Page | 1

Abstract

Mydissertation,istitledTheGracieClanandtheMakingofBrazilianjiujitsu:

NationalIdentity,PerformanceandCulture,18011993.Itanalyzestheintroduction,

creolization,popularizationandglobalizationofthemartialartknownasBrazilian

jiujitsu, by examining the trajectory of the principal agents of these events, the

Graciefamily.Mynarrativecoversalmosttwohundredyearsandencompassesfour

continents: Asia, Europe, South America and North America. It begins with the

Page | 2 migration of the Gracie family from Scotland to Brazil in the early nineteenth

centuryanddescribeshowtheyinventedandpopularizedBrazilianjiujitsuduring

the twentieth century. Their idiosyncratic story is also the story of Brazils white

elite inthis era,as they reinvented Asian and African cultures to form and reform

national identity. The dissertation follows this family through their settlement,

aristocratization,decadence,socialandculturalreinventionandrecentmigrationto

the United States. Along the way, they maintained their elitist ethos, which has

fueledandlegitimizedtheirrole.Bythe1930stheyhademergedasanepitomeof

manhood, sanctioned by the paternalist and populist political regime. Ultimately,

Page | 3 duringthefollowingdecades,theircomplex,ritualistichypermasculinizedlifestyle,

forged from the clash between tradition and modernity, created a hybrid

performance sport based on violence Made in Brazil. Thus, the paper that Ill

present at LASA congress in Rio de Janeiro will be a very short of my chapters

versionsubmittedbyeletronicmail.


Page | 4

Introduction

The version widely spread by the Gracie family, claims that the young

diplomat Gasto Gracie on his way to takeover the position of Brazilian Consul at

Hamburg fell in love with a local young girl named Cesarina Pessoa Vasconcellos

during the steamships stop at the Port of Belm and decide to stay. 1 This seems

Page | 5 plausible, although other, less romantic variables may have been involved. The

Gracies financial decline in Rio de Janeiro at the time certainly was a factor and

diplomacymaywellhaveconstitutedanavenuetoretainsocialstatusandprevent

total bankrupcy. Despite the fact that the Gracies invented tradition might be

partiallyreal,otherlessromanticvariablesmayhavebeeninvolved.Thus,Iclaim

thatcombinationoffactorsandcircumtancesmighlaybehindGastosdecisionto

settleinAmazon. 2

RobsonGracieinapersonalcommunicationreportedthatGastofellinlovewithCesarinaPessoa duringaCatholicmassinBelm.ThereweretwoGermansteamshiplinesthatlinkedGermanytoBrazilat thetimeofGastostravel.OnewastheHamburgSudamerikanischDampfschiffGesellschsftandthe otherwastheNorddeatscherLloydBremer.BothmadestopsinportsalongtheBraziliancoast,butnotin Belm. 2 AmazonherecorrespondstothenorthernregionofBrazilinwhichthestateofParbelongs.Thereafter, thedenominationAmazon,stateofPar,andBelmwillbeusedinterchangeably.However,whenI

The Portuguese crown and subsequently the Brazilian state had interests

Page | 6 geopolitically focused throughout the history on the southern borders. There they

were engaged in a long standing dispute over territory, trade, resources and

influence with Spain and later independent states which formed the colonial

Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. 3 However, in the second half of the nineteenth

century the Brazilian empire increasingly turned up more attention to the remote

frontiersinAmazon. 4 Theextractionofrubberfromtherainforestcreatedacycleof

economicbonanzathatdemandedattentionfromthestateandeconomicgroupson

mentionthestateofAmazon,anotherfederationunitofnorthernregion,thewordstatewillprecede AmazoninorderavoidconfusionwiththebroadengeographicalAmazonregion. 3 TheViceroyaltyoftheRiodelaPlataoriginatedthemodernArgentina,Uruguay,ParaguayandBolivia. 4 Inthe1850sand1860stheUnitedStatessignednavigationtreatiesonParanandAmazonasbasins therebysecuringtheopeningofinternationaltradeinthemostimportantwaterwaysinSouthAmerica. BrazilandUnitedStatessignedthetreatyon12/07/1866.PercyAlvinMartin,"TheInfluenceoftheUnited StatesontheOpeningoftheAmazontotheWorld'sCommerce,"TheHispanicAmericanHistoricalReview 1,no.2(May,1918):161.

this long neglected northern backwater. Moreover, due the lack of interest and

Page | 7 difficulties inherent the regions accessibility the international borders in Amazon

remainedunsettledsincethecolonialtimes. 5

Thus, Brazils foreign policy in the recently inaugurated republic opted for

pan Americanism and established a South American version of the Monroe

Doctrine to deal with issues prompted by disputes over the fluid borders in

Amazon. 6 The Itamaraty BrazilianForeignOfficeministry followingBaronofRio

5 6

See:CarlosA.Parodi,ThePoliticsofSouthAmericanBoundaries(Westport,Conn.:Praeger,2002). AnanonymousbrochurecirculatedinLondonby1903entitledSouthAmericanMonroeism (MonroeismoSulAmericano).Theworkisattributed,bysome,totheBraziliandiplomatBaronofRio Branco.TheauthorsmajorconcernwasthegrowingAmericanimperialismwhichheclaimedstartedwith theMonroeDoctrine.Bytheendofthecentury,afterAmericansterritorialexpansionandthevictory overSpain,thenationsofSouthAmericashouldbeunitedtoresistthethreat.HesaidthatSouthAmerica wasliketheancientGreekandtheUnitedStateswaslikeMacedon.Greece,backthen,wasdividedand politicallyweek,SouthAmericanationslikewiseweredivided,financiallybrokenandeconomically dependent.HeenvisionedagreatSouthAmericanconfederationborderingthePanamandencouraged thenationsinthecontinenttogobacktotheirformercolonialgeographicallimits.Nevertheless,he lamented,suchdisunionwasresultofLatinAmericanpoliticalbackwardnessthathasitsoriginson Spaniardmentalatavism.DunsheedeAbranches,RioBrancoEaPoliticaExteriorDoBrasil,19021912, vol.2(RiodeJaneiro:[s.n.],1945)8193.Seealso:ClodoaldoBueno,"OBaraoDoRioBrancoEOProjeto

Brancos orientation nurtured mixed feelings toward both, Brazils neighbors and

Page | 8 the United States. 7 The formers were regarded as turbulent and unstable and the

latteradmiredwithreservationespeciallydueitsallegedlyimperialisticambitions

in the region. 8 Hence, in the turn of the century amidst the inevitable insertion of

theregionintheglobalmarketaprocessdiplomaticoffensivewaslaunchedtosettle

the international borders in the region. In the wake of this initiative, borders

disputeswereusuallypeacefullysolvedoftenfavorablytoBrazilianinterests.Thisis

ParaaAmericaDoSul"inRioBranco,aAmricaDoSulEaModernizaoDoBrasil,ed.CarloseHenrique AlminoCardim,Joo(Brasilia:ComissoOrganizadoradasComemoraesdoPrimeiroCentenrioda PossedoBarodoRioBrancocomoMinistrodeEstadodasRelaesExteriores,FundaoAlexandrede Gusmo,InstitutoRioBrancoEMCEdies,2002),35985. 7 JosMariadaSilvaParanhosJnior,BaronofRioBranco,headedBrazilianForeignAffairsMinistryfrom 1902to1912. 8 BaronofRioBrancothoughtBrazilwasdifferentinLatinAmericaandhisconcernthatoncetherepublic wasinauguratedBrazilwouldfollowthepoorandridiculousexampleofSpanishAmericanrepublicsthat soughttoimitate,likemonkeys,theAmericanmodelignoringthatPortugueseAmericansandSpanish AmericansarenotAngloSaxons.Intheotherhand,RioBrancoadmiredtheUnitedStateswith reservationsanddefinedthecountriesofSouthernConeimaginaryrepublics,exceptChile.KassiusDiniz daSilvaPontes,EuclidesDaCunha,OItamaratyEaAmaznia(Braslia:InstitutoRioBranco:Fundao AlexandreGusmo,2005)359.

demonstratedinRioBrancosfinestdiplomaticachievementbywhichawholenew

Page | 9 territory rich in rubber trees was carved out from Bolivia and Peru in 1903. 9

Ironically enough, both the Itamaratys private reports and Rio Brancos personal

memoriescriticizedharshlyAmericanexpansionisticpolicytowardMexicoalthough

the incorporation of the territoryof Acre itself could well be seen as the Brazilian

versionofAlamointhetropics. 10

TheTreatyofPetrpolissignedbetweenBrazilandBoliviain1903gavetotheformerasizableterritory (164.221km2)whoseannualrevenue,atthetime,washigherthanmorethathalfofothersBrazilian states.Moreover,theterritoryofAcrein1899produced60%oftherubberinAmazon.Nonetheless,such impressivenumbers,theBaronofRioBrancopointedoutthatBraziliangovernmentalways acknowledgedBoliviasrightsoverAcreandfacilitatedforthiscountrythepossiblemeanstoexploitthe region.However,thedecisiontotakeovertheterritorywasmadetoblocktheattempttointroducein thecontinentthedisturbingsystemofcharteredcompanieswhichwouldjeopardizedinterestsof Braziliansintheregion.DunsheedeAbranches,RioBrancoEaPoliticaExteriorDoBrasil,19021912,vol. 1(RiodeJaneiro:[s.n.],1945)133.BaronofRioBrancosjustificationfortheannexationofAcrewas twofold;toblockAmericanimperialism,inthiscaseAngloAmerican,representedbytheBolivian SyndicateofNewYorkwhohadtheregionleasedthroughtheTreatyofAramayoin1901andtoprotect thousandsofBrazilianrubbertappersmostlyofthempovertystrickencearenses(nativestothe northeasternstateofCear)backlanders. 10 ThewholeepisodethatendedupwithannexationofAcreistoomuchcomplex,howeverasLewis Tambsresumed,thewholeaffairoftheworldstrongdemandforrubber,theprincipleofinternational lawofutispossidetisdefacto,thedemographicpressureofBrazilianrubbertappers,theBrazilian expansionisticnationalismandthecleverdiplomacyofBaronofRioBrancoallcombinedcrushed Boliviasdreamofgreatness.LewisA.Tambs,"Rubber,Rebels,andRioBranco:TheContestforthe Acre,"TheHispanicAmericanHistoricalReview46,no.3(Aug.,1966):273.

PedroGracieinturn,seemedtohaveconnectionswithimportantoligarchies

Page | 10 inAmazon.Oneofthem,theChermontfamily,forexample,sharedwiththeGracies

interestsindiplomacy,politicsandbusinessenterprises. 11 Duethechangeof

politicalregimein1889andthegrowingrubberbasedeconomy,Amazons

oligarchiessoughtformoreinfluencewithinthefederalgovernmentand

investmentsfromtheRiodeJaneirosfinancialelite.Againstthisbackground,

GastoGraciesarrivalinAmazonunderscorethechangeintherelationship

betweenthatperipheralregionandnationscentreduringaveryauspiciousperiod

11

TheChermontfamilyconstitutedapowerfuloligarchyinthestateofPar,especiallyafterthefallofthe monarchy.Theyareinvolvedinpolitics,diplomacyandbusinessandAmazonandinRiodeJaneiro.Pedro Gracie,alongwithotherbusinessman,formedatramwaycompany1882.AntonioLeiteChermont,oneof thefamilymembers,whoriseinpowerandinfluenceduringthenewregimewasappointedfor companysboardin1892.TheChermontfamilyandtheirtrajectoryexemplifytheprocessthereby AmazonoligarchieswerecatapultedtothecentreofpowerinRiodeJaneiro.C.J.Dunlop,Apontamentos ParaaHistoriaDosBondesNoRioDeJaneiro(RiodeJaneiro:Laemmert,1953)11819,20506.

ofexpansionofeconomyanddisputesoverpoliticalpower. 12 Thishistoricalsetand

Page | 11 certainlyGastopersonalissueshelptounderstandhisdecisiontosettleandseek

forfortuneandprestigeinavibrantAmazon,insteadofremaininginhisfamily

waningworldinRiodeJaneiro. 13 Inconclusion,Gastowaslikelyseducedbyboth,

CesalinasenchantsandtheworldofpossibilitiesavailableontheAmazonsfrontier.

12

BarbaraWeinstein,TheAmazonRubberBoom,18501920(Stanford,Calif.:StanfordUniversityPress, 1983)8081. 13 EuclidesdaCunha,oneofthemostfamousBrazilianintellectualoftheday,describedlaterhis amazementuponthearrivalinBelm.Heclaimedthatthecitysurprisedhimwithitsmonumental avenuesandtrees.EuclidesdaCunhawassenttoAmazonindiplomaticmissiontofixthelimitsbetween thenewterritoryofAcreandPeruin1904.Accordingtohisaccount,thevoyagebetweenRiodeJaneiro andBelmtook12days.EuclidesdaCunhaandGastoGraciearrivedinBelmroughlyinthesame period.EuclidesdaCunha,UmParasoPerdido:ReunioDosEnsaiosAmaznicos(Petrpolis:Editora Vozes,1976)34.

II
Page | 12

GastoGraciesLastFrontier:Rubber,DynamiteandCircus

Gasto Gracie choose to settle in Belm, capital of Par State, located near

the mouth of the Amazon River. Assuming that he arrived there at some point

between 1897 and 1900, he did in a place undergoing rapid modernization and

steadyeconomicgrowth.Bythattime,thecityexperienceditsversionofatropical

Belle Epoque as a result of the Amazon rubber boom. Thus, instead of finding a

sleepybackwaterport,hefoundabustlingcenterinperipheralBrazil. 14 Moreover,

Page | 13 thedemandforrubbergainedmomentuminthe1890sandtriggeredaneconomic

andculturalbonanzathatlastedroughlyuntilltheWorldWarI. 15

Afterabriefcourtshiptheyoungcouple,CesalinaPessoadeVasconcellosand

GastoGracie,marriedin1901.TheyoungbridewasborninthestateofCear

locatedinnortheastBrazil. 16 Cesalinasfamilyas,thousandsofbeleaguered

northeasternbacklanderssince1878,soughttofindinAmazontheopportunities

14 15

Bytheturnofthecentury,thepopulationofBelmwasaround100,000inhabitants. Althoughthereissomedisagreementaboutwhentherubberboombegan,BarbaraWeinsteinidentifies theonsetinthelate1870s.Weinstein,TheAmazonRubberBoom,1850192069. 16 ThereareindicationsthatCesalinasfamily,backintheirhomestate,belongedtothelocaleliteand thereforetheywouldbringresourceswhenmovedtoAmazon.Moreover,thelocaleliteuponthearrival ofscoresofentrepreneurialoutsiderssoughttoestablishnetworkswiththem.Oneofthesestrategies wastopromotemarriagearrangementsbetweenthelocalyoungswomeneliteandthebestsuitors. GastoGraciearrivingfromthenationscapital,welleducated,polyglot,distinctfamilybackground seemedtobetheperfectbachelor.CristinaDonzaCancela,"CasamentoERelacoesFamiliaresNa EconomiaDaBorracha(Belem,18701920)"(Ph.D.Dissertation,UniversidadedeSaoPaulo,2006).Record ofGastoandCesalinasee:JoaoSimoesFilho,"ArquivoPauloCarneiroDaCunha,"(ColegioBrasileirode Genealogia2007).

offeredbythisnewEldoradocreatedbyAmazonrubberboom.Thus,theregion

Page | 14 functionsasamagnetforthoseexpelledfromtheirregiontoescapefromdrought

andfamine. 17

Oncemarriedandsettled,GastoGraciebecameadynamiteimporterin

Belmwhichseemsreasonabletakingintoconsiderationhisprevioustrainingas

chemistinGermany.Moreover,duetheboomingprogressexperiencedintheregion

atthetimedynamiteimportationshouldbeaverytimelybusinesstoconduct

there. 18

17

ThebadlandsofthenortheastBrazilshinterlandwereendemicallyravagedbyperiodofdroughtsinthe late1800sandearly1900s.DuethefaminethatoccurredinthestateofCearin1878,54,000migrants fromthisstatesettledinAmazonandtheycontinuedtocomeinthefollowingdecades.CharlesE.Stokes, TheAmazonBubble:WorldRubberMonopoly(FortMcKavett,Tex.:C.E.Stokes,Jr.,2000)19. 18 Themunicipallawregulatingtheimportationdedynamitewaspublishedin1897.deLemosAntonio Jos,RelatorioApresentadoAoConselhoMunicipalDeBelm,NaSessoDe15DeNovembroDe1902 (Par:TypographiadeAlfredoAugustoSilva,1902).

Thecouplehadtheirfirstson,Carlos,andovertheyearssevenchildren

Page | 15 amongthem,HlioGracie,whomalonghiseldestbrotherweremajoractorsinthe

laterreinventionofJapanesejiujitsu. 19 Coincidently,justafterHliosbirth,rubber

productioninAmazonwassurpassedforthefirsttimebyitsAsianrivalseventthat

forecastthebeginningoftheAmazonsdeclineandtheremarginalizationofthe

entireregion. 20

Asnotedearlier,GastolikelymovedtoAmazon,amongotherreasons,due

hisfamilyconnectionswithlocaloligarchieswhichwereofteninvolvedinbitter

AlsoaroundthetimeofGastosarrivalinAmazon,thelocalgovernmentwasconstructingrailwaysinthe region.ErnestoHoraciodaCruz,HistriaDoPar([Belm]:UniversidadedoPar,1963)661. 19 CarlosGraciewasbornonSeptember151902andHlioGraciewasbornonNovember11912.The otherbrothersandsistersrespectivelyborninthefollowingorder:OswaldoGracie(August291903) GastoGracieFilho(April111906)HelenaGracie(August131906)GeorgeGracie(1911)MaryGracie (February31915)andIlkaGracie(1917).Filho,"ArquivoPauloCarneiroDaCunha." 20 Weinstein,TheAmazonRubberBoom,1850192021819.

politicaldisputes.In1912,rivalryoverpoliticalcontrolinthestateofParreached

Page | 16 itsclimax.HewasmemberofPartidoRepublicanoDemocrtico Democratic

RepublicanParty createdin1889whichbecameapoliticalmeetingpointforliberal

monarchistsaftertheinaugurationofrepublic.Theparty,besidesbeing

quintessentiallyrepublican,defendedfederalism,localautonomy,abolitionof

privileges,religiousfreedomandsecularizationofthecemeteries. 21 Duringthe

violentpoliticthugofwarinvolvingpoliticallocalforcesandthefederal

government,Gastofoundanotheruseforhischemistryskills.InMayof1912,he

wasaccusedbythenewspaper,AProvinciadoPar,toplottheexplosionofthe

21

Cruz,HistriaDoPar551.

newspapersofficesinchangeforahugesumofmoney. 22 Thisnewspaperwas

Page | 17 ownedbyGastospartypoliticalrivalwhoafterwardendedupdefeatedand

publiclyhumiliated. 23 Interestinglyenough,thenewspaperFolhadoNorteowned

byGastospoliticalallieswasalsothreatenedwithdynamitenotwithstandingin

bothcasestheexplosionsneverhadtakenplace. 24 Modernizationaffectedpolitics

inBrazilinvariouswaysandemployingmodernexplosiveswouldbeoneformof

violentradicalizationinthepoliticaldiscourse.AsZeevIvianskypointsout:

22

CarlosRocque,AntnioLemosESuapoca:HistriaPolticaDoPar,2a.ed.(Belm,PA:EditoraCejup, 1996)354. 23 Weinstein,TheAmazonRubberBoom,18501920249. 24 ThenewspaperAProvinciadoPareventuallywasburnedtothegroundin1912byanenragedmob.

individual terror was one manifestation of the modern age of violence

andsymptom and expression ofgreatchanges of social stratification, government,

Page | 18

technology,ideologyandrevolutionaryactivity. 25

AsforGasto,consideringhiseducation,socialbackground,andtrajectory

onewouldimaginehisdegreeoffrustrationaftermoreonedecadeinAmazon

withoutevengetclosetohisfamilypastachievements.Thisepisodemayrevealthat

hisquasioutburstofindividualterrorratherthanbeingpartofarevolutionary

driveforchangewasanoutletforhisfrustrationandgraduallypolitical,socialand

25

Ze'evIviansky,"IndividualTerror:ConceptandTypology,"JournalofContemporaryHistory12,no.1 (Jan.1977).

economicalienation.Perhaps,thewholeepisodewastheutmostexpressionofhis

Page | 19 innerdesiretorescuethepastthroughtheweaponofchoiceofmodernterrorists,

thedynamite.

IntheaftermathofthisintraoligarchicbloodedpoliticalbattleGastos

politicalpartywasamongthewinners,forhimparticularlythevictorymeantthe

localpresssupportfromhisnextventure.

Atsomepointduringtheprewaryears,Gastochangedhisactivitiestoward

anotherpromisingenterprise. 26 Oneoftheconsequencesofthehugeprogress

26

Changingbusinessinterestswasasurvivalstrategyadoptedbylocalentrepreneurs.Thus,Gasto Graciesoptionforentertainmentventuresshouldbeunderstoodasanattempttosurviveamidstrubber economydecadence.Weinstein,TheAmazonRubberBoom,18501920258.

experiencedbyBelm,duringtheearlytwentycentury,wastheemergenceof

Page | 20 sizeableanddynamicelitethateagerlysoughtmodernexoticformsof

entertainment.Theatresandcinemaswerecreatedandcircusmountedtheirtents

toentertainthelocalhighsociety. 27 GastobecamepartnerintheAmericanCircus

ownedbytheQueiroloBrothersandmanageroftheItalianArgentinewrestler

AlfredoLecontein1916. 28

27

AndersonM.B.Cavalcante,"AChegadaDoCinemaNoParEaFiguraDeLiberoLuxardo,"inHistriae Histria(2005).AlsoMariadeNazarSarges,Belm:RiquezasProduzindoaBellepoque,18701912 ([Belm,Brazil]:EditoraPakaTatu,2000)8283. 28 RildoErosdeMedeirosisjournalist,judopractitionerandarguablythemostimportantresearcheron historyofJapanesemartialartsinAmazon.RildosresearchwasendorsedbytheprestigiousKodokan JudoInstituteinTokyo,Japan.HelivesinManaus,stateofAmazonandsincethecompleteseriesofkey newspapersfromtheregioncannotbefoundelsewhere,hisworkisainvaluablesourceforanystudyof Japanesemartialartsinthatregion.Moreover,hehasalsoconductedagreatnumberofinterviewswith JapaneseandtheirdescendantsinAmazon.TheinformationthatIobtainedfromhimareresultofthree yearsofconsultationsbyelectronicmail,regularmailandtelephonicconversations.Hereafterhis personalinformswillbecitedasRildoMedeirospersonalinform.TheinformationonGasto associationwithAmericanCircuswasprovidedbyhimbasedoninformationthathegotonthe newspaperFolhadoNorte.TheQueiroloBrothersandtheirAmericanCircuswereoriginallyfrom Uruguay.TheytraveledaroundtheworldandsettledinBrazilin1910.AntnioTorresandMrcioCastro Carrilho,AliceViveirosde,OCircoNoBrasil/AntnioTorres;Colaborao,AliceViveirosDeCastroE MrcioCarrilho(RiodeJaneiroSoPaulo:FUNARTE;Atrao,1998)13641.ThepresenceofUruguayans andArgentineansinBrazilwasnotexceptionalratherwerepartoftheculturalphenomenoncalledCirco CriollowhichrepresentsagoldenageofcircusactivitiesintheregionofLaPlata.RalHctorCastagnino, ElCircoCriollo;DatosYDocumentosParaSuHistoria,17571924,ColeccinLajouaneDeFolklore

Aspartofthephenomenonthatmadetheregiontemporarilymagnetfor

Page | 21 foreignadventurerstheJapanesetroupeofmartialartistscametoAmazonin1915

tosatisfyelitesdemandsforexoticperformances.TheTroupeKomawasformedby

JapanesejiujitsumastersputtogetheranddirectedbyMayedaMitsuyo 29 inthe

courseofhistravelsinLatinAmerica. 30

Argentino,(BuenosAires,:Lajouane,1953).Alsosee:BeatrizSeibel,HistoriaDelCirco(BuenosAires, Argentina:EdicionesdelSol,1993). 29 Hereafter,allJapanesenameswillfollowtheJapanesestyle,surnamefirstfollowedbythegivenname. 30 TroupeKomawasabrainchildofMayedaMitsuyo,aKodokanjudoblackbelt,knowninthe entertainmentbusinessasCountKoma.Thisnomdeguerrewasadoptedduringhisinternationalcareer aswrestler.ThetroupewasformedbySatakeNobushiro,UenishSadakazualsoknownasLaku(hetrained thePeruvianPolice),Okura(livinginChile),Shimitsu(livinginArgentina),andMayedahimself.

ThelocalnewspapersFolhadoNorteownedbyGastospoliticalallieswas

Page | 22 theprincipalpromoterofculturallifeandentertainmentinBelm. 31 InOctoberof

1915thenewspaperannouncedtheforthcomingattractionsattheBarParaense:

of the Italian duo Sereia The Mermaid , the French singer, Madam

Germaine Derval and Dandy & May, the American duo of singers and dancers

performing eccentric performances. The troupe itself will perform jiujitsu,

wresting, boxing and Japanese fencing matches, and is directed by the undefeated

worldchampion,CountKomawhowilloffertherewardof5,000francsforanyone

able to defeat one of the troupes members formed by Okura, champion of Chile,

Shimizi,championofPeru,Satake,championofNewYorkandLuku Laku former

31

ThenewspaperFolhadoNortebeguntocirculatein1896inoppositiontoAntonioLemos,localpolitical bossdeposedduringthepoliticalcrisisin1912.TheFolhadoNortethereafterpromoteasortofcultural vanguardegetengagedindiscussionsonwomanssuffrageamongothermoderntopicsoftheday.

militaryinstructorinPeru.ThetroupeiscurrentlyinthestateofParonitswayto

North America and its presentations have been a great success in other countries.

Page | 23

Thetroupewillbedressingproperandtotallydecentattire,anditsperformanceis

rigorously family oriented. Flyers with detailed program will be distributed in

advance and the troupe will parade on the principal city streets with their

traditionaloutfits. 32

TheprogramofvarietiespresentedatBarParaensedemonstratethatdespite

theongoingeconomiccrisisinAmazon,theregionstillworkasamagnatefor

foreignartists.Also,isnoteworthytomentionthatJapanesejiujitsumadeitsdebut

32

TheatreBarParaensewasthelocalcentreofentertainmentthatheldawiderangeofspectaclesduring BelmsbellepoqueFolhadoNorte,Belm,10/25/1915.

inAmazonasacombinationofstageperformanceandpublicmatchesratherthana

Page | 24 sport.Nevertheless,itwaspresentedasentertainmentonaclearoppositionofjiu

jitsustrendsinJapan.Inanutshell,jiujitsucametoBrazilasaproductoflateBelle

poquebourgeoisamusementsimilartooperas,cinema,plays,theatersand

circus. 33 Perhaps,thismightexplainsthedecisionofKomatousethegenericterm

jiujitsuinsteadKodokanjudo.Thelatterwasquintessentiallyarescueofa

disheartenedtraditionreinventedwithanauraofmodernrespectability.Hence,

MayedaMitsuyowasoriginallyablackbeltformedbytherigidmoralstandardsset

byKanoJigoro.However,histrajectorymadehimbreakwayfromhisKodokan

33

See:MariaFernandaBaptistaBicalho,"TheArtofSeduction:RepresentationofWomeninBrazilian SilentCinema,"LusoBrazilianReview30,no.1(Summer,1993).

rootstoperforminlesshonorablespacessuchastheatresandcircusfightingfor

Page | 25 money.SinceKodokanjudowasonestyleofjiujitsutheuseofgeneric

denominationsavehimofembarrassmentandprotectedKodokansreputation. 34

Threedayslater,thenewshighlightedthehugesuccessofTroupeKoma

attractingacountlessmultitudetowatchtheNipponHercules. 35 Also,theprize

offeredbyKomapromptedlocalchallengerstoshowupandconfrontthejiu

jitsumen..Consideringthelocaleconomydirestraits,fivethousandsfrancs

representedaconsiderablesumofmoneyforeventualcandidates.Despitethe

34

JamesA.GreenandJosephR.Svinth,"TheCircleandtheOctagon:Maeda'sJudoandGracie'sJiuJitsu," inMartialArtsintheModernWorld,ed.JamesA.GreenandJosephR.Svinth(Westport,Conn.:Praeger, 2003).GreenandSvinthponderreasonably,basedonKanosdeclarations,thathisprinciplesdefinitely wouldnocondonewithprofessionalismoranypublicentertainmentforpersonalgain. 35 FolhadoNorte,Belm,10/28/1915.

boldnessofsomeindividualsthematchesinvariablyendedupinvictoriesforthe

Page | 26 Japaneseand,asexpected,theprizeremainedintact. 36 Astheopenchallenges

followed,expectationsroseandofcoursethespectacleprofits.TheBarParaenses

manager,besidetheprizestipulatedbyCountKoma,waswillingtopayfifty

thousandmilreisforanylocalcapoeirapractitioner 37 thateventuallyfightand

defeatSatakeSoishiro. 38 Thedebateensuedinthepresswhethercapoeiraorjiu

jitsuwasthemostefficientmartialflaredupinpressandkeptthepublicinterest

36

ThereisnowaytoknowwhyCountKomafixedtheprizeinfrancs.However,onecouldspeculatethat sincetheFrenchcurrencywasexperiencedastrongdevaluationintheexchangeratesduetheWorldWar ICountKomasstrategymightdeliberatelyminimizeanyeventualsetback.FolhadoNorte,Belm, 10/28/1915.Intwoopenchallengesoccurredinthatday,SeverianoLeonelandGeraldoLima,fought respectivelyCountKomaandLaku.TheformerwasdefeatedbyKomaandlatterreachedadrawwiththe Japanese.Suchimpressiveperformancehowevermightwellbeastrategytoencouragelocalchallengers tokeepshowingupandchallengethemembersoftroupe. 37 CapoeiraisanAfricandiasporicmartialartwidelypracticedinBrazil,mostlybyAfrodescendants. However,thetermcapoeiracouldbelooselyappliedforanytoughstreetfighterregardlessbeingatrue capoeirapractitionerornot.Theregulationandstandardizationofcapoeiraassportifiedmartialartcame later. 38 FolhadoNorte,Belm,11/04/1915.Satakewasthetroupesbestfighter.

alive.Thosefavoringjiujitsuarguedthatcapoeirawasnotamartialartandits

Page | 27 practicewasoutlawed.Thecapoeirassupporterscounteredattackbreakingdown

theBraziliancriminalcodewhichprescribedpunishmentinpublicspacesfor

practicesgenericallylabeledascapoeiragem. 39 Thus,explainingthejuridical

technicalitiesthearticlewantedtoproofthatcapoeiraconstitutesalreadya

standardizedsystemofmartialartsandnotonlyacrobaticexercisesloosely

performedbyvagrants. 40 Inthesameedition,perhapscompromisingdivergent

positions,journalistsreachedtheconclusionthatjiujitsuwasthescienceworking

39

Capoeiraspracticewascriminalizedin1890sPenalCode.ThomasH.Holloway,""AHealthyTerror": PoliceRepressionofCapoeirasinNineteenthCenturyRioDeJaneiro,"TheHispanicAmericanHistorical Review69,no.4(1989):671.Alsosee:MayaTalmonChvaicer,"TheCriminalizationofCapoeirain NineteenthCenturyBrazil,"TheHispanicAmericanHistoricalReview82,no.3(2002):535. 40 FolhadoNorte,Belm11/05/1915.CapoeirasdefensewasbasedonthearticlepublishedbyKosmos magazineinRiodeJaneiroinwhichisattestedcapoeirasefficacy.Thearticlewasoriginallypublishedby LimaCampos,"ACapoeira,"Kosmos,RevistaArtistica,ScientificaeLiteraria1906.

withbodysweakpointsandcapoeiraisthesciencetodefygravity.Highlighting

Page | 28 capoeiraphysicaldemands,thearticleclaimedthattheBrazilianmartialartwasa

greatfitnessexercise,andshouldbeadoptedintheschools. 41 Thedebateaboutthe

impedingshowdownbetweentwofightingsystemsdemonstratethatBraziliansare

willingtoincorporatetheJapaneseculture;howevertheyalsoseektolegitimize

theirsbygrantingoverCapoeirathesamedegreeofrespectabilityofitsEuropean

andJapanesecounterparts.Notwithstandinglegitimizationoflocalcultureisdone

alwaysaccordingtoforeignstandards,ratherthandoneonitsownright.

41

FolhadoNorte,Belm11/15/1915.

TherivalryinvolvingforeignandlocalssparkedrivalrybetweentheJapanese

Page | 29 overconfidenceandBrazilianselfesteem.ThenewspaperFolhadoNorteunleashed

anationalisticcampaign,questioningJapanesemartialartsefficacyagainstthe

Braziliancapoeirabasedonpastevents.TheyaccusedtheJapaneseoffearingfight

capoeiras,despitetheyadvertisedotherwise. 42 Thereasonforthishaditsrootsin

pastconfrontationsinvolvingBrazilianandJapanese.Intheyearof1909,agroupof

medicalschoolstudentsorganizedapublicboutinRiodeJaneiro,pittingSada

Miyako,aJapanesejiujitsumartialartistandCyriaco,acapoeirastreetfighter.The

42

Thenewspapersadvertisementstatedthatchallengeswereopenforpeopleofallnationalities, withoutdistinctionofclassandsocialposition.Therivalryandpolemicsaroundjiujitsuandcapoeirawas likelypartofastrategytopromotethefightexploringlocalssensibilities.Thejournalistswhosided whetherwithcapoeiraorjiujitsumightwellbethesameperson.TheFolhadoNorteseditoratthetime wasPauloMaranhojournalistparticularlyfearedbyhisabilitytosustainpublicdebates.However, marketingstrategiesaside,certainlytherewasagreatdegreeofrivalryinvolvingthematchesas demonstratedintheviolenceinsideandoutsidethering.Theemphasisonclass,raceandnationality seemedtoavoidpossiblerestrictionstothecapoeirassincetheyareusuallypoorandblack.

matchendedwithCyriacosfulminantvictorythankstocapoeirainherentslickness.

Page | 30 Ofcourse,thecapoeirasmodusoperandi,inthatoccasion,wasquiteunusualinthe

realmofJapanesemartialarts. 43 ThejournalistinBelmcertainlyhadknowledgeof

theentireaffair,occurredinRiodeJaneiroandtriedtouseittoprovokethe

JapanesewrestlersandboostBraziliansmorale.Moreover,healsoquestioned,

whethertheadoptionofjiujitsubythearmedforceswouldbereasonableifthe

JapaneseinAmazonfearamodestcountrysidecapoeira.44

43

Thepublicmatchwascoveredbythepressandwatchedbysizeableaudience.Accordingtothe accountstheJapanesemartialartisthiredtoteachjiujitsuintheNavy,wasbowingtowardtheaudience (inhistraditionalstyle)whiletheBraziliancapoeirawasbitinghistongueinordertoincreasehis productionofsaliva.Intheexactmomentthattheyfaceeachotherthecapoeiradeliveredahugespitat theJapanesesfacethatgethimdisorientedwhichCyriacotakeadvantagetounleashapowerfulmove calledrabodearraia(stingraystail)thatknockedoutthejiujitsumaster.Theactualfightlastonlyfew secondsandtheaudiencegotindeliriouswithjoy.Cyriacowassomehowadoptedbybothfacultyand studentsoftheMedicalSchoolwhichwasofcourseaelitistinstitutionwhichhelpscapoeiratobe acceptedaspartoftheBrazilianculture.Kosmos,RevistaArtistica,ScientificaeLiteraria,Anno3,1, Janeiro1906.Alsosee:AndreLuizLaceLopes,AVoltaDoMundoDaCapoeira([RiodeJaneiro:s.n.],1999) 10203. 44 FolhadoNorte,Belm11/10/1915.TheMilitary(eithertheArmyortheNavy)hadoccasionallytriedto adoptJapanesemartialartsasmeansofmodernizationasearlyas1888.TakezawaManji,Japanese

ThematchconfrontingcapoeiraplayerPdeBola Ballfoot andSatake

Page | 31 Soishirowasfinallyanounced:Today:capoeiraagainstjiujitsu!Everybodyneeds

togototheBarParaense! 45 Threedayslatter,inaquitesarcasticarticle,the

newspaperinformedthatPdeBolawenttoBarParaenseandwaseasilybeatenby

Satake.Thecapoeiraplayerdidnotapplythefamousrabodearraia stingraystail

technique,notevenamodestrasteira footsweep ,somuchcommonamongthe

kidsinthestreets.Thejournalistdefendedthatwastimeformeaculpafromthose

martialartistwashiredtotraintheimperialguards.Osimigrantesjaponesesprecursors:umolhar historicosobreoperiodopreKasatuMaru.MuseuHistoricodaImigracaoJaponesanoBrasil. http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/,"OsImigrantesJaponesesPrecursoresUmOlharHistricoSobreO PerodoPrKasatoMaru,"inCriehistoriaed.Nikkeylbum(2007). 45 FolhadoNorte,Belm11/07/1915.

whonaivelybelievedinthefallacyoftheircountrymen.Fortunately,heconcluded,

Page | 32 notallBraziliansdid. 46

InNovember,theTroupeKomaperformedtheirlastpresentationattheBar

ParaenseandafterwardsMayedaremainedinBelmtoopenhisfirstdojo 47 atthe

CineModernTheatre. 48 Thenewspaperencouragedthelocalyouthinterestedin

physicalculturetosignupforclasseswhereastheJapanesemethodofteaching

wastotallyharmless. 49 Jiujitsuslessonsroseenthusiasmamongthelocalyouth

andlocalscultivatorsofmuscle.Yet,accordingtothenewspaper,formanyyoung

46 47

FolhadoNorte,Belm11/10/1915. Jiujitsutraininghall.Henceforth,onlywillbeuseditsJapanesetraditionaldenominationwhichispart ofthemartialartsjargon:dojo. 48 FolhadoNorte,Belm11/29/1915.givingjiujitsulessonsforreasonablepricestoadultsand children.Jujutsugioruniformswereprovidedbyhimlessonswerescheduledinthemorningsafternoons andevenings. 49 FolhadoNorte,Belm1/18/1916.

studentsenrolled,theCountKomapreparedaspecialprogramforchildrenthereby

Page | 33 demonstratinghiscommitmentwiththefuturegenerations. 50

Despitebeingattractedprimarybyregionswealth,foreignartistshadto

adjusttheirexpectationstothereality.Thespectaclespromoterssetprices

accessibletothelocalpopulationbywhichachievedtohavefullybooked

audiences. 51 Ontheotherhand,inManaus,stateofAmazonscapital,theTroupe

Komaperformedforwealthyrubberbarons,whereasdespitetheselected

audience,thepresentationturnedoutinwidespreadgamblingandviolence. 52 Itis

50

FolhadoNorte,Belm1/19/1916.ProbablysomeofthefirststudentsenrolledbytheJapaneseare thosedefeatedinthechallengesalongtheseasonwhoeventuallybecametheirfirstgraduatestudents. 51 FolhadoNorte,Belm,10/28/1915.Pricesrangedfrom1$000to10$000.AfactoryworkerinRiode Janeiroreceived110$000/month(minimumwage).Eventakenintoconsiderationthatwagesinthe nationscapitalwerethehighestinthecountrytheticketpricesseemedtobeprettyaffordable.Brahma. P.556. 52 RildoErosdeMedeirospersonalinformationbasedonlocalnewspapers.

difficulttoassertforcertain,thereasonforsuchwildperformancesoccurredin

Page | 34 Manaus.Perhapsthecityfrontiersatmosphere,comparingwiththemost

sophisticatedBelm,contributedforthespectaclesriotousend. 53

DuetheresoundingsuccessoftheJapanese,morepeopleenrolledinjiujitsu

lessonsunderMayedaandSatake,whominturn,wereconsideringtoputupalocal

tournament. 54 CountKomasentouragetouredbackandforwardthetwocapital

citiesoftheAmazonregionBelmandManausbetweenOctoberandDecemberof

1915. 55 InManaus,SatakeSoishiropresentedseminarsinalocalcollegeon

53

OTempo,Manaus,12/28/1915.InManaus,CountKomafoughtagainstthewrestlerNagibAssefat PolytheamaTheatre.Thenewspaperannouncedasensationalmatchbetweenthedirectorofthe JapanesetroupeandthefamousTurkishwrestler.NagibAssefwaslikelySyrianLebaneseratherthan Turkish,middleeasternersimmigrantsinBrazilwereidentifiedunderdifferentethniclabelsandTurk wasoneofthemduethefirstwavesofSyrianLebaneseimmigrantsholdpassportissuedbytheOttoman Empire.See:AnotherArabesque,pp.1112. 54 FolhadoNorte,Belm11/16/1915. 55 BelmandManauswerethecapitalcitiesofthestatesofParandAmazonasrespectively.

Japanesephysicaleducationcombinedwithjiujitsulessons.Yet,inManaus,Count

Page | 35 Komaandhistroupereportedlyorganizedthefirstjiujitsutournamentever

organizedinBrazilwonbySatakeSoishiro. 56 Aftertheevent,MayedaalongOkura

andShimizu,returnedtoBelmwhileSatakeandUenishSadakazuremained

teachingjiujitsuinManaus.ThenewspaperinManausannouncedthefirstlessons

ofjiujitsu:

YesterdayMasterLakugavehisfirstjiujitsulessoninthedojoopenedin

thefirstflooroftheBankofBrazilsbuilding.Forthoseinterestedinthepracticeof

suchbeautifulandelegantsportlessonswillbegiveneverydayfrom15:00to17:00.

56

CountKomaworkedintheeventsorganizationonly.OTempo,Manaus,11/25/1916.Sataketaughtjiu jitsuatthelocalcollegeownedbyJoseChevalier.RildoErosdeMedeirospersonalinformation.

Soon will be organized a tournament between Laku and Satake dojos. This event

willbethefirstcontestorganizedinAmazon.57

Page | 36

BackinBelm,MayedaalongwithOkuraandShimizustagepresentationsat

thePalaceTheatrewhereheopenedhisdojopriortheseasoninManaus. 58

InDecember1916theAmericanCircusarrivedinBelmpresentingthe

ItalianArgentineanwrestlerAlfredoLecontewhopreviouslydefeatedUenish

Sadakazu Raku inManausandintendedtochallengeotherJapanese.InManaus,

57

OTempo,Manaus,01/16/1916.ThecontestwassurelynotonlyunheardinBrazil,butisreasonableto believethatwasalsothefirstinLatinAmerica. 58 Duringthisseason,thePalaceTheatrepresentedthetroupeKomaandtheSpanishduetLosRoigs. CountKomacontinuedtoofferprizesincashoragoldmedalincaseofdefeat.Notesinthenewspaper aboutCountKomasjiujitsulessonscanfoundintheFolhadoNorte,BelmfromJanuary18/19/201916.

theAmericanCircusarrivedaroundthesametimetheJapanesetroupewastouring

Page | 37 inthetown.ThecircuswasmanagedbyHenriqueMelloandGastoGracieand

unfoldeditstentsnexttheAmazonTheatre.Thecircusmainattractionswerethe

acrobatsQueiroloBrothersandthewrestlerAlfredoLecontewhochallengedand

defeatedUenish. 59 ThedefeatpromptedSatakesresponse,buttheshowdown

betweenthetwowascalledoffbythelocalpolicechiefduethebrawleruptedafter

thepreviousmatch. 60 BackinBelm,LeconteacceptedtofightShimizu,under

certainconditions,suchastherighttoweartheGrecoRomansuniformand

59

OTempo,Manaus,1/30/1916.SatakewassickandwasreplacedbyUenish.RildoMedeirospersonal information. 60 OTempo,Manaus,12/08/1916.SatakehandedtothefirmFontenelle&co.theamountof500$000mil reistobedeliveredincaseofhisdefeatbeforeAlfredoLeconte,duringtheupcomingwrestlingmatchto realizedonthestageofthePolytheamaTheatre.Thechiefofpolice,BraulioPinto,bannednoholds barrenmatchinManausduetheviolentincidentsafterthefights.RildoErosdeMedeirospersonal information.

breakdowntheboutinrounds.LeconteandhismanagerGastoGracie,had

Page | 38 carefullyobservedtheJapaneseperformances.Thepreconditionssetbythemwere

twofold,toavoidbyallmeantheuseofJapanesejiujitsugi,andminimizethe

possibilityofLecontebeingfinishedupinalongmatchwithoutbreaks.

Furthermore,bothjiujitsuuniforms gi andlongmatchesfavoredtheJapanese,

andLeconteandGraciecleverlysoughttodenythemsuchadvantages.Shimizus

counterofferagreedontheGrecoRomansoutfitiftheItalianArgentineangivesup

theprizemoneyofferedbytheJapanese.LeconteeventuallybeatShimizuand,once

again,thematchendedinacollectivebrawl. 61 Inanopenletterpublishedafterthe

61

RildoErosdeMedeirospersonalinformation.

fight,ShimizuKusaku,accusedhisopponentofbeingdisloyal.Hecomplainedthat

Page | 39 Lecontefoughtalmostnakedwithhisbodyentirelygreasedandspentmostofthe

timeavoidingthefightwithoutmakeanyattempttoengagehim.Onthecontrary,

whenevercorneredheachievedtogethimselfofftheringintotheescapearea

designedpreviouslybyhisteam.Inthelastround,alwaysaccordingtoUenish,the

slipperyLecontihadhimbackagainstthematandwasproclaimedwinnerwithout

therefereewaitforthethirtysecondholddownpreviouslyestablished. 62 Count

KomasdisturbancevisvisShimizusdefeatledhimtotaketheaffairsonhis

62

FolhadoNorte,Belm,12/21/1916.UenishSadakazu(Raku)latersettledinBritainandpublishedajiu jitsumanual,SadakazuUyenishi,TheTextBookofJuJutsuasPractisedinJapan;BeingaSimpleTreatise ontheJapaneseMethodofSelfDefence(London,:Athleticpublicationsltd.,1936).

handschallengingLeconte,whominturn,promptlyacceptedit. 63 Attheend,the

Page | 40 showdownwascancelled,whichmightbeattributedtofreshfriendshipborn

betweenMayedaandGracie.Asaresultoftheiracquaintance,CarlosGracie,thena

teenagerjoinedtoMayedasdojointheModernTheatre TeatroModerno at

Nazar. 64

TheCountKomaandhistroupeofmartialartists,performedstage

presentations,taughtjiujitsu,organizedseminarsandopeneddojosstartinginthe

endof1915.Theterritorializationofjiujitsu/judo,identifiedaroundthesametime

63 64

Idem. AccordingtotheGraciefamilysourceshealsotrainedunderJachyntoFerro,Mayedashighergraduate students.ReilaGracie,CarlosGracie:OCriadorDeUmaDinastia(RiodeJaneiro:Record,2008).Jachynto Ferrowasalocalwrestler,likeothers,attractedbychallengesissuedbyTroupeKoma.

elsewhere,canalsobeappliedintheAmazonwheremodernizationandprogress

Page | 41 camerapid,intense,butlastforarelativeshortperiodoftime. 65 Thisearly

territorializationcomparingtootherregionsinBrazilandsubsequentquasi

extinctionofJapanesejiujitsuinAmazoncertainlyisconnectedtotheephemeral

centralityoftheentireregion.

65

See:SabineFrhstckandWolframManzenreiter,"NeverlandLost:JudoCulturesinAustria,Japanand Everywhere,"inGlobalizingJapan:EthnographyoftheJapanesePresenceinAsia,Europe,andAmerica, ed.HarumiBefuandSylvieGuichardAnguis(eds.)(LondonRoutledge,2001).

II
Page | 42

Fromjiujitsutojudo:KanoJigorosconservativerevolution

ThestyleofjiujitsubroughtbyMayedaMitsuyoandSatakeSoishiroto

AmazonwasathemodernizedstyleofjiujitsuknownasKodokanjudo. 66 The

martialartdenominatedintheWestasjiujitsu jujutsu wasoriginallyabranch

withinthecomprehensivefightingsystemknownasbujutsu thecollectiveartsand

techniquesinbattle whichhasdevelopedoverthecenturiesinJapan.Againstthe

66

Plustheexperienceaccumulatedovertheyearsofintenseperformanceinnoholdsbarredmatches.

popularbelief,themartialsystemofbujutsuisuniquetoJapansgeographicalset

Page | 43 andhistoricalcontext. 67 Thetermjujutsuitselfcameintobeingforthefirsttimein

thefirsthalfoftheseventeencenturywhichplaceitasproductofmedievalEdo

period 16031867 . 68 Thus,asInoueShunhasputit,theJapanesemartialarts

knowntodayasbudoareamoderninvention. 69

67

JujutsuisthenameofmostcommonlyknowninJapanforthisart,butnamesasYawara,Taijitsu, Hakuda,Kogusoku,Toriteandotherssometimesappliedtosimilararts.JapanSociety(LondonEngland). "TransactionsandProceedingsoftheJapanSociety,London=RondonNihonKy*OkaiZasshi,"(London: KeganPaul,Trench,TrubnerandCo.,1892),5.Bujutsugainedmomentumduringtheperiodknownas WarrenStates(frommid1400stomid1600s)whenthesystemdevelopedandwasemployedfor survivalandforobtainwealthandpower.Despitetheintroductionoffirearmsdatedfrommid1500sthe warfarewasstillprettymuchdominatedbyhandtohandfighting.(BrownDelmer)Oncethisunstable periodendedthevariousskillsthatwarriorsrequiredcollectivelytomaster(bujutsu)begantodevelop distinctculturalidentities.Moreover,thedecreeof1588madeuseofswordsmonopolyofthewarrior class.IntheEdoperiod(16031867)characterizedbyisolationismandstabilitymartialartsbecameless usedforpracticalpurposesandincreasinglypartofwarriorseducation.Inthesamewayofothercultural activitiesmartialartsbranchoffintohundredsofschoolsaccordingtotheweaponsandmasterslineages. Fromthemiddleof1700sonwardmartialartsbeguntodevelopedamoresportlikefeatureandinthe lateEdotookaneducationalrole.Thesedevelopmentspavedwaytothetransitiontobudo.Yoshinobu Hamaguchi,"InnovationinMartialArts,"inJapan,SportandSociety:TraditionandChangeina GlobalizingWorlded.JosephMaguireandMasayoshiNakayama(LondonandNewYork:Routledge, 2006),89.KanoYukimitsu(PresidentofKodokan)corroboratesthetheorythatjujutsuwascreated entirelybyJapanese.JigoroKano,MindoverMuscle:WritingsfromtheFounderofJudo(Tokyo;London: KodanshaInternational,2005)1415. 68 SergeMolclaimsthatthetermwaslikelyoriginatedfromthetermyawaracoinedbySekigushiUjimune founderofSekiguchiRyu.Mol,89. 69 Thisisnottosaythatthewordbudwasnotusedbeforethemodernera.AscanbeenseeninIhara SaikakusBuddenraikiandDaidjiYzansBudshoshinshu,howeverintheTokugawaerameant bushid,thewayofthewarriorsignifyingthecodeofconductandethosofthesamuraiclass.Today

TheJapanesetermjujutsuiscommonlytranslatedasthegentleartorthe

Page | 44 artofsoftnesshoweverSergeMolclaimsthatamorecomprehensivedefinition

wouldbeamethodofclosecombat,eitherunarmedoremployingminorweapons

thatcanbeusedindefensiveoroffensiveways,tosubdueoneormoreunarmedor

armedopponents. 70

Themartialartsinparticularandcultureingeneral,underwent

modernizationduringtheopeningofJapantoWesternculturesduringthelasthalf

ofthenineteenthcentury,inwhatwasknownasMeijiperiod. 71 This

budreferstoJapanesemartialartssuchasjudo,kendo,aikido,andkyud.AccordingtoNakabayashi Shinji,thisusageofbuddatesfromthelastdecadeofthenineteenthcentury.InoueShun,"The InventionoftheMartialArts,"inMirrorofModernity:InventedTraditionsofModernJapan,ed.Stephen Vlastos(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1998),163. 70 SergeMol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:ACompleteGuidetoKoryuJuJujutsu,1sted.(Tokyo;New York:KodanshaInternational,2001)10. 71 Meijiperiod(18681912).TheMeijiEraistheperiodcorrespondenttoEmperorMeijisruleinJapan.

transformationbegunrathergraduallyandaspartofthephenomenonthataffected

Page | 45 profoundlyJapanesesocietyasawhole.Particularlyconcerningthemartialarts,as

YashinobuHamaguchidefined,itwouldbeunderstoodasaphenomenonof

transitionfrombujutsutobudo. 72

Theyoungestmemberofawealthyfamily,KanoJigoro,agiftedstudent

trainedinthemoderncurriculumadoptedbytheJapaneseuniversitiesintheMeiji

period,tookupthetasktomodernizeaspecificbranchofthefeudalmartialartof

jujutsuandadaptittothetastesandneedsofthenewJapan. 73 Kanospersonaland

72 73

Hamaguchi,"InnovationinMartialArts,"7. KanoJigorowasborninOctober28th1860atMikageintheProvinceofHyogotoMareshibaJirosaku andKanoSadako.Heinheritedhisfathersnamefollowingthetraditionalthoughitwaspasseddown fromhismotherforebears,butsincehismotherwastheeldestdaughterofwealthiestsakebrewerwho hadnotmaleoffspringtocarrythefamilysnamehisfatheragreeonbeingadoptedbyKanohousehold andperpetuateitsname.Hismotherbelongedtoatraditionalclanofsakebrewersandhisfatherfroma familyofShintopriests,BuddhistsmastersandConfuncianscholars.BrianN.Watson,TheFatherofJudo: ABiographyofJigoroKano(Tokyo;London:KodanshaInternational,2000)23.andJohnStevens,Three

professionaltrajectoryembodiedingreatdealthechangeswithinJapanesesociety,

Page | 46 sinceheembracedtheideaofbuildphysicalcharacter,mastermodernscienceand

acquireknowledgeofforeignlanguages. 74 Heundertookasystematicstudyof

traditionalschoolsofjujutsuparticularlytheTenjinShinyoRyuandlatertheKito

RyublendedwhereuponthetechniquesintotheKanoRyujujutsu. 75 Thetermjudo

coinedlaterwasnotinventedbyKano,andcanbefoundinuseasearlyas1724. 76

BudoMasters:JigoroKano(Judo),GichinFunakoshi(Karate),MoriheiUeshiba(Aikido)(Tokyo;London: KodanshaInternational,1995)1112.KanograduatedfromtheDepartmentofPoliticalScienceand FinanceatTokyoImperialUniversityinJuly1881.Shun,"TheInventionoftheMartialArts,"164. 74 KanoJigorowaseducatedinEuropeanlanguagesandparticularlyinEnglish.Hiscollegeeducationcould beakeytounderstandhislateconcepts.AtTokyoImperialUniversityhehadaveryeclecticcurriculum andfacultywhereashehadWesternscholarsandZenpriests.AmongtheformersthefamousAmerican orientalistErnestFenollosa.Stevens,ThreeBudoMasters:JigoroKano(Judo),GichinFunakoshi(Karate), MoriheiUeshiba(Aikido)1920. 75 Tenjinshinyoryuistheeldestjujutsuschoolandwasestablishedaround1532.Kitoryuwasestablished aroundtheendofthesixteencenturyand1622.Mol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:ACompleteGuide toKoryuJuJujutsu101,27. Ryu:tradition,thenameusedtoidentifyamartialartsschool.JohnJ.Donohue,TheForgeoftheSpirit: Structure,Motion,andMeaningintheJapaneseMartialTradition,GarlandReferenceLibraryofSocial Science;(NewYork:GarlandPub.,1991)209. 76 JigoroKanoandJapan.KokusaiKank*okyoku.,Judo(Jujutsu)(Tokyo,:Maruzencompany,ltd.,1937). JapanSociety(LondonEngland)."TransactionsandProceedingsoftheJapanSociety,London=Rondon NihonKy*OkaiZasshi."Mol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:ACompleteGuidetoKoryuJuJujutsu810, 49.TokugawaorEdoperiodlastedfrom1600to1868.ThetermjudowasrarelyusedbeforetheMeiji

Besides,hewanteddeliberatedtoshywayfromimagesofbackwardnessembedin

Page | 47 thetraditionaljujutsu,replacingthistermforjudo.Bydoingso,hisintentionwasto

makecleardifferencebetweenthemereactualapplication jutsu andunderlying

theprinciple d .Lastly,bychoosingthetermjudoheprovidedthenecessarylink

withtradition,sincethewordjudowasusedbyotherschoolsofjujutsusuchas

KitoRyu,theonewhereKanohimselfstudied. 77 Thus,bychangingthesuffixjutsu

fordoKanonotonlyrescuedanobscureTokugawasword,butlaunchedhisown

era.HowevertherewereexceptionssuchasstylecalledChokushinryujudo.Kano,MindoverMuscle: WritingsfromtheFounderofJudo18. 77 InthediplomaawardeduponKanoin1883standsout,Nihonden(Japanesetradition)Kitojudo,Kano afterwardsadoptedthedenominationNihondenKodokanJudo.Shun,"TheInventionoftheMartialArts," 169.Alsoin:InstituteKodokan,"HistoireDuJudo,"JudoKodokanReviewXII,no.5(Nov.1962):51. MoreoverhissystemwasverymuchbasedonjujutsuoftheEdoperiodandaccordingtoMolcompletely differentfromthemodernJudo.Mol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:ACompleteGuidetoKoryuJu Jujutsu49.

conservativerevolution. 78 Kanoscomprehensivefightingsystemencompasses

Page | 48 grappingandstriketechniquesphilosophicallyembeddedinsynthesizedconcepts

ofneoConfucianism,ideasofJohnStuartMillandHerbertSpencercombining

physicaleducationandethicapplicationwhichmadeKanojujutsuuniqueamong

othersschools. 79 Furthermore,heconceivedasystemcapabletoaccommodate

78

ThereissomedisputewhetherKanowasamodernizeroratraditionalist,histhoughtsandactions however,seemstochallengethesesimplifications.Kanosideaslayonthehistoricalnuancesand complexitiesofJapansMeiji.Ontheotherhand,Kanoandothersmartialartistsagencywasdecisivein promotingtheirrespectivemartialarts.IfKanobreakswayofcertainaspectsfromoldtraditionsinthe othersheselectivelyrescuedthem.Theusageoftermconservativerevolutionhereistoemphasize Kanoscommitmentwithtraditiondespitethelargeuseofmodernideas. 79 See:MikisoHane,"TheSourcesofEnglishLiberalConceptsinEarlyMeijiJapan,"MonumentaNipponica 24,no.3(1969).Kanoratherthanadoptinganyparticularkindofschoolcreatedhisownschool promotingaselectionoftechniqueswhosecombinedatemiwaza(strikes)ofTenjinShiyoschooland nagewaza(throws)ofKitoschool.AlsoisoftenmentionedthatKanoundertakenascientificresearch therebyincorporatingothertechniquesfrombujutsuandevenfromWesternwrestling.Shun,"The InventionoftheMartialArts,"16465.Alsosee:Mol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:ACompleteGuide toKoryuJuJujutsu129.

valuesofearlynationalism,socialDarwinism,andneotraditionalismmixedwith

Page | 49 valuesofmanlinessandmartialskillsfromJapansEdoperiod. 80

ThegenesisofjudoaswellthepersonalinvolvementofKanowiththe

traditionaljujutsu,asshouldbeexpected,haveagreatdealofanecdotalaccounts

andinventedtraditions,butwhateverwashisactualmotivationshecertainlytook

upseriouslypracticeandstudyofthistraditionalmartialart. 81 Moreover,Kanos

80

DonaldRoden,"BaseballandtheQuestforNationalDignityinMeijiJapan,"TheAmericanHistorical Review85,no.3(Jun.,1980):519. 81 IfonerefinetheaccountsaroundKanospersonalmotivationtopracticejujutsuispossiblefindthelink betweeninventedtraditionandhistoricalfeasibility.Forexample,hisallegedlyinferiorityfragilitywhich ledtosubsequentepisodeswhenhewasrepeatedlyvictimofschoolsbullies.DuringtheMeiji,the interlockingbetweenbody,mindandnationwasmadeexplicitandofficiallysanctionedbythestate.Kano waslikelyamongtheunderexercisedstudentelitenowtargetedbyeducators.Collegestudentswere criticizedoftheyarecontemptuousoftheirbodiesasifstrengthandphysiquearetantamountto savageryandanimalisticpower.Thesystemforcedlowgradestudentstoexercisevigorouslyandhigh gradestudentswereleftaloneandreformssoughttoformanelitestrongofbodyaswellofmind.Kano belongingtotheelitegroupofstudentsandsufferedtheconsequencesofthis,foundaneducation systemeagertoadopthisinnovations.DonaldRoden516.Intheofficialversion,publishedbythe KodokanInstitutetheyclaimthatitisnotknownifitisonaccountoftheencouragementofthenew directingpowerorowingtothenaturaltendencyoftheuniversitystudentstowardsthemartialand feudaltechniquesthatjujutsuandkenjutsubecamesopopular.

schoolinggrantedhimwiththebesteducationavailableinJapanatthetimeand

Page | 50 alsoprovidedanetworkofconnectionswithintheMeijiestablishmentthathelped

hisprofessionalascensionandtheacceptanceofhissportifiedjujutsu. 82

ThefoundationofKodokandojo,thereafterKanosheadquartersinTokyo,

wasamilestoneintheprocessofjujutsusmodernization. 83 TheKanojudoryuhad

eventuallychallengedthetraditionrepresentedbythelongestablishedschoolsof

jujutsuandgraduallyovercametheexistentbiasagainstpreMeijiculture. 84

82

See:ByronK.Marshall,"ProfessorsandPolitics:TheMeijiAcademicElite,"JournalofJapaneseStudies3, no.1(Winter,1977).AlsoKanopioneersroleinthesportificationofmartialartshasbeenchallenged latelysincescholarshaveclaimedthatsuchprocessratherbeingadevelopmentofmidMeijiwasin motionlongbefore.Thusmartialartswentthroughgradualsportification,asearlyasthemiddleofthe eighteenthcentury.TheoveremphasizedroleofKodokanhasbeencriticized.Hamaguchi,"Innovationin MartialArts,"9.andShun,"TheInventionoftheMartialArts,"165. 83 Kodokancouldbetranslatedasplaceforpromotionorstudyoftheway.InThegeneralhistoryof theKodokanestablishedJune51882asthedateofitsfoundation.Thedojowassetinasmallroomat EishojiTemple(Buddhist)Kodokan,"HistoireDuJudo,"45. 84 ItseemsoutofquestiontheforerunnerroleplayedbyKanosandhisjujutsuinthe1880s.However,at thistimetheJapanesecultureasawholewentthroughaperiodofreactionagainsttheoverwhelming westernizationoccurredontheearlyMeiji.ThefoundationofKodokanhappenedaroundthetimeof JapanizationofmodernizationinthebeginningofmiddleMeiji.AsMichoNagaihasargued,

Throughoutthe1880sthepracticeoftraditionalmartialartsgained

Page | 51 momentumaftertheculturalbacklashintheearlyMeiji.Ifisunquestionablethat

Kodokanjudospearheadedmodernizationinmartialartsitisalsotruethatthis

martialartprovedtobepossibletoincorporatetraditioninthemodernJapan.

However,judowasnotalonesincekenjutsu kendo,fencing wasalsoexperiencing

itsrevivalinthe1880s.Thereasonsbehindthechoiceforthesetwostylesof

martialarts,amongsomanyotherschools,couldbeexplainedbytheoccurrenceof

WesternizationandJapanizationwerenotalwaysinconflictwithoneanother.Rather,Japanization,or searchforJapanesetypeofmodernizationandWesternizationwereatleastpartiallyoverlapping processes.MichioNagai,"WesternizationandJapanization:TheEarlyMeijiTransformationof Education,"inTraditionandModernizationinJapaneseCulture,ed.DonaldH.andBlackerShively, Carmen(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1971),39.Alsocasesofreactioncanbeperceivedinthe resurrectionofConfucianethics,therewasarevivalofinterestintraditionalJapaneseart,literature,and history.Inthe1880sispossibletodetectformsofintellectualprotest.DonaldH.Shively,"The JapanizationoftheMiddleMeiji,"inTraditionandModernizationinJapaneseCulture,ed.DonaldH.and BlackerShively,Carmen(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1971),78,102. JasonG.Karlin,"TheGenderofNationalism:CompetingMasculinitiesinMeijiJapan,"JournalofJapanese Studies28,no.1(Winter,2002):59.

alargermovementwithintheJapanesesocietytopreservethetradition.However,

Page | 52 historicalforcesalonedidnotexplainwhythesetwomartialartsprevailed,rather

theirprocessofrescueanddiffusioningreatdealwereproductofKanoJigoroand

YamahokaTesshuindividualagencies. 85

ItisgenerallyacceptedthatintheearlyperiodofKodokanjudo

confrontationsbetweenKanosdojoagainstotherjujutsuschoolswereimportantto

boostprestigeandselfesteem. 86 Asexpected,effectivenessinrealcombatis

fundamentalintherealmofmartialarts,notonlytoprovetechnicalsuperiority,but

85

YamaokaTesshuwasmemberofaclanofnotablesamuraiservinginTokugawacourt.Despitebeingon thedefeatedsideduringtheMejiRestaurationhemanagedtoremaininfluentialthankstohisstrong connectionswithintheMeijiestablishmentandparticularlyinTokyosPolicedepartment.See:John Stevens,TheSwordofNoSword:LifeoftheMasterWarriorTesshu,1sted.(Boulder;London: Shambhala,1984).ItisunknownwhetherKanoandYamaokakneweachotherpersonally.Itseemsthat bothKanoandYamaokasocialstatusplayedafundamentalpartonboostingprestigeoftheirrespective martialartsstyles.Kodokan,"HistoireDuJudo,"8485. 86 Shun,"TheInventionoftheMartialArts,"16667.

alsotoenhancevaluessuchasmanlinessandhonor. 87 Thearenafortheduelof

Page | 53 schoolsofjujutsuwastheTokyosPoliceheadquarterswherethelawenforcement,

astheothergovernmentagencies,undertookmodernization.TheTokyo

MetropolitanPoliceBureausreformssoughtinspirationinitsWesternEuropean

counterpartsthroughaselectiveappropriationofinnovationsblendedthemwith

theirownsamuraibureaucraticpractices. 88

Perhapstheadoptionofjujutsu,astheweaponlessmartialofchoice,express

bestthisbureaucraticsyncretism.In1883,thepolicehiredjujutsumasterstotrain

87 88

ThomasA.Green,MartialArtsoftheWorld:AnEncyclopedia(SantaBarbara,Calif.:ABCCLIO,2001). D.EleanorWestney,"TheEmulationofWesternOrganizationsinMeijiJapan:TheCaseoftheParis PrefectureofPoliceandtheKeishiCho,"JournalofJapaneseStudies8,no.2(Summer,1982).

theirpersonnel,andin1885organizedapubliccontestconfrontingKanosjujutsu

Page | 54 andotherschools.Kodokansoverwhelmingsuperiorityintheevent,demonstrated

beyondthedoubt,thatKanospupilshadtheupperhandintheconfrontation. 89

TherepercussionofthiswellsucceededKodokansdebutlikelyremainedrestricted

tothenarrowcirclesofjujutsupractitioners.Nonetheless,hadfarreachingresults

forKanospersonalandprofessionalreputationoutsidetheacademicrealm. 90

Thepoliceheadquarterspersonnelwerelargelydominatedbyindividuals

fromSatsumaprovincewhomrouseinrevoltagainstthevanishedTokugawa

89

Kanolaterongavetheduecredittohispupiltechnicalskillsintheeventneverthelessattributingabove alltheirspiritualsuperiorityoverthetraditionaljujustsuschools.Shun,"TheInventionoftheMartial Arts,"166.Also:Kodokan,"HistoireDuJudo,"103. 90 KanowasprofessoratGakushuinUniversity.Shun,"TheInventionoftheMartialArts,"167.

Shogunate. 91 Thus,thepoliceheadquartersinTokyohadastrongespritdecorps

Page | 55 basedonboth,occupationandgeographicalorigins. 92 Suchparticularitiesmight

explain,insomeextent,theirpreviousbiastowardtheKodokanjudoandKano

himself.Ontheotherhand,Kanoseducationandsocialstatusheraldedtheideal

typeofyoungJapanesemantrainedtoleadthecountrythroughthevicissitudesof

thetransition.Theschoolingofhisgenerationdeliberatedenduredaregimeof

monasticismanddisciplineaimingtocounterattackthetendencyamongstudents

91

Paradoxicallyitsperipherallocalizationandfeudalistictraditions,Satsumaleadthepushfornationalism andmodernizationthatoverthrowtheTokugawaregimein1868.See:RobertK.Sakai,"FeudalSociety andModernLeadershipinSatsumaHan,"TheJournalofAsianStudies16,no.3(May,1957). 92 Kodokan,"HistoireDuJudo,"87.Evenmoreinterestingyet,theverySatsumassamuraiplotagainstthe Meijiemperorin1877duringthealreadyfamouslastsamurairevolt.TheSatsumaspoliceofficialsalso participatedintheeventonbehalfoftheemperor.See:JamesH.Buck,"TheSatsumaRebellionof1877. FromKagoshimathroughtheSiegeofKumamotoCastle,"MonumentaNipponica28,no.4(Winter,1973): 42930.SergeMolclaimsthatarevivalofmartialartstookplacearoundthetimeofSatsumaRebellion. Mol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:ACompleteGuidetoKoryuJuJujutsu221.

fordandyismandfutileness.Kano,inthismanner,belongedtothegenerationof

Page | 56 gentlemanknownasmanlydetermined. 93 Thisdeterminationpromptedhimto

extendconsiderablyhismonasticismbeyondthestrictmodelsofexpectedmale

behavioridealizedbythepoliceheadquartersinTokyo. 94 Moreover,inspiteof

martialartspracticeturnedintospacetoredefinetheidealtypeforJapanese

manliness,differentgroupscompetedagainsteachothertorepresentmodern

modelsofmasculinity. 95 SuchfiercecontentionwithinJapanesesmanly

93

StoriesaroundthereasonsthatmadeKanogetinterestedinjujutsumightbereasonablyexplained onceunderstoodtheJapaneseschoolsystemintheMeijiwhereasprivateboardedschoolsattracted studentsfromalloverthecountryandfromdifferentsocialbackgrounds.Insuchenvironmentmoreover Kanosphysicalfragilityandacademicoutstandingperformancemadehimaparticularlytargetedingreat dealbybullies.Watson,TheFatherofJudo:ABiographyofJigoroKano26.Seealso:DonaldT.Roden, ""Monasticism"AndtheParadoxoftheMeijiHigherSchools,"TheJournalofAsianStudies37,no.3(May, 1978):416. 94 ThereareindicationsoftheageatfirstmarriageroseforbothsexesduringtheMeiji.Ifsuchassertive holdtrueKanolatermarriagefollowthetrend.See:CarlMosk,"NuptialityinMeijiJapan,"Journalof SocialHistory13,no.3(Spring,1980). 95 ItseemsthatKanossocialandprofessionalbackgroundlikelyplacedhimclosertothetypeof gentlemeninthegovernment.Alsohissocialandeducationalbackgroundsdeepentherivalrybetween Kodokanjudoandotherjujutsuschools.Kodokan,"HistoireDuJudo,"75.Alsosee:Karlin,"TheGenderof

environmentmadeKanohimselfobjectofsurveillancebythepolices

Page | 57 superintendents.Inconsequence,hewastemporaryplacedonablacklistduehis

adamantbachelorsstatuswhicharousedsuspicionsamongthesamurailikepolice

staff. 96

Kanosjujutsuinitialvictoriesalsocontributedforitslateracceptanceamong

themilitaryanduniversitieswhichthereafterturneditpartofJapaneseeducational

system. 97 Yet,fromtheepisodeoccurredinthePoliceheadquartersispossibleto

Nationalism:CompetingMasculinitiesinMeijiJapan."IntheMeijiwomanbeguntopracticeselfdefense andwomensuniversitieshadjoshibudo(womensbudo),joshijujutsu(womensjujutsu)orjoshi goshinjutsu(womenselfdefense)programmes.Mol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:ACompleteGuide toKoryuJuJujutsu222.Kanostrongadvocatewomeneducationandpracticeofsports,moreovera womansdivisionwascreatedattheKodokanin1926.Asheputs:Ifyoureallywantunderstandjudo watchwomentrain.Stevens,ThreeBudoMasters:JigoroKano(Judo),GichinFunakoshi(Karate), MoriheiUeshiba(Aikido)43. 96 Kanohimselfexplainedthereasonsthatforcedhimtowaitmorethantenyearstogetmarried.He claimedthathissalarydidnotcoverpersonalandthedojosexpenses.Thus,remainingbachelorforsuch periodoftimeallowedhimreducehispersonalneedformoneyatminimumlevel.Ontheotherhand, suchstateofaffairspuzzledthetraditionalistsfromthepolicedepartmentforsometimeconsideringhis alreadystablepositionofhighofficialanduniversityprofessor.Kodokan,"HistoireDuJudo,"109. 97 Shun,"TheInventionoftheMartialArts,"167.

understandKanosoptionforparticularsystemoftechniques. 98 Asmentioned

Page | 58 earlier,hischoicecanbepartiallyexplainedbyhisenrollmentincertainschoolsof

jujutsu,howeverdidnotexplainKanosfurtheremphasisonanyofthesesetof

techniques.Helaterclaimedthathispreferenceonstandingtechniqueswasingreat

dealpersonalandevenproductoffortuityevents. 99 Moreoversuchchoice,gavehim

atimelyopportunitytoputinpracticehiscombinationoflawofmechanics

principlesandtraditionaljujutsukuzushi.100 Ifoneconsideredmartialartsas

98

Respectively,nagewaza,newazaandatemiwaza.

100

Kanobeguntrainingnewazaandlaterturnedhisattentiontowardsnagewazamostlyduehisclose relationshipwithTsunetoshiIikibo,headofKitojujutsischool.AfterIikibosdeathKanoeventually inheritedhismasterlineagewhichexplainedKodokanjudoattachmenttonagewaza.Otherthanthat, thepreferenceaccordingtoKodokanshistorycanalsobecreditedtoKanosstudyoflawofmechanics andtraditionalconceptofkusushi(breakingtheposture).Kanosinnovationessentiallystressedmoves thatinduceyouropponenttolosebalanceratherwaittocatchonesoffbalance.Hethus,putgreat emphasisonpreparationandtimelytechniquesapplication.See:KenjiTomikiandNihonKotsuKosha. [fromoldcatalog],JudoandAikido(Tokyo,:JapanTravelBureau.).AlsoseeKanospersonalaccountby whichheconfirmedstartingtrainingnewazaorkatamewaza(groundwork)butshifthispreferencefor nagewazafortechnicalreasons.Accordingtohimdoingkatamewazahindersprogressinnagewaza.In

quintessentiallyantimoderndueitsprimitivenatureandabsenceoftechnology,

Page | 59 Kodokanjudomaywellbeconsideredasthemodernizationprocessofpre

industrialjiujitsu.Kanosinnovationofmovementswasbasedonprincipleof

dynamicsandphysiologyinwhathimselfclaimedtobeavictoryofscience. 101

Nonetheless,theprominenceofstandingtechniquesthatlaterbecameahallmarkof

Kodokanjudowasyetinformationatthistime. 102 ThetriumphofKodokanjudo

theKodokandojoeverytimegroundworkwasemphasizedprogressinstandingtechniqueswas interrupted.Kano,MindoverMuscle:WritingsfromtheFounderofJudo282930. 101 Shun,"TheInventionoftheMartialArts,"165.AsDraegerputsit,Kanosoriginalityindevisingnew techniquesforhisKodokanjudo,hewasanadapterratherthanadopterofexistingones.Inthissense, Kanodemonstratedconsiderableoriginalityofthought.TwocriteriaconditionedKanoseffortsinthe designofKodokanjudotechniques:(1)tobasealltechniquesonscientificprinciplesand(2)toremoveall crudeanddangerouspracticesfromtechniques.Bothoftheseimportantconsiderationswereprompted bythesocialneedsofMeijisociety.DonnE.Draeger,"ModernBujutsuandBudo,"inTheOverlook MartialArtsReader:AnAnthologyofHistoricalandPhilosophicalWritings,ed.RandyF.andDonohue Nelson,JohnJ.(Woodstock,N.Y.:TheOverlookPress,1989).Theapplicationofmartialartsasneo ludditemanifestationwascoinedbyThomarGreen.See:ThomasA.GreenandJosephR.Svinth,Martial ArtsintheModernWorld(Westport,Conn.:Praeger,2003)xiii. 102 Concerningatemiwaza,mostofthejujutsuschoolshadstrikingtechniquesintheirarsenal.However, SergeMolhasarguedthatthesetechniquesweresecondaryduetheuseofarmorsinthefieldofbattle whichmadeatemilesseffective.Alsoschoolswhoseemphasizetheuseofatemiwassaidtobeexposed toChineseinfluence.Intheotherhand,KanostudiedandpracticedinitiallyintheTeninShynyoryu (atemi)thatlaterhaditstechniquesincorporatedintheKodokanjudo.Moreover,accordingtoMol,there wasalotofcrosstrainingbetweenthesetwoschools.Mol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:AComplete GuidetoKoryuJuJujutsu51,14142.Alsoshouldbenoteworthytomentionthatstoppedhisatemiwaza

doesnotimplytheeliminationofotherjujutsuschoolssincetheJapanesepolice

Page | 60 optedforcombinetechniquesofdifferentmartialartstomaketheirownbudo

systemknownasKeishichobudoorKeishiryuwas. 103

In1895,theJapanesegovernmentcreatedtheDaiNipponButokukaiin

Kyoto,whichwasthegovernmentalagencyunderauthorityoftheministryof

educationthatintendstosolidify,promoteandstandardizethepracticeofmartial

artsintheempire. 104 ThefoundationofDaiNihonButokukaibytheimperial

(standing)andnewaza(grounding)trainingafter1881duehismastersdeath.HachinosukeFukuda,head ofTeninShynyoryu,andhisson,MasamotoIso,respectivelywereKanosinstructorsandwhentheyboth deadKanobegunhisapprenticeshipwithKitoryu(basedonthrowing).Therefore,thereisroomforsome speculationwhetherKanosjudowouldbedifferenttodayifhecontinuedhistrainingunderTenjinShinyo ryusmasters.Stevens,ThreeBudoMasters:JigoroKano(Judo),GichinFunakoshi(Karate),Morihei Ueshiba(Aikido)1718.andMol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:ACompleteGuidetoKoryuJuJujutsuet passim. 103 Mol,ClassicalFightingArtsofJapan:ACompleteGuidetoKoryuJuJujutsu221.DarrelM.Craig claimedthatsomestrikingtechniqueseliminatedbyKanowereincorporatedbytheJapanesepolice whichwasdesignatedastaihojitsu.DarrellCraig,Japan'sUltimateMartialArt:Jujitsubefore1882,the ClassicalJapaneseArtofSelfDefense(Boston:C.E.TuttleCo.,1995)2. 104 MartialArtsAssociation(Butokukai)wherejudo,fencing,archeryand,boatingwerepracticedand taught.TheassociationwaspatronizedbyPrinceFushimiandBaronOuda.E.J.Harrison,TheFighting

establishmentconstitutedamilestoneinthedevelopmentofmartialartsinJapan.

Page | 61 KanoJigorohimselfenjoyedagreatdealofprestigeandinfluencewithinthe

institution. 105

Kodokanjudo,thusnotonlypavedwayfortransformationofjujutsubut

provedtobefundamentalforbudooverallmodernization.Intheotherhand,the

ideaofstatecontrolontraditionalmartialartsmightevokeofFoulcauldiantheories

ofcontrolandaboutnegativeaspectsofmodernization.Thereafter,thetransition

SpiritofJapan:TheEsotericStudyoftheMartialArtsandWayofLifeinJapan(Woodstock,N.Y.:Overlook Press,1982)30.Alsoseetheofficialwebsite:http://www.dnbk.org/. 105 TheDaiNihonButokukaismeetingheldon07/24/1906atKyototothestandardizationofJapanese jujutsu.ThemeetinggatheredeighteenmastersofleadingjujutsuschoolsclearlyheadedbyKanowhom thusachievedcrownedhismodernizedjujutsuasthedominantstyleinJapan.MichelBrousse,LeJudo: SonHistoire,SesSuccs(Genve:Liber,1996)27.AccordingtoKano,theKodokansentinstructorstothe DaiNihonButokaiasconsultantsandadvisors.Concerningthestandardizationofjujutsukata(forms), Kanobecamethechairmanofthecommitteeinchargetopromotestandardformsofkata.Interesting enoughthereweredisagreementsonlyregardingkatamenokata(formsofgroundworktechniques). Kano,MindoverMuscle:WritingsfromtheFounderofJudo2526.

frombujutsutobudoinwhichKanosrolewascrucialbecamegradually

Page | 62 appropriatedbynationalismandultimatelybyJapanesemilitarism. 106

Intheearlytwentycentury,Kodokanjudocontinueditshegemonic

trajectorytowardsbecomingthejujutsustandardschoolinJapan.As

aforementioned,HebertSpencerwasamongWesternthinkerschoosingbyKanoto

philosophicallyunderpinhishybridmartialart.Thus,notsurprisinglythatinfierce

competitionthatfollowsamongtheschoolsofjujutsu,Kodokanjudoemergedasthe

onefittesttosurvive.ThehybridjujutsudesignedbyKanowastheonlyschool

106

Kanohimselfwasreportedlyagainstradicalnationalismandhedidnotencourageorgetjudo associatedwithbushido(moralcodeofconductofbushi[samurai]ormilitaryclassofpremodernJapan) whicheventuallyhappenedlateron.Hamaguchi,"InnovationinMartialArts,"10.andShun,"The InventionoftheMartialArts,"169,71.Onbushidosee:ColinHolmesandA.H.Ion,"Bushidandthe Samurai:ImagesinBritishPublicOpinion,18941914,"ModernAsianStudies14,no.2(1980).

adaptedtosurvivemodernizationthankstosystematization,organizationand

Page | 63 pedagogicalsportification. 107

107

JosephA.MaguireandMasayoshiNakayama,Japan,SportandSociety:TraditionandChangeina GlobalizingWorld,SportintheGlobalSociety(London;NewYork:Routledge,2006)14.

III
Page | 64

TheTrajectoryofMayedaMitsuyo CountKoma

108 :Exporting

modernizedjiujitsuoverseas

Gradually,althoughinexorably,Kodokanjudogainedtheupperhandover

otherjujutsuschoolsand,consequentlyattractedmoretalentedstudents.Mayeda

MitsuyowasamongtalentedindividualswhomflockedtotheKodokandojotolearn

108

MayedaMitsuyowasdubbedasCountKomaduringhisinternationaltourasmixedmartialartist.More importantly,hearrivedandbecamequitepopularduringandafterhisdeathunderthisnomdeguerre. Hereafter,bothdenominations,MitsuyoMayedaandCountKomawillbeemployed.

thetrendyKanoRyujiujitsu. 109 MayedawasbornNovember18,1878inthe

Page | 65 PrefectureofAomoriinthenorthmostpointofJapansmainisland,Honshu.In

1896,hemovedtoTokyotoattendtheSenmonGakkoSchoolthatlaterbecame

WasedaUniversity. 110 MayedaenrolledattheKodokandojoonJanuary61897,

probablyattractedbythesuccessalreadyachievedbyKanosdisciplesagainstthe

traditionaljujutsuschools. 111 Inthecourseoftheapprenticeship,hebecamean

109 110

KodokanjudowasalsocalledKanojujutsu. MayedawasborninremoteJapansbackwaterandhiseducationandtransferenceforTokyowasonly possibleduethetremendousexpansionofschoolsysteminalllevelsduringtheMeiji.Also,fora comprehensivestudyofhighereducationinimperialJapansee:DonaldF.Roden,SchooldaysinImperial Japan:AStudyintheCultureofaStudentElite(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1980). 111 IwouldtothankAbeTaekofordiscloseMayedaMitsuyosrecordsatKodokan.KodokanArchives, Tokyo,Japan.TherefaterKodokanArchives.

outstandingpractitioner,risingrapidlythroughtherankstoprominentlyfigure

Page | 66 amongthetopyoungKodokanmastersoftheday. 112

Sincethelatenineteenthcenturyjudobegantobeexportedabroad,however

makeitswaytoAmericaintheearlytwentycentury,contrarytotheisolationof

Tokugawaperiod,duringtheMeijitherewasconsiderableoverallexpansionof

Japanabroad. 113

112

MayedatrainedunderSakujiroYokoyama,oneofthegreatKodokanmastersandwasawardedwith hisfirstdanblackbelt(shodan)alreadyonJanuary81899,seconddan(nidan)onOctober31899,third dan(sandan)January131901andfourthdan(yodan)onOctober231904.KodokanArchives. Consideringthatthehighestrankinthattimewasseventh,indicateshisgreatskills. GreenandSvinth,"TheCircleandtheOctagon:Maeda'sJudoandGracie'sJiuJitsu,"64.Thereweresome epicbattlesinvolvingvariousschoolsofjujutsu.Atsomepoint,thetraditionalschoolsfeltdirected threatenbyKanosmodernmethodsandphilosophy.Publicmatchesandevenstreetfightswerefought toestablishwhichschoolwasthebest.See:Harrison,TheFightingSpiritofJapan:TheEsotericStudyof theMartialArtsandWayofLifeinJapan.Alsosee:Kodokan,"HistoireDuJudo." 113 KanoJigorohimselfbeguntotravelabroadinthe1890s.AlanFrommandNicolasSoames,Judo,the GentleWay(London;Boston:Routledge&K.Paul,1982)5.Japanesemartialartsmastersintheturnof thecenturypersistentlytraveloverseastodivulgateandestablishedtheirsuperiorityovertheirWestern counterparts.JapanesewrestlerswereseenbyAmericanssincethefirstcontactmadebyCommodore Perryin1854.SincethenJapaneseperformedinU.S.andEurope.GreenandSvinth,"TheCircleandthe Octagon:Maeda'sJudoandGracie'sJiuJitsu,"63.Kornicki,observesthatJapaneselikeWesternersmust goabroad,workhard,andasmanyareasoftheworldaspossibleunderJapaneseinfluence.AkiraIriye, "JapanasCompetitor,18951917,"inMutualImages:EssaysinAmericanJapaneseRelations,ed.Priscilla IriyeClapp,AkiraJointCommitteeonJapaneseStudies.,(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1975).

AsSabineFrhstckandWolframManzenreiterhaspointedlyput:

Page | 67
Kano was highly successful precisely because he managed to arrange

judoalongthedevelopmentalaxisoflifelongimprovementandwithinthestructural

framework of a modern Western sport. In terms of integration, the new cultural

space that Kano had opened found appropriate niches in Japan as well as in the

Westernworld. 114

114

SabineFrhstckandWolframManzenreiter,"NeverlandLost:JudoCulturesinAustria,Japanand Everywhere."

NichescreatedthatallowedthefirstKodokanjudosmastertotravelto

Page | 68 AmericawasYamashitaYoshiaki,oneofthemostprominentmembersofthefirst

generationproducedbyKanosdojo. 115 In1903,hewasinvitedtoteachjudoto

SamuelHillsson,aSeattlebusinessentrepreneurinAmericasnorthwestern.

InterestingenoughHill,byhiringaJapanesejudomastertoteachhisson,wasnot

seekingforalternativemodelsofmoderneducation;ratherhesoughtinthisMeiji

samuraiculturemodelsoftradition,manlinessandnobility. 116 Atanyevent,Hills

familywaslivingmilesawayinWashingtonD.C.,andYamashitaendupinthe

115

YamashitaYoshiaki(18651935)studiedatYoshinRyuandTenjinShinyoRyujujutsuschoolsbefore jointoKodokandojoandparticipatedintheepicbattlesbetweenKodokanjudoandothersschoolsof jujutsuatTokyoPoliceheadquarter.Hebecamethefirstjudoka)everawardedwiththerank10thdan (degreebyKanoJigoro.HeisconsideredthejudospioneerintheUnitedStates. 116 HeclaimedthatwasseekingforhissontheidealoftheSamuraiclass,forthatclassofmenisanoble, highmindedclass.Theylookbeyondthemoderncommercialspirit. JohnE.Tuhy,SamHill:ThePrinceofCastleNowhere(Portland,Or.:TimberPress,1983)71.

capitalgivinglessonstoeclecticaudiencesthatincludedhighsocietywomenand

Page | 69 PresidentTheodoreRoosevelthimself.ThelattersenthusiasmfortheKodokanjudo

wasinstrumentaltogetteachingpositionsforYamashitaattheU.S.NavalAcademy,

andatHarvardUniversity. 117

Twoyearslater,duringtheRussoJapaneseWar,TomitaTsunejiro,another

veteranKodokanmaster,andtheyoungMayedaMitsuyotraveledtoAmerica,

followingYamashitasfootsteps.TheyarrivedinNewYorkCityandshortly

afterwardwenttotheU.S.MilitaryAcademyatWestPointtoperformforcadets.

117

JosephR.Svinth,"ProfessorYamashitaGoestoWashington"inMartialArtsintheModernWorld,ed. JamesA.andSvinthJosephR.Green,eds.(Westport,Conn.:Praeger,2003),47etpassim.Theinterestof AmericanmilitaryonjiujitsuafterRussoJapaneseWarisevidentaccordingtothisarticle.Jiujitsufor ourcadets:SpecialBoardtrainingforhandtohandfights.TheNewYorkTimes,NY,01/28/1905,p.5. TheodoreRooseveltandJosephBucklinBishop,TheodoreRoosevelt'sLetterstoHisChildren(NewYork,: C.Scribner'ssons,1919).

TomitaandMayedademonstratedstandardpreestablishedtechniquesandatthen

Page | 70 wrestledwithcadetswillingtotesttheirfightingeffectivenessinrealsituationsthat

turnedupinanembarrassingsituationfortheveteranTomita. 118 Inthefollowing

monthstheyopenedadojoinNewYork,wheretherewasalreadyaJapanese

community,andsoonafterwardsMayedabeguntowrestleprofessionally. 119 They

eventuallypartedwaysandthelatterbegananinternationalcareerthattookhimto

118

TomitaandMayedaarrivedinNewYorkCityon12/08/1904andwenttoWestPointinJanuary1905. TheirpresentationwaspartofalecturegivenbytheImperialJapaneseLegationontheRussoJapanese War.Mayedaafterthepracticalpresentationeasilythrowhisopponent,Tomitahowever,whowasinhis forties,facedunexpectedresistancefromafootballplayerwhichcausedsomeembarrassmenttothe Japanese.TomitaandMayedawerenotaloneteachingjudoinNewYorkreportedlytherewasotherten Japanesedoingthesamethingduringthattime.Mayedafoughthisfirstprofessionalmatchin1906in Catskills(NY)anddefeatedahugeAmericanwrestlerJohnPiening,TheButcherBoy.GreenandSvinth, "TheCircleandtheOctagon:Maeda'sJudoandGracie'sJiuJitsu,"6465.TomitaMayedaspresentation atWestPointwasnoticedinthenewspapers.CadetsdowntheJap:Exponentofjiujitsuthrownby WestPointathletes.TheNewYorkTimes,NY,02/21/1905,p.5. 119 InthearticleAboutJapanesewholiveinNewYorkTheNewYorkTimesestimatedthattherewere 1,600JapaneselivinginNewYorkwhomhadorganizedclubs,includingthosededicatedtoteachjiujitsu. TheNewYorkTimes,NY,07/24/1904,p.7.Tomitareportedlyperformedjiujitsusdemonstrationsforthe pressinNewYork.ThearticlealsomentionsTomitasassistantthatprobablywasMayedahimself.The gentleartofjudo:Learnitandtumbleandfighttoyourheartscontent.TheNewYorkTimes,NY, 04/06/1905,p.11.

EuropeandLatinAmerica,wherehetaughtandwrestledprofessionally.The

Page | 71 EuropeantourstartedoffinBritainwhereMayedafoughtsomeepicmatches,

includingaprotomixedmartialartsshowdowninLondonin1908. 120 Inthesame

year,hewrestledinBelgium,ScotlandandSpain.Inthelattercountryheallegedly

adoptedthenomdeguerreofCountKoma. 121 .

Inlate1908,MayedacrossedtheAtlanticandwenttoCubaandthenMexico

wherehefacedEuropeanwrestlersfortwoyearsbeforereturningtoCuba,

probablytoavoidthetroublesposedbytheMexicanRevolution.InCuba,hejoined

120

TheeventwascalledFirstWorldWrestlingChampionshipandMayedadecidedtocompeteinboth middleweightandheavyweightdivisionsandthiswasconsideredabolddecisionsincehewas55tall and155lbs.Moreoverthematchesweretobefoughtaccordingtowrestlingruleswhichincludenogi. 121 TheremanifoldversionsouttheretoexplainthetitlecountadoptedbyMayeda.GreenandSvinth howeverclaimedthatKomawascorruptedformofJapaneseKomaruwhichmeanttroubled.Inhiscase veryappropriatesincehewasconstantlygoingthroughfinancialhardships.MichaelWatt,"The LengendaryStoryOf"CondeKoma"MitsuyoMaeda,"JudoJournal20,no.1(JanFeb1997):34.Alsosee: GreenandSvinth,"TheCircleandtheOctagon:Maeda'sJudoandGracie'sJiuJitsu,"66.

threeotherJapanesetoformtheFourKingsofCubatroupeandtheirJapanesejiu

Page | 72 jitsubecameatrendyandsuccessfulamusementamongtheCubanelite. 122 Hethen

wenttoCentralAmericabeforeheadtoSouthAmericawherealongwiththeother

JapaneseendeduptouringthemajorBraziliancitiesuntilstopatBelm,Amazon,in

1915.

122

HjalmarLundin,OntheMatandOff;MemoirsofaWrestler(NewYork,N.Y.,:AlbertBonnierpublishing house,1937)9091.andMichaelWatt,"TheLengendaryStoryOf"CondeKoma"MitsuyoMaeda,"Judo Journal20,no.5(SepNov1997):34.Alsosee:GreenandSvinth,"TheCircleandtheOctagon:Maeda's JudoandGracie'sJiuJitsu,"66.JapanTimes,11/01/1912statedthatTheCubansaretakingfancytoour jujutsuGreenandSvinthclaimedthatMayedaleftCubaduetherebellionthatbrokeoutin1912. InterestingenoughMayedawaspromotedtofifthdan(godan)on01/12/1912.KodokanArchives.Fora morecomprehensiveversiononthesituationinCubasee:AlineHelg,OurRightfulShare:TheAfroCuban StruggleforEquality,18861912(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1995).

IV
Page | 73

JiujitsuandmodernizationinBrazil

AmidsttheTroupesKomafrenzyinAmazon,thenewspaperTheAmazon

OAmazonas advertisedthebook,EducaoPhysicaJaponeza,inthelocal

bookstoretranslatedbytwoBraziliannavyofficersfromtheoriginalinEnglish.

Theywereamazedwiththepossibilitiesofferedbypracticeofsystemofexercises,

nutrition,andlifestylethatmadethepeopleofMikadothehealthiestandhappiest

menandwomenintheworld. 123 In1904,theoriginalwrittenbyHarrisHancock,

Page | 74 receivedapositivereviewfromTheNewYorkTimes.Thebooksraisondentrewas

thecomparisonbetweenAmericanandJapanesephysicalperformances.Thefact

thatAmericantroopswereoutmarchedbytheirJapanesecounterpartsinChina

wasattributedtothecombinationoffrugalityandbalanceddiet.Thereview

concludedthatHancockaddsanothervoicetothechorusofWesternsgrowing

anxietytowardstheJapanese,mixingwearinessandsuspicion.Moreover,the

123

J.A.SantoseAquinoPorto,F.Radler,EducacaoPhysicaJaponeza(RiodeJaneiro:Companhia TypograficadoBrazil,1905).

exampleofJapanesebodytraining,frugalityandselfrestrainmightbeinvaluableto

Page | 75 avoidfallvictimofJapanesespell. 124

TheJapanesejiujitsuwasreportedlyintroducedintheBrazilianmilitary

longbeforeMayedasarrivalinAmazon. 125 Infact,thebookwastranslatedinthe

aftermathofJapanesevictoryagainsttheRussiansin1905andBrazilianarmed

forcesofficialdomfollowedtosuittheirnorthAtlanticcounterpartsinstudyingand

adoptingthenewtrendsofJapanesemartialarts. 126 Themilitary,evenbeforethe

124

TheNewYorkTimes,NY,06/18/1904,p.9.HarrieIrvingHancock,JapanesePhysicalTraining;the SystemofExercise,Diet,andGeneralModeofLivingThatHasMadetheMikado'sPeopletheHealthiest, Strongest,andHappiestMenandWomenintheWorld(NewYorkandLondon,:G.P.Putnam'ssons, 1903).AlsotheWesternpresshighlightedtheuseofjiujitsuinthewar. 125 AmongothersourcesaarticlepublishedinthemagazineOCruzeiroparticularlyrevealsthatmilitary schoolsadoptedJapanesejiujitsuasearlyasthefirstdecadeofthetwentycentury.Thearticleitself dealswiththelateattempttoredeemGeneralDilermandodeAssisroleintheeventwhichhekilledthe famousBrazilianintellectualEuclidesdaCunhainaduel.IntryingtodemonstratethatDilermandode Assiswasaskilledmartialartist,marksmanandfencerthemagazinepublishedanoldpictureoftheyoung cadetDilermandowithhisJapanesemasterofjiujitsuandpeerswearingjiujitsugisintheArmyschool. OCruzeiroNovember241951,p.34. 126 Jiujitsu/judowasincreasinglyadoptedbyarmiesandlawenforcementagenciesintheWest.1.US NavalAcademy,Annapolisin1903(InstructorYamashita)2.UnitedKingdomAdmiralty,Portsmouthin

fallofmonarchyin1889,wereforefrontrecipientsofmodernization.TheNavyin

Page | 76 particular,dueitsopportunitytotravelabroadanditselitistethos,wasinthe

privilegedpositiontogetacquaintedwithmodernglobaltrends. 127 Besides,Brazil

hasstartedformaldiplomaticrelationswithJapansince1895andintheearly

twentyBrazilianintelligentsiainterestsinJapanasdemonstratedbythetraveler

accountproducedbytheBrazilianambassadorin1903. 128

1905(InstructorTani)3.FranceParispolicein1905(InstructorRNi)4.GermanyMilitarySchool,Berlin in1906(InstructorOno).Brousse,LeJudo:SonHistoire,SesSuccs56. 127 TheBrazilianNavywasengagedinregularinstructionalseafaringasearlyas1870andin circumnavigationstripswhichthefirstwasrealizedin1879.HistoriaNavalBrasileira,vol.4(Riode Janeiro:ServicodeDocumentacaodaMarinha,2001)10912.PeterM.Beattie,TheTributeofBlood: Army,Honor,Race,andNationinBrazil,18641945(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2001)270. 128 ManoeldeOliveiraLima(18671928)diplomat,historianandintellectual.HelivedinJapanfortwenty onemonthsandprovideainvaluablesourcetounderstandhowBrazilianeliteseenJapanasparadigmof modernizationintheearlytwentycentury.Noteworthytomention,hisarguablyfirsthandaccountofa jiujitsudemonstrationwhichhedescribessimilartoBraziliancapoeira.OliveiraLima,NoJapo: ImpressesDaTