summarize, the site offers a gross head of 235.9 feet and an average volumetric flow rate of Q = 0.538 ft3/s or 0.01523 m3/s. The discrepancies between the data obtained by the bucket method and the float method can be mainly attributed to the inaccuracies in performing the bucket method at the Boy Scout Camp. Ideally, when performing the bucket fill method, a temporary dam is built with a single outlet pipe that directs the water into a bucket just below the pipe. This ensures all of the water enters the bucket and minimizes splashes which can lead to inaccurate results. It was not possible to build this dam because of the rigid bedrock in the waterfall. Inevitably, portions of the waterfall managed to miss the bucket leading to inaccurate measurements. It was also difficult to determine when the bucket was
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completely full because the water was constantly splashing out of the bucket. Thus the data obtained from the float method will be the primary data set used to characterize and evaluate the water source at the Boy Scout Camp.
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IV.
Civil Design A. Exploitation Scheme One of the first steps in the development of a hydroelectric system design is to determine the desired water control scheme. The two most important parameters that influence this decision are the head and flow rate of the water source. The following are descriptions of common hydro system water control schemes. i. Dam Scheme Dams are hydraulic structures used in many water control schemes. A dam stores the potential energy of water by concentrating the hydraulic head in a reservoir. This subsequently increases the water level of the river upstream of the dam. Upstream flooding could potentially pose a problem if significant flooding occurs. Flooding can lead to the destruction of existing wildlife and their habitat.
Figure 18 Folsom River Dam [10]
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ii.
Diversion Scheme A diversion scheme, sometimes called run-of-the-river scheme, employs the use of hydraulic structures to divert a portion of the stream flow to a remote hydro powerhouse. In this water control scheme, the potential and kinetic energy of the water are harnessed through the natural flow and elevation drop of the river. In a typical diversion scheme, the water resource is diverted through a penstock, a low pressure water pipe, into the powerhouse which houses the turbine-generator set. Following the powerhouse, the diverted water is then discharged through a tailrace downstream of the original water resource. Common hydraulic structures used in these schemes include but are not limited to weirs, penstocks, dams, and spillways. Diversion schemes are optimal when used at a site with a steady, constant flow of water throughout the year. These schemes do not perform well during the dry months with low water levels and so it is necessary to evaluate the range of water level fluctuations throughout the year. It is possible to mitigate this problem through the installation of a large reservoir. The reservoir can store water to avoid the impacts of dry seasons and provide energy during peak demand periods with high energy prices increasing the overall efficiency of the plant.
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Figure 19 Diversion Scheme [11] iii. Pumped Storage A pumped storage facility uses water for potential energy storage and requires the use of unique bi-directional hydro turbines. The rotating machines coupled to these bi-directional turbines can be operated as generators or motors. When reversed, the turbines are used to pump water from the downstream reservoir at the power station to upstream reservoir. This water is stored as potential energy and can be dispatched and used to generate electricity during peak demand periods when energy prices are the highest. This allows the plant to take advantage of price arbitrage and increase the entire operating efficiency of the plant.
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Figure 20 Racoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant [13] B. Exploitation Scheme Selection The water source at the Pico Blanco Boy Scout Camp developed a gross head of 235.9 feet over 936 feet of horizontal terrain. The average volumetric flow rate was measured to be 0.538 ft3/s. Compared to other systems, this flow rate is low given the head capacity developed over 936 feet. The following photograph depicts a downhill view where the creek flows toward the waterfall.
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Figure 21 Downhill View of the Creek The energy captured from the water resource can be slightly improved by diverting the water source through a low pressure penstock with a smooth interior surface down the hillside. The diversion scheme is the most optimal exploitation scheme to capture the full potential of the energy head and fluid velocity at the Boy Scout Camp. The existing dam and outlet pipe also makes a diversion scheme a natural choice for this site. The existing pipe emerging from the base of the dam can be seen in the figure below.
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Figure 22 Pipe Emerging From Dam The proposed 6 penstock would couple to the existing 2 pipe outlet through a weathertight reducing fitting to help reduce construction costs. The use of the existing pipe as the penstock intake depends upon the integrity of the existing dam and pipe. These existing structures would need to be thoroughly cleaned of debris prior to this installation to ensure maximum water flow. After thorough inspection and cleaning, a trash rake would be installed at the existing pipe intake to prevent debris from entering the penstock.
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V.
Mechanical Design A. Hydraulic System Considerations Hydroelectric power systems capture the kinetic and potential energy of water through the use of hydraulic structures, turbines, and generators. Hydraulic engineering estimates and calculates the effects of various hydraulic structures on fluid flow. This knowledge allows the designer to not only estimate or calculate the total available system energy, accounting for inherent system losses, but to also optimize the performance of the hydroelectric system. i. Water Flow in Closed Pipes One of the major hydraulic structures used in a diversion scheme is low pressure penstock used to divert the water resource to the hydro power station. The penstock plays an important role in developing and capturing the available potential and kinetic energy of the fluid. It effectively translates the potential energy of the water at the intake into the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid. The kinetic energy is then imparted onto the turbine blades rotating the machine generating electrical energy. An increase in the velocity or kinetic energy of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in the fluids pressure or potential energy. This fundamental principle was developed and published in various hydrodynamic books in 1738 by Daniel Bernoulli, a Dutch-Swiss mathematician [14]. Bernoullis principle assumes that the fluid is nearly inviscid and incompressible experiencing a steady flow while exhibiting
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negligible heat transfer. A nearly inviscid fluid is one that is characterized by low viscosity as is the case with hydropower. In mathematical form his principle states [15]:
(5-1)
Where: H1: the total potential energy head [m] h1: the elevation of the point above a reference plane (in the positive z-direction) [m] P1: the pressure at that point [kg/m-s2] : the density of the fluid at all points throughout the fluid [kg/m3] g: the gravitational acceleration [m/s2] g: the specific weight of water [kg/m2-s2] V1 : the fluid flow rate at a point on the streamline [m/s] The total energy head H1 of a fluid is the sum of the fluids elevation h1, pressure head or potential energy energy , and velocity head or kinetic
. As mentioned earlier, this relationship is only true for closed
pipe systems where the fluid is nearly inviscid and incompressible. Solving explicitly for the pressure P1 yields:
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(5-2)
According to the equation above, the pressure P1 approaches zero as the fluidic velocity V1 increases. This implies that at some high velocity the fluid exhibits a pressure P1 that is negative although the majority of fluids cannot attain a zero pressure let alone a negative absolute pressure. This realization highlights the boundaries and limitations of Bernoullis equation. Cavitation, a natural phenomenon, is one of the reasons that Bernoullis equation exhibits these limitations. The manner in which a fluid flows through a pipe depends on characteristics of the fluid such as viscosity and velocity as well as characteristics of the pipe such as internal diameter and the roughness of the interior surface. Laminar and turbulent flow compose the two main types of fluid flow. Laminar flow, commonly called streamline flow, describes fluid flows that are smoother and more predictable. On the other hand, turbulent flow describes fluid flows that are mainly unpredictable and chaotic. Illustrations of both types of fluid flows are depicted in the figure below.
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Figure 23 Laminar vs.Turbulent Flow [17] Laminar flow is described as parallel flowing fluid sheets. The velocity of each of these sheets is different from the adjacent sheet. It is possible to plot the velocity of each of the sheets on the same graph to obtain the velocity distribution profile of the fluid. Laminar fluid flows in closed pipes exhibit a parabolic velocity distribution profile as illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 24 (a) Laminar Flow and (b) Turbulent Flow in a Closed Pipe [14]
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Referring to the velocity distribution profile for laminar flow in the figure above, the maximum velocity occurs at the centerline of the pipe. The portion of the fluid that is in direct contact with the pipes interior surface will exhibit zero velocity. The velocity distribution profile for turbulent flow is also illustrated in the figure above. The velocity profile of the fluid in turbulent flow is illustrated to be approximately constant across the entire diameter of the pipe. In contrast to laminar flow, the portion of the fluid that is in direct contact with the pipes interior surface exhibits non-zero velocity. Fluids characterized by either laminar or turbulent flow will exhibit different system parameters and associated system performance. Thus it is necessary for the designer to understand the type of flow the water in the penstock will be characterized by. The type of fluid flow can be generally predicted and estimated by calculating a parameter called the Reynolds number. Reynolds number is a ratio that defines the relationship between inertial forces to viscous forces of a fluid. This number not only helps predict the type of fluid flow exhibited but will determine at what point the fluid might change between laminar and turbulent flow. Generalized for fluid flow in a closed circular pipe, the equation for Reynolds number is defined as [14]: (5-3)
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Where: : the density of the fluid [kg/m3] V: the average (mean) fluid velocity [m/s] D: the inner diameter of the penstock [m] : the dynamic viscosity of the fluid [kg/m-s] : the kinematic viscosity of the fluid [m2/s] This equation can be derived by dividing the fluids inertial or drag forces ( ) by the viscous forces ( ). Inertial or drag forces tend to
produce turbulent, chaotic flow instabilities such as eddy currents and vortices in fluids. Viscous forces produce predictable, smooth, and constant fluid motion leading to the parabolic velocity distribution profile of laminar flow. Evaluating the ratio defining the Reynolds number shows that fluids characterized by dominant inertial forces will have a high Reynolds number and most likely will exhibit a turbulent flow. Fluids characterized by dominant viscous forces have a low Reynolds number and most likely will exhibit a laminar flow. The industry accepted transition point between laminar and turbulent flows in closed circular pipes is identified by a Reynolds number Re of approximately 2300. Typically, fluids characterized by a Reynolds number above 2300 and below 2300, can be described by turbulent and laminar flows, respectively. The transition point between the two flow
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types are not precisely predictable and so a Reynolds number of 2300 is used as an approximate transition point. In reality, the transition occurs over a range of Reynolds numbers depending on fluid and system parameters. The average volumetric flow rate of the creek at the Boy Scout Camp was measured to be Q = 0.538 ft3/s (0.01523 m3/s). Hydroelectric systems with similar head and flow rates use penstocks with an internal diameter of 6 (0.152 meters). The same internal penstock diameter will be used in this design. Although it is proposed to couple a 6 penstock to the existing 2 outlet pipe protruding from the dam, the calculations will be performed using a 6 pipe as this will constitute over 99% of the entire length of the penstock. The average fluid flow velocity is calculated as: 0.01523 0.152 2
0.839
The kinematic and dynamic water viscosity coefficients used to calculate the Reynolds number are listed in the table below for varying ambient temperatures.
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Table 22 Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity of Water [19] Dynamic Viscosity -(kg/(ms)) x 10-3 1.787 1.519 1.307 1.002 0.798 0.653 0.547 0.467 0.404 0.355 0.315 0.282
Temperature -t (oC) 0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Kinematic Viscosity - (m2/s) x 10-6 1.787 1.519 1.307 1.004 0.801 0.658 0.553 0.475 0.413 0.365 0.326 0.294
The sites annual temperature cycles were evaluated using data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). According to this data, the annual average temperature is around 20 C. Referring to the table above, the kinematic viscosity of water at this ambient temperature is 1.004 x 10-6 m2/s. This coefficient is used to calculate the Reynolds number: 0.839 0.152
1.004
10
1.27 10
The high Reynolds number indicates that our fluid will exhibit a turbulent flow. This is a typical result as most engineering air and water pipe flows are turbulent, not laminar [14].
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ii.
Head Losses In an ideal system, 100% of a fluids potential energy would be translated into kinetic energy through hydraulic structures with no inherent energy losses. Ideal systems exist only in mathematical models and do not provide an accurate portrayal of a real system model. The designer of a hydroelectric power system must account for head losses in the penstock when determining the actual amount of power available from the water resource. Head losses result from the friction losses associated with the penstock used to divert the water. The friction between the fluids outer layers and the inner surface of the penstock reduce the amount of energy converted from potential to kinetic energy. The amount of losses due to friction depends upon the material properties of the penstock and the velocity and impending trajectory of the fluid flowing in the system. According to Newtons principle, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Thus an increase in the fluids velocity will result in a greater reaction leading to higher friction losses, regardless of the penstocks material properties. The following equation accounts for system energy losses for non-ideal systems [14]:
(5-4)
The system head losses hf can be calculated by applying the Darcy-Weisbach equation [14]:
46
Where: f: friction factor [unit less] L: length of the pipe [m] D: internal pipe diameter [m] V: average fluid velocity [m/s] g: gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
(5-5)
The equation above applies for systems with incompressible fluids exhibiting a steady flow rate through a closed circular pipe of any cross section. It is valid for both turbulent and laminar flows. For fluids exhibiting laminar flow, the friction factor f is calculated using the following equation [14]: (5-6)
The friction factor is independent of the penstocks material properties, as implied by the equation above. In laminar flows, according to the above equation, the friction factor is inversely proportional to viscous energy losses. Thus the systems head losses can be calculated by inserting the friction factor f into the Darcy-Weisbach equation defined above [14]:
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(5-7)
The systems head losses are proportional to the fluids average velocity V. This is in accordance with Newtons fundamental kinematic principles, which as applied here, state that an increase in the fluids impending velocity on the penstocks interior surface will result in an increase in friction losses. For fluids exhibiting turbulent flow, the friction factor f can be approximated applying the following equation for systems employing penstocks with a smooth interior surface [14]: 2.0 log 0.8 (5-8)
It is interesting to note from the equation above, that the friction factor f is independent of the penstocks material properties, specifically the roughness of the interior surface. The friction factor f can also be approximated explicitly using the alternative equation defined below [14]: 0.316 4000 10
(5-9)
1.8 log
The Reynolds number Re for this particular system at the Boy Scout Camp was calculated to be 1.27x105. Thus observing the defined
48
boundaries for the equations above, the latter equation can be applied to approximate the friction factor f for this system where the fluid is in turbulent flow. The friction factor f is calculated below. 1.8 log 1.27 10 6.9 0.01696
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is then evaluated by inserting the friction factor calculated above applying a pipe diameter D of 0.152 meters, a total penstock length L of 936 ft (285 meters), and an average velocity V of 0.839 m/s:
0.01696 285 0.152 0.839 / 2 9.81 1.14
The head loss inherent in this system is 1.14 m (3.74 feet). The head losses are used to calculate the systems net head: 235.9 B. Hydraulic Turbines A turbine is a mechanical device that converts the kinetic energy in a moving fluid into the rotational energy of the turbine rotor. The two major turbine types are the reaction and impulse turbines. A reaction turbine creates power by directly reacting to the fluid's pressure over its runner blades. Common reaction turbines include Francis and Kaplan turbines. 3.74 232.2
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Figure 25 Reaction Turbine On the other hand, an impulse turbine first converts the potential energy of water pressure into kinetic energy through the use of nozzles. It then imparts this kinetic energy onto the runner blades of the turbine. Common impulse turbines include Pelton, Turgo, and Cross Flow turbines.
Figure 26 Impulse Turbine i. Turbine Selection Criteria Selecting a specific hydraulic turbine type for the system design is not always black and white as it is possible to use various turbine types in multiple applications. It is important to not only evaluate the site conditions affecting available output power throughout the year, but to also consider the customers preferences
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as it relates to items such as ongoing operations and maintenance requirements. Over a century has gone by now since the first hydroelectric power system installations. A vast amount of experience has been culminated and documented over this period which has allowed engineers designing these systems to benefit from the lessons learned that have resulted from these installations. There are various parameters that define the site conditions and that help indicate which turbine is optimal for the system. Some of the major indicators and system parameters include net head and range of annual flow rates. a. Cavitation Problems Cavitation is a natural phenomenon affecting the operational limits of fluid flow in pipes, specifically liquids. During cavitation, unintended cavities or bubbles form in the liquid flowing through the pipe which affect fluid flow and eventually collapse potentially causing mechanical damage. Cavities form in low pressure regions and collapse as they pass into higher pressure regions. This specifically occurs when the impending pressure on a liquid falls below the liquids vapor pressure resulting in a formation of the vapor phase creating the cavity. The collapse of the cavity can potentially cause significant mechanical damage to the pipe over time. A system experiencing cavitation can be observed and identified by the vibrations in the pipe
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and the accompanying loud bang noise. If not addressed, over time, the repetitive action can cause pitting of the runner blades or hub and will eventually result in cracks and other mechanical failures. Therefore, careful design measures must be taken to avoid situations such as these and thus it is necessary to understand the reasons these cavities form and how to solve these problems. The system proposed at the Boy Scout Camp does not experience flow rates and head pressures great enough to experience cavitation problems but it is still important to be aware of these issues as they arise in many other systems. b. Net Head The gross head of the sites water resource is defined as the vertical distance between the location of the upstream intake of the penstock and the downstream outlet where the water imparts onto turbine. The gross head alone does not provide an accurate estimation of the amount of available power from the sites water resource as it assumes an ideal system model. In order to accurately estimate the available power, the designer must take into account inherent system losses. Thus the net head is defined as the gross head minus head energy losses. Typical turbine types selected for various net head ranges are outlined in the table below.
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Table 23 Turbine Type and Typical Net Head Range [14] Turbine Type Kaplan and Propeller Francis Pelton Crossflow Turgo Head Range [meters] 2 < Hn < 40 25 < Hn < 350 50< Hn < 1300 5 < Hn < 200 50< Hn < 250
The net head at the Boy Scout Camp was previously calculated to be 232.2 feet (70.8 meters). According to the table above, Francis, Pelton, Crossflow, and Turgo turbines are all possible candidates for the proposed system design given the sites net head. c. Range of Discharge Through Turbine The range of flow rates and discharges of the water resource throughout the year provide another important parameter helping the designer to select an appropriate turbine type for the system application. The varying flow rates affect the sites net head as system losses may be altered. An evaluation of and research into the flow rates of the Boy Scout Camp throughout the year reveal that the most applicable concern is having too little flow during the summer and fall season. There is no concern regarding flow rates that may be too high throughout the year. The safety factors inherently built into the hydraulic structures and other system components are more than adequate to handle any high flow rates the site can experience, if any. Thus it is most important to evaluate the
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low flow rates than can occur. The volumetric flow rate calculated previously was 0.01523 m3/s. This calculation was based upon flow measurements taken during the month of October. The water levels and flow rates measured at the Boy Scout Camp are the lowest during this time of year. Thus the measurements and calculations performed provide an estimate as to the lower boundaries of the sites full range of flow and discharge rates. The figure below illustrates various regions for which turbines are typically used for head and flow ranges.
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Figure 27 Typical Flow Ranges for Various Turbines [15] The minimum volumetric flow rate of 0.01523 m3/s and net head of 70.8 meters at the Boy Scout Camp places the system below the lower region of the Pelton turbine. The diagonal power capacity lines in the figure above indicate that the lower boundary of the Pelton range is 50kW. Thus the maximum power capacity at the Boy Scout Camp is below this. The figure above is intended to be used as a reference guide. Although the available power at the Camp does not fall directly into one of the
55
above categories, the Pelton appears to be the closest fit with the given net head and flow rates. The table below outlines the capability of various turbines to handle variations in a sites net head and flow rates. Table 24 Acceptable Variations of Flow and Head for Various Turbine Types [15] Turbine Type Acceptance of Flow Variation High Medium High Acceptance of Head Variation Low Low High Medium Low
Pelton Francis Kaplan double regulated Kaplan single regulated High Propeller Low
The conditions at the Boy Scout Camp have indicated that the site will experience minimal head variation and potentially greater flow variation. According to the table above, the Pelton turbine is best suited for these conditions. The culmination of the previous analyses indicates that a Pelton turbine is the best solution for the system design proposed at the Boy Scout Camp. Pelton turbines are more efficient and reliable than other turbine types providing the Boy Scout Camp additional advantages in the deployment of such a system.
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The use of various turbines for the application at the Boy Scout Camp was also discussed with hydroelectric turbine manufacturers and system designers. The general consensus and recommendation was that a Pelton turbine would be optimal for the Camp which aligns with the turbine selected above. The proposed turbine is a Canyon Model #751-2 Pelton turbine with a 7.5 inch pitch diameter and double nozzle. A photograph of the turbine is inserted below.
Figure 28 Canyon Hydro Pelton 751-2 Turbine ii. Pelton Turbine As mentioned previously, Pelton turbines are a type of impulse turbine. In this type of turbine, a circular disk is mounted on the rotating shaft or rotor. Nozzles are arranged around the periphery of a wheel with buckets.
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Figure 29 Pelton Runner The buckets are arranged to receive the water jets exiting the nozzles and are positioned tangentially to the circumference of the turbine to maximize the amount of energy translated in the process as illustrated in the figure above. A needle valve will control the flow of water through these jets as illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 31 Cross Section of a Nozzle with Deflector The available water pressure, head, and other operating requirements will determine the configuration of the nozzles placed around
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the turbine. The nozzle axes are typically placed in the plane of the turbine runner. Additional control may be added to the nozzles for emergency stop situations such as a load rejection. Some units are built with deflectors that can divert the jet of water exiting the nozzles. This helps to ensure that the turbine will not reach its runaway speed if the highly pressurized water imparts too much kinetic energy onto the runner blades. The deflectors provide a second level of control in addition to the flow rate control provided by the needle valves to the nozzles. If needle valves close abruptly during transient high flow rate events or transient load changes, it is possible for the upstream pipeline to experience instantaneous overpressure surges which can damage the equipment. Deflectors allow the needle valves to remain open during these types of events preventing overpressure surges. Pelton turbines are an optimal solution for sites with high net heads. A high net head increases the water velocity in the pipe resulting in a high speed jet stream exiting the nozzles and subsequently striking the turbine runner blades. The water exiting the nozzles gain a significant increase of kinetic energy as the fluid moves from the high pressure region of the penstock to an area of low atmospheric pressure. The kinetic energy of the water is reduced as it rotates the runner blades. The buckets surrounding the periphery of the wheel are designed to help maximize the energy translated from the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid to the
59
rotational energy of the turbine runner and minimize the energy lost in this process. Pelton turbines can be configured with an orientation in either the horizontal or vertical axes. A vertical axis Pelton turbine will typically have three or more nozzles directing the water onto the runner blades. The maximum number of nozzles integrated into a Pelton turbine is typically six. Pelton turbines with this many nozzles are usually installed in large scale hydroelectric systems. The proposed Pelton turbine for the Boy Scout Camp is configured with two nozzles and oriented in the horizontal axis. Schematics of double nozzle Pelton turbines oriented in the horizontal and vertical axes are depicted below.
Figure 31 Two Nozzle Horizontal Pelton Turbine
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Figure 32 Two Nozzle Vertical Pelton Turbine The turbine runner is directly coupled to the generator shaft and is located above the downstream level of water discharge. The typical operating range of a single-jet Pelton turbine is between 30% and 100% of the maximum design discharge while the operating range of a multi-jet Pelton turbine is between 10% and 100% of the maximum design discharge. This is aligned with the capabilities of a Pelton turbine to accept a wide variation of flow rates which makes this type of turbine ideal for the variations in flow rates experienced at the Boy Scout Camp. The water resource at the Camp will flow from the existing dam through the existing 2 pressure channel to the new 6 penstock head and then into the nozzle supply pipelines. The penstock head will be fitted with a surge tank in order to absorb and dissipate any sudden pressure fluctuations.
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If the nozzles are supplied with a constant flow of water, then the turbine speed will only vary according to changes of the load torque place on the turbine output shaft. A constant system frequency is required thus the turbine-generator unit must rotate at a constant speed. The water flow through the nozzles can be controlled and kept constant in steady state conditions through the use of the needle valves. The positions of the needle valves are adjusted by servomotors which react to various load changes on the rotor shaft.
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VI.
Electrical System Design The Boy Scout Camps stand-alone, radial feed power distribution system is currently supplied by a single 75kVA, 3 diesel generator. The Camp cannot be tied to the grid and must operate stand-alone due to long distance between the site and the nearest electric utility power distribution lines. An important step when evaluating the feasibility of using a hydroelectric power plant as the Camps primary generator is comparing the available power supplied by the water resource to the electrical load demands of the site. A. Generator Selection The purpose of an electrical generator is to transform the mechanical energy supplied by the prime mover into electrical energy. A generator is simply an electric motor that is rotated via a mechanical input. An AC generator induces an AC voltage on the stator coils as a result of the rotating alternating magnetic fields of the rotor coils. The prime mover can be derived from various mechanical sources such as steam power or an internal combustion engine fueled by diesel, natural gas, or alternative fuel types. In a hydroelectric power system the generators prime mover is the hydraulic turbine. The two main types of AC generators are synchronous and asynchronous generators. Asynchronous generators are more commonly referred to as induction generators.
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i.
Synchronous Generator In general, a synchronous machine maintains a speed, the synchronous speed, which matches the frequency of the stator current in the armature windings under steady state conditions. In voltage source mode, the electrical frequency will be dictated by the speed of the generator input shaft driven by the prime mover. The shaft speed, and thus system frequency, is regulated by a governor which monitors this shaft speed and compares it to the desired frequency set point. The electrical frequency is defined as [16]: (6-1) Where: fe : Electrical frequency in Hertz [Hz] nm : Mechanical speed of the magnetic field in revolutions per minute [rpm] P : Number of poles The equation above simultaneously defines the rotor speed as the two are approximately equal in a synchronous machine. The amplitude of the internal generated voltage is proportional to the frequency and the field current and can be expressed by [16]: (6-2)
64
Where: K : Constant representing the construction of the machine : Flux in the machine : Speed of the machine The magnetic flux of the machine increases linearly with increasing field current until the iron saturates after which the flux characteristics are non-linear. A graph comparing the flux to the field current for a synchronous generator is illustrated below:
Figure 33 Graph of Flux Versus Field Current for Synchronous Generator [16] The internal generated voltage EA is proportional to the flux and thus will exhibit the same characteristics as illustrated in the graph above assuming a constant synchronous speed . In order to optimally control the system voltage, the machine must not be saturated. A significant
65
change in field current is required to successfully adjust the flux and thus the system generated voltage if the iron is saturated, as can be seen in the graph above. ii. Asynchronous Generator An asynchronous or induction machine does not necessarily rotate at the synchronous speed. The rotor speed is dictated by the amount of slip between the stator and rotor coil magnetic fields. A very common type of induction machine is the squirrel cage induction machine which is configured with a rotor that is shaped like a squirrel cage, positioned in the middle of the stator. A computer generated model of the rotor cage is illustrated below.
Figure 34 Physical Construction of Squirrel Cage Rotor The design and construction of an induction generator is simpler than that of a synchronous generator because there is no DC source or field windings. A simpler construction with fewer components makes an induction generator more reliable and robust compared to that of a synchronous generator. The induction generator exchanges an increase in reliability for a dependence on external sources for reactive power
66
consumption and terminal voltage control. External sources supply the reactive power that magnetizes the machines core. In a grid-tied application, the external source of reactive power can be the connected utility which is modeled as an infinite bus. If operating stand-alone, then the induction generator will require local capacitor banks to supply the magnetizing current to generate a terminal voltage. The generator terminal voltage varies with the amount of magnetizing current flowing in the rotor. Thus the size of the externally connected capacitor banks, which supply this magnetizing current, will determine the terminal voltage generated. The reactive current supplied by a capacitor is directly proportional to voltage applied to it as defined in the equation below [16]: 2 (6-3)
The following equation defines the impedance of a capacitor and illustrates the linear relationship between voltage and current. (6-4)
At a constant frequency, the slope of the impedance line increases with decreasing capacitance. The intersections between the capacitor V-I graph and the terminal voltage versus no-load armature current graph of the induction machine, when operated as a motor, will determine the amount of the magnetizing current from the capacitor needed to generate a specific terminal voltage.
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Even with externally connected capacitor banks supplying steady state reactive power to the induction machine, there needs to be some intermittent source of reactive power in order to start the machine. Thus it is common to connect and temporarily run a small synchronous generator to produce the initial magnetizing current needed by the machine. iii. Generator Selection The major advantages of an induction generator are an increase in reliability and a decrease in cost compared to that of a synchronous machine. The major drawback of an induction generator is the lack of a field winding which results in starting complications and a reduced ability to control terminal voltage. The induction generator, operating standalone, must rely upon an externally connected synchronous generator to aid in initial start-up and externally connected capacitor banks to supply steady state reactive power. The lack of voltage control is a greater concern when there are additional reactive loads in the system, such as the refrigerator and freezer compressors at the Boy Scout Camp. The transient and steady state control complexities associated with induction generators require an increased level of operations and maintenance and also require a facility operator with intimate knowledge of the intricacies of such a system. The Boy Scout Camp does not currently support this level of operations and maintenance and thus an induction generator does not prove to be a viable solution for the hydroelectric system design.
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The proposed generator for this design is a four pole synchronous generator. A permanent magnet will supply the field windings with a DC current creating a source of reactive power that will be used to maintain the generator terminal voltage. The synchronous generator will be connected to the Pelton turbine output shaft through a flexible coupling. The synchronous generators apparent power rating is calculated from the creeks mechanical power capacity. Conceptually, this is performed by first determining the total kinetic energy available from the creek and then translating it into electric energy while accounting for the turbines rated efficiency. Inherent system losses are then applied to determine the systems actual power capacity. The equation below defines the mechanical power output of the turbine [21]: Where: Pm: the mechanical power output of the turbine [W] : the density of the fluid at all points [kg/m3] Q: volumetric flow rate of the fluid [m3/s] g: gravitational acceleration [m/s2] H: the net head [m] T : turbine efficiency (6-5)
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The net head and volumetric flow rate were previously determined to be 232.2 feet (70.8 meters) and 0.538 ft3/s (0.01523 m3/s), respectively. The turbine selected is rated for an efficiency of 80% and thus the mechanical power applied to the turbine shaft is calculated as:
1000 9.81 8462.4 70.8 0.01523 8.46 80%
The torque applied to the generator rotor, neglecting rotational losses in the flexible coupling, can be calculated from the mechanical output determined above. The following equation defines the load torque as a ratio of the applied mechanical power to the rotor speed [21]: (6-6)
The governor isochronously controls the electrical frequency and thus shaft speed to 60Hz. As stated previously, the electrical frequency for a synchronous generator is defined as [16]: (6-7) Where nm is the speed of the rotor magnetic field and P is the number of poles. This particular generator will be constructed with 4 poles and will operate at a nominal 60Hz. The mechanical speed is calculated as:
70
120
120 60 4
1800
This corresponds to a mechanical speed of: 1800 2 60 188.5 /
The mechanical input torque and thus the minimum torque rating of the generator shaft is calculated as: 8.46 188.5 44.9
The proposed generator power rating is 14kW. Hydro generator units with this rating are readily available and generally recommended for systems of this size according to hydroelectric system designers and installers. This rating is much greater than the available power that can be supplied by the water resource during the dry season which is about 8.5kW as calculated above. This is intended to ensure that hydroelectric power system can deliver the full amount of power available throughout the year. The specifications of the proposed hydro generator selected are outlined in the table below.
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Table 25 New Hydro Generator Specifications Manufacturer Model Number Apparent Power Rating at 3 Real Power Rating at 3 Voltage Configuration Power Factor Rated Speed Field Winding Source Marathon Electric 283PSL1707 17.5Kva 14kW 208V, 3, 4W 0.8 1800 RPM Permanent Magnet
B. System Design i. Conductor Sizing and Selection The generator feeder cables must be rated to carry the generator nominal output current continuously under normal operating conditions. The generator output current is defined below: (6-8)
,
As indicated in the specification above, the generator selected is a MagnaPlus 283PSL1707 with an apparent power rating of 17.5kVA. The output current supplied by the generator is calculated as: 17.5 48.6
3 208
The rated minimum ampacity of the conductor selected must be greater than or equal to the generator rated output current as calculated above. The size of the conductor will also be selected to minimize voltage drop during normal operating conditions. The amount of voltage drop
72
along a circuit depends on the size of the conductor and thus its resistance. The resistance of a metal conductor is defined below [22]: 1 (6-9)
In the equation above, R0 is the conductor resistance at T0, is the percentage change in resistivity per unit temperature, T is the operating temperature of the conductor, and T0 is the reference temperature which is typically room temperature. The equation above mathematically illustrates the linearly proportional relationship between operating temperature and resistance. An increase in the conductor operating temperature is accompanied by an increase in its resistance. Thus as operating temperatures increase the circuit voltage drop and total system losses will also increase. This concept is the basis for the cable ampacity derating factors provided by the National Electric Code. The hydroelectric generator is anticipated to supply current continuously throughout the day. There will be additional thermal contributions to the operating temperature of the conductor due to the fact that it will carry this current continuously. In conditions where the conductor continuously carries current for three hours or more, the National Electric Code requires the designer to select a conductor ampacity that is greater than or equal to 125% of the nominal current. The generator maximum continuous output current is calculated to be: 1.25 1.25 48.6 60.75
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Thus the minimum ampacity of the conductor selected must be greater than or equal to 60.75A. The National Electric Code provides an ampacity table that defines the ampacity of a cable with a given insulation, conductor size, and environmental operating conditions. This table is inserted below:
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Table 26 NEC Ampacity Table
According to the table above, a #6 AWG THWN has a minimum ampacity of 65A in an ambient operating temperature of 30 which is C greater than the calculated current of 60.75A. THWN type insulation is a commonly used cable insulation system that is rated for exposure to
75
moisture and contains flame retardant additives for additional fire resistance. This cable insulation is not rated for direct burial and thus must be protected by conduit underground. The National Electric Code provides an AC resistance table for various conductor sizes and their respective operating conditions and application. This table is inserted below.
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Table 27 NEC Ch.9 Table 9 AC Resistance Table
According to the table above, the impedance of a #6 AWG 3, 600V copper conductor, with 75 insulation (THWN) operating at 60Hz C with three single conductors in PVC conduit is:
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0.49 | |
0.051 0.492
1000 1000
The total circuit voltage drop must be calculated to ensure minimal system losses. The design goal is to maintain a total maximum line to line voltage drop of 2%. A 2% voltage drop is selected as a design goal in accordance with the recommendations of the National Electric Code for feeder circuit voltage drops. The line to neutral voltage drop for a single phase AC circuit is calculated as follows: |
|
2 | | | | (6-10)
Where L is the length of the circuit, Z is the impedance per unit length of the conductor selected, and I is the continuous current flowing in the conductor. The factor of 2 appears in the equation above accounts for the current flowing in both the line and neutral conductor thus establishing the total circuit voltage drop. The output circuit configuration of the hydroelectric generator is 3, 4 wire. In this design, it is assumed that the Boy Scout Camp loads are balanced resulting in negligible neutral current. For 3 circuits, the voltage drop between any two phase conductors is 0.866 times the voltage drop calculated by the preceding formula. 0.866 2 | | | |
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(6-11)
0.866 2 630
0.000492
60.75
32.6
The equations above assume a balanced 3 load and thus there is no current flowing in the neutral conductor and the voltage drop between phases A-B, B-C, and C-A will be identical. According to the calculations above, the service voltage at the main distribution panel in the proposed design is: 208 32.6 175.4
The connected loads at the Camp cannot operate with a supply voltage of 175.4V. The voltage drop expressed as a percentage of the nominal circuit voltage is calculated: % 32.6 208 100 15.7%
This is greater than the design requirement of a maximum 2% voltage drop. The conductor impedance Z is explicitly defined in order to determine the maximum conductor resistance that will satisfy the 2% voltage drop design requirement. The maximum allowable voltage drop along a nominal 208V circuit is calculated: 2% 208 4.16
An upper limit for the conductor impedance is defined using the design voltage drop calculated above:
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| | | | 4.16 0.866 2 630 60.75
(6-11) 0.0628 1000
1000
The maximum impedance is thus 0.0628 [
per 1000 feet]. Thus a
minimum #300kcmil THWN is required which has a corresponding impedance of 0.059 [ ii. per 1000 feet].
Overcurrent Protection Device Sizing and Selection Ungrounded system conductors require overcurrent protection in order to prevent cable damage during overload and short-circuit events. Overcurrent protective devices include fuses, circuit breakers, and shunt circuit breakers. This requirement does not apply to grounded conductors such as grounding electrode conductors, equipment ground conductors, and neutral conductors in solidly grounded 4 wire systems. In AC systems, circuit breaker ratings are selected to be the sum of the non-continuous load current plus 125% of the continuous load current. It is acceptable to select the rating as the non-continuous current plus the continuous current if the overcurrent device and its assembly are listed for 100% duty operation. The circuit breaker protecting the generator feeder cables will not be bear this listing and thus the rating will be selected as 125% of the generator nominal output current. This value, which was also calculated previously, is determined to be: 1.25
80
1.25
48.6
60.75
The overcurrent device rating selected is 80A, which is the next larger standard rating size as allowed by the National Electric Code. Circuit breakers operating in ambient temperatures greater than 40 C need to be de-rated according to the manufacturers instructions. An evaluation of the Boy Scout Camps annual temperature trends show that these operating temperatures will not be reached, thus the rating selected is adequate. The circuit breakers selected will be the bolt-on type and will have dual thermal and magnetic trip elements in order to provide both overload and short-circuit protection, respectively. The Ampere Interrupting Capacity (AIC) of the overcurrent device is selected based on the amount of available fault current supplied by all connected generation sources. The available short-circuit current a generator can supply is typically around three times the rated output current. Thus the available fault current supplied by the hydroelectric generator will be 182.3A (3 x 60.75A). A standard overcurrent device rating that satisfies this requirement is 10 kAIC. iii. Overall System Design The maximum apparent power demand at the Boy Scout camp was previously calculated to be 25.2kVA. The real and reactive components of the apparent power demand are calculated by applying the operating power factor of the Boy Scout Camp electrical load. The power factor can be estimated by evaluating the existing electrical loads at the Camp.
81
During the site survey it was noted that the Camp electrical loads were mainly resistive except for the two compressors which operated at 0.85 lagging power factor. The resistive component of the connected loads is assumed to be operating at an aggregate 0.99 lagging power factor. The ratio of the compressor loads to the total camp load can be estimated from the circuit breaker ratings indicated in the Camps existing single line diagram. The circuit breakers protecting the compressors are each rated 30A while the main circuit breaker supplying the entire distribution system is rated for 200A. Thus the rotating loads comprise 30% (60/200 = 0.3) of the total system load. The overall Camp operating power factor is then 0.95 lagging (30% x 0.85pf + 70% x 0.99pf = 0.95pf). The phase angle difference between the operating voltage and current is: cos 0.95 18.2
This translates to a maximum real power demand of:

,
cos
25.2
0.95
23.9
The maximum reactive power demand is calculated as:

,
sin
25.2
sin 18.2
7.87
If the apparent power rating of the hydroelectric generator is 17.5kVA and the load power factor is 0.95 lagging, then the maximum real power supplied is:
,
cos
82
17.5
0.95
16.6
The maximum reactive power supplied by the generator is

,
sin
17.5
sin 18.2
5.47
The maximum real and reactive power the hydroelectric generator can supply is thus not adequate to meet the maximum real and reactive power demands of the Boy Scout Camp. This does not meet the design requirement to have a reliable power source that can adequately supply these loads. In order to preserve the installation of a renewable energy source, a parallel connected supplemental generator is required. This generator must be reliable and capable of supplying the remainder of the energy demand at the Boy Scout Camp when needed. The proposed rating of the supplemental generator is selected to meet the entire apparent power demand at the Boy Scout Camp. There are fixed costs associated with the installation of a generator of any size which can include but are not limited to a concrete pad, terminations, rigging, and control system installation. The incremental cost of selecting an oversized generator which is rated for the total Camp energy demand is justified through the added value this generator could bring in comparison to the fixed cost of a generator installation. The total Camp energy demands can be met by the supplemental generator even in the event that the hydroelectric system is offline. In this proposed design, the hydroelectric generator would continuously operate at full output while the supplemental generator would
83
supply the remainder of the electrical demand. This system operation minimizes the supplemental generator operating time which reduces fuel operating costs and greenhouse gas emissions. The proposed supplemental generator is a diesel generator rated for 30kVA, 208V, 3, 4 wire. Operating at a 0.95 lagging power factor the real power capacity of the generator is calculated as:
,
cos
30
0.95
28.5
The reactive power capacity is calculated as:

,
sin
30
sin 18.2
9.37
The diesel generator output is configured 3, 4 wire with a solidly grounded neutral. The hydroelectric generator output is configured in an identical fashion. Any line to neutral loads connected to the Boy Scout Camp distribution system can be supplied by the derived neutral of either generator. A 4 pole transfer switch is required to transfer between generation sources. The fourth pole in the transfer switch is needed to switch the system neutral from either generator. If the neutral pole was not switched between the two systems and instead kept solidly tied, it would then be possible for neutral current to flow along the ground circuit and energize any metal enclosures connected to it. This poses a safety hazard as these metal enclosures are exposed to the public. The single line diagram below illustrates the proposed system:
84
Figure 35 Existing Distribution System with New Hydro and Diesel Generator Sources iv. Motor Starting Considerations As mentioned previously, there are two compressors connected to the distribution system at the Boy Scout Camp. The prime movers for the compressors are 3 induction motors. The construction of an induction motor is identical to that of an induction generator. In an induction motor, the rotor speed is less than the synchronous speed consuming real power. In comparison, the rotor speed of an induction generator is greater than the synchronous speed providing real power.
85
Induction motors that are started across-the-line experience large in-rush currents. When a voltage is initially applied to the motor terminals, the internal impedance of the machine is very small. For the first few cycles, the internal impedance of the motor is solely the resistance of its windings, which is negligible, and the slip is 1. Initially, there is no inductive reactance developed by the rotor windings because the magnetic field has yet to be fully established in the core. With an internal impedance close to 0 at start up, the inrush current will be very high. The inrush current diminishes as the motors internal impedance increases due to the inductive reactance developed by magnetizing the core. If there is insufficient magnetizing current in the system, then the induction motor may never fully develop sufficient internal impedance and thus the inrush current will remain. In order to prevent this, it is necessary to verify that the distribution system can supply enough reactive power supply to magnetize to the rotating magnetic loads. The horsepower ratings of the two compressors are 1.5hp and 3hp for the refrigerator and freezer, respectively. This means that the real power ratings of each of the devices are approximately: 1.5 3 746 1 746 1 1 80% 1 80% 1399 2798
86
At the rated operating power factor of 0.85 lagging, the apparent power ratings of these compressors are: 1399 0.85 2798 0.85 1646 3292
cos cos
The reactive power demand of the two compressors are calculated to be: sin sin 1646 sin 31.8 3292 sin 31.8 867 1735
The total reactive power demand that requires high starting magnetization currents is 2602 VAR (867 + 1735 VAR = 2602 VAR). This only defines the compressors reactive power demands. The total reactive power demand at the Boy Scout Camp is 7.87kVAR, which would include the demand of the motors outlined above. According to this evaluation, there is approximately another 5.8 kVAR (7.87 - 2.602 kVAR = 5.3 kVAR) drawn by other reactive loads at the Camp. Initially, this does not appear to be accurate because the two compressors comprise the major reactive power demands at the site. The maximum apparent power demand was estimated using the phase current from the most heavily loaded phase. Although, the system was unbalanced, it was assumed to be balanced for this estimation and thus the camp demand was conservatively
87
determined. This conservative approach was used to guarantee a reliable and robust design. The reactive power supplied by the hydroelectric and supplemental diesel generator is 5.47 kVAR and 9.37 kVAR, respectively. This provides a total of 14.8 kVAR of reactive power that can be supplied by all of the generation sources. This is adequate to supply the Boy Scout Camps maximum reactive power demand of 7.87 kVAR. v. Turbine & Generator Control for Stand Alone Operation Grid-tied electrical distribution systems are supplied with a constant frequency and voltage with a specified tolerance from the local utility grid. The total amount of generation and load within the distribution system is much smaller than that of utility source which makes the utility source appear like an infinite bus to the distribution system. Transient step-loads within the distribution system will have negligible effect on the system voltage and frequency because of the inertia associated with the utility grid. Thus there is no need for the distribution system to actively monitor service voltage and frequency from the utility. In a stand-alone system, the on-site generation sources will set the system voltage and frequency. Stand-alone systems lack the inertia to passively maintain system voltage and frequency. Large step-loads and generators going on or off line will have an adverse affect on system voltage and frequency thus requiring active frequency and voltage control. The major control devices that maintain the system frequency and voltage are the governor and automatic voltage regulator (AVR), respectively.
88
The system frequency in a stand-alone application is dictated by the rate of rotation of the generator rotor shaft. Changes in the amount of generation and load within the system will contribute to system frequency changes. The role of the governor is to adjust the fuel input to the prime mover in order to maintain the nominal shaft speed. The Boy Scout Camp nominal shaft speed was calculated to be 1800 rpm corresponding to a system frequency of 60Hz. For example, if the fuel supply to the prime mover increases when a constant load is connected, the rotor will experience a transient acceleration. This translates into an increased system frequency. Depending on the governor control algorithm, this frequency will either remain, as in droop control methods, or be returned to nominal 60Hz, if isochronous methods are used. The opposite is true for a decrease in fuel supply with a constant load connected, the system frequency will drop. For example, if a large electric load is suddenly connected across the line, then the speed or frequency of the system will drop to unspecified level if uncontrolled and fuel supply left constant. And vice versa, if a load is taken off-line then the system frequency will increase. The automatic voltage regulator (AVR) performs a similar role in actively maintaining the system voltage at the generator terminals. The AVR will increase the DC field current in order to boost the terminal voltage and vice versa. The amplitude of the generators terminal voltage determines whether the generator is consuming or supplying reactive
89
power and the amount of reactive power consumed or supplied. Thus a synchronous machine is capable of controlling terminal voltage and reactive power itself through the control of the DC field current. The two main types of voltage and frequency control methods are isochronous and droop control. A generator operating in isochronous mode will maintain a constant nominal frequency and/or voltage regardless of the real and reactive power demand of the system. The range of the apparent power demand is finite but within these limits the AVR and governor maintain a constant system voltage and frequency, respectively. Generators operating in droop control mode allow the voltage or frequency to droop or rise as defined by the specific control algorithm implemented by the AVR and governor. The majority of generators connected to the utility grid operate in droop control mode. These generators share system load changes as determined by their respective droop algorithms. Typical droop algorithms allow the system voltage or frequency to deviate between 3% and 5% of the system nominal set points. Droop control methods help to increase system stability. If multiple parallel connected generators with long time delays were controlled isochronously there could be large power swings within the system when trying to maintain a nominal system voltage or frequency. The long time delays associated with the voltage and frequency correction of these machines cause the parallel connected generators to hunt thus the system will never achieve stability. Droop
90
control allows generators to share the power load between each other as specified by the droop algorithm and rated power capacity of the generator. Stand-alone systems with multiple parallel connected generation sources will typically operate one generator in isochronous mode and the other generators in droop mode. The generator operating in isochronous control mode would be the leader between the generator sources maintaining a nominal 60 Hz cycle speed. The other generator would operate in droop control mode where it would be able to share load changes by allowing its frequency to droop. Mutual voltage control by the generators would be accomplished by cross current regulation. This method uses current transformers to measure the current flowing in the generator feeder conductors, compare the two, and adjust the associated DC field currents of either generator to maintain a constant system voltage at both of the generator terminals. The governor proposed for this system design is an electronic load control governor manufactured by Thomson and Howe Energy Systems. These governors are widely used in stand-alone small scale hydroelectric power system applications.
91
Figure 42 Thomson & Howe Electronic Load Control Governor Stand-alone system applications require that the governor be connected to a small excess of either generation or load at all times. The governor uses this excess to maintain system frequency. Systems that have greater generation capacity than load capacity require waste loads to be directly connected to the generator through the governor. These waste loads are resistive and turned on by the governor when generation becomes excessive. It is optimal to select waste loads that can provide a beneficial use to the site which will help contribute to the overall efficiency of the system. The following are a list of recommended waste loads [23]: 1. 2. Swimming pool heaters Concrete imbedded heating cables
92
3.
Hot water heating (with high temperature relief valve
or pump). 4. 5. 6. Soil heating cables or greenhouse heating Snow melting cables in driveways Furnace heating elements (with a backup heat
source) Currently, the Boy Scout Camp does not have any loads from the above list or that would qualify as a waste load. Thus it will be necessary to install a waste load such as a baseboard heating element in order for the governor to function properly and perform its intended role.
93
VII.
Development and Construction A brief evaluation of what site development and construction is necessary to construct the hydroelectric power system will provide an insight into the rough capital costs associated with the proposed system. The following list highlights the major scope of work items associated with each subcontractor. Civil/Structural o Preparation and grading of the hillside in order to facilitate the penstock installation o Demolition and drilling of waterfall bedrock in order to facilitate hydro power station concrete pier installation o Create and set forms and rebar cage for concrete piers o Pour and cure concrete piers o Create and set forms and rebar cage for hydropower station foundation pad o Pour and cure concrete foundation pad Mechanical o Construct hydropower station enclosure o Install penstock
94
o Install a trash rake on penstock intake o Install hydro turbine-generator skid o Install hydro turbine-generator unit o Install various plumbing fittings and accessories for complete system installation Electrical o Install control equipment including governor, communication modules, and current transformers o Install low voltage electrical equipment including circuit breakers, junction boxes, and other enclosures o Install complete steel conduit system and accessories within the hydrostation powerhouse o Pull and terminate wire complete control and low voltage cable system within the hydrostation powerhouse o Trench between hydropower station and Camp main electrical service panel o Install complete PVC Schedule 40 conduit system and accessories below grade in the trench
95
o Backfill trench with sand and native soil and install warning tape 12 above top of conduit maintaining NEC required distances (no compaction required) o Pull and terminate control and low voltage feeder circuit cables between the hydrostation power house and Camp main service equipment The figure below represents a high level system diagram depicting the major system components.
New Conduit and Feeders
New AVR New Governor New Pelton Turbine
G
New Manual Transfer Switch New Diesel Generator New GeneratorTurbine New Hydro Coupling Shaft Generator
Existing Water Intake New Penstock
G
Main Panel
New Powerhouse
Figure 37 Overall System Diagram
96
VIII.
Economic Analysis A design requirement of the proposed system is that project economics are feasible and aligned with the Camps allotted budget. In order to understand rough material costs of the major system equipment, vendor quotes were solicited from select hydroelectric system component manufacturers. The total capital cost to develop and construct this project not only includes construction material and labor costs, but also includes licensed professional engineering designs, associated construction documents, and various construction administration items including construction permit applications. The table below summarizes the major project costs.
97
Table 28 Approximate Project Costs Material: Generator-Turbine Package Control System Diesel Generator Penstock Powerhouse Conduit Conductors Labor to Install: Generator-Turbine Package Control System Diesel Generator Penstock Powerhouse Conduit Conductors Engineering Fees: Electrical Engineering Mechanical Engineering Civil Engineering Structural Engineering General Administration TOTAL ESTIMATED PROJECT COST Estimated Cost $37,000 $1,000 $15,000 $3,000 $15,000 $3,000 $6,000
$15,000 $4,000 $10,000 $3,000 $4,000 $7,000 $2,000
$3,000 $5,000 $6,000 $5,000 $10,000 $154,000
The total estimated project cost listed above denotes the capital funds required to implement the proposed system. Annual operation and maintenance costs need to be evaluated as well in order for the Boy Scout Camp to understand the impact to their current fiscal budgets. Current annual operating costs are dominated by the diesel fuel supply and transportation costs. The table below outlines diesel fuel consumption
98
data for generators based on the generator power rating and the amount of load placed on the generator. Table 29 Approximate Diesel Fuel Consumption [24]
Currently, the existing diesel generator is rated 60kW and supplies a total load demand that is less than 25% of the rated power capacity. According to the table above, a generator with exhibiting these characteristics will consume 1.8 gal/hr. The current annual operating costs are calculated using the diesel fuel price of $3.073/gal from March, 2010 in California [25]: 1.8
99
24
365
$15,768
The proposed supplemental diesel generator is rated 30kVA and will also be continuously loaded below 25% of its rated capacity. Thus the new operating costs are calculated: 1.3 24 365 $11,388
The new annual operating costs will also be dominated by costs associated with the diesel fuel. The Camps fiscal budget must account for an annual preventive maintenance plan and must also allocate a budget to address additional maintenance costs associated with any unforeseen system malfunctions or failures.
100
IX.
Conclusion A hydroelectric power plant alone cannot adequately supply enough power to meet the maximum electrical demand at the Boy Scout Camp. In order to preserve the installation of a renewable energy source, it is necessary to install a supplemental diesel generator. The supplemental diesel generator would supply the remainder of the Camp energy demand as well as supply the entire Boy Scout Camp electrical load in the event the hydroelectric system fails or is taken off-line for maintenance. An additional supplemental generator increases the proposed systems capital costs. It also increases system control requirements and thus increases system complexity which results in a decrease in system reliability. The proposed project is not economically feasible with a total estimated project cost of $154,000. The Boy Scout Camp generator replacement budget does not cover this large of a capital cost and thus the proposed system cannot be built. Renewable energy systems are more expensive than systems powered by fossil fuels. The economics associated with renewable energy systems become more attractive as various governments begin to establish tax incentive and rebate programs that help to subsidize high project costs. The assistance of subsidized programs allows renewable energy technologies to further improve system efficiencies and decrease system costs. Continual improvements in the manufacturing process and construction costs help make renewable energy systems more affordable
101
and economically feasible. It is the hope that one day, through these continuing efforts to improve system designs and reduce project costs, that there will be grid parity.
102
BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] History of Hydropower. U.S. Department of Energy. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_history.html [2] Energy Information Administration, Hydropower Basic Energy From Moving Water (2009) [3] Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2008, Table 1.3 (June 2009). [4] Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report,January-April 1994, Carbon Dioxide Emission Factors for Coal by B.D. Hong and E.R. Slatick. DOE/EIA-0121(94/Q1) (Washington, DC, August 1994) [5] Energy Information Administration, U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Sources 2008 Flash Estimate (May 2009). [6] Continental Energy Sector Issues Canadian Energy Research Institute, March 2004 [7] International Energy Agency Implementing Agreement for Hydropower Technologies and Programs Annex III: Hydropower and the Environment: Present Context and Guidelines for Future Action. Volume I: May 2000. [8] Central California Topographic Map. United States Geological Survey 1983. 1995 Revision: USDA Forest Service. [9] Natural Resources Canada. Micro-Hydropower Systems, A Buyers Guide [10] Folsom Dam, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folsom_Dam [11] Hydroventura, http://hydroventura.com/smallhydro_design.html [12] Renewable Energy UK. http://www.reuk.co.uk/index.htm [13] Racoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raccoon_Mountain_Pumped-Storage_Plant [14] White, Frank M. University of Rhode Island. Fluid Mechanics, 4th Edition. McGraw Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering, 1999. [15] Guide on How to Develop a Small Hydropower Plant. European Small Hydropower Association ESHA, 2004.
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[16] Chapman, Stephen J BAE SYSTEMS Australia. Electric Machinery Fundamentals Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2005. [17] Avalanche Center. http://www.avalanchecenter.org/Education/glossary/laminar-flow.php [18] Turbulent Flow. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulent_flow [19] Engineering Toolbox. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-dynamickinematic-viscosity-d_596.html [20] Hydro Power, INDAR. http://www.indar.ch/hydro%20power%202.htm [21] Nazir, Refdinal. Modeling and Simulation of an Induction Generator-Driven Micro/Pyco Hydro Power Connected to the Grid System. Proceedings of the International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Infomatics Institut Teknologi, Indonesia June 17-19, 2007. [22] Electrical Resistance, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance [23] Product A2 Installation and Operation Manual. Version 0.3, January 2002. Thomson and Howe Energy Systems. [24] Approximate Fuel Consumption Chart. Diesel Services & Supply Inc. http://www.dieselserviceandsupply.com/Diesel_Fuel_Consumption.aspx [25] Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Update. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Independent Statistics and Analysis. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/oog/info/gdu/gasdiesel.asp [26] Craig, Scott; Maher, S. Cody; Ross, Jesse; Vanstratum, Brian. MicroHydro Turbine, A Feasibility Study. Florida State University, College of Engineering
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Hydroelectric System Design

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HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM DESIGN

by Timothy McDonnell Brown December 2010

2010 Timothy McDonnell Brown ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Hydroelectric System Design

Timothy McDonnell Brown

Dr. Ahmad Nafisi, Professor

Dr. Taufik, Professor

Dr. Ali Shaban, Professor

ABSTRACT Hydroelectric System Design Timothy McDonnell Brown

B. Turbine Types57 i. Reaction Turbine.59

Development and Construction101 Economic Analysis.105 Conclusion...109

LIST OF TABLES Table Page

LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page

Figure 1 Topographic Overview of Surrounding Areas [8]

Figure 2 Aftermath of Lightning Fires at Pico Blanco, CA

Figure 5 Existing Creek Dam

Figure 8 Freezer Compressor Nameplate

Figure 9 Refrigerator Compressor Nameplate

Figure 10 Locations of the Compressors

Figure 12 Existing Synchronous Generator Nameplate

Table 9 Gross Head Measurements (measured in feet)

*THD: Total Horizontal Distance *VD: Vertical Distance

or 0.355 1 0.0474 0.0474

Average Depth [ft] Average Cross Sectional Area [ft2]

Site 1 Average Volumetric Flow Rate: 0.252022 ft3/s

Average Depth [ft] Average Cross Sectional Area [ft2]

Width [ft] Depth Measurements [ft]

6.66 0.166 0.25 0.479 0.5 0.25 0.229 0.312333

Average Depth [ft] Average Cross Sectional Area [ft2]

Distance [ft] 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Velocity [ft/s] 0.628141 0.628141 0.672043 0.626566 0.638723

Site 3 Average Volumetric Flow Rate: 1.328633 ft3/s

Average Depth [ft] Average Cross Sectional Area [ft2]

Site 4 Average Volumetric Flow Rate: 0.419 ft3/s

Average Depth [ft] Average Cross Sectional Area [ft2]

Site 5 Average Volumetric Flow Rate: 0.451 ft3/s

Figure 18 Folsom River Dam [10]

. As mentioned earlier, this relationship is only true for closed

Temperature -t (oC) 0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Figure 31 Two Nozzle Horizontal Pelton Turbine

This corresponds to a mechanical speed of: 1800 2 60 188.5 /

Table 26 NEC Ampacity Table

Table 27 NEC Ch.9 Table 9 AC Resistance Table

| | | | 4.16 0.866 2 630 60.75

(6-11) 0.0628 1000

The maximum impedance is thus 0.0628 [

per 1000 feet]. Thus a

This translates to a maximum real power demand of:

The maximum reactive power demand is calculated as:

The maximum reactive power supplied by the generator is

The reactive power capacity is calculated as:

Hot water heating (with high temperature relief valve

New Conduit and Feeders

New AVR New Governor New Pelton Turbine

Existing Water Intake New Penstock

Figure 37 Overall System Diagram

$15,000 $4,000 $10,000 $3,000 $4,000 $7,000 $2,000

$3,000 $5,000 $6,000 $5,000 $10,000 $154,000

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THD: Total Horizontal Distance VD: Vertical Distance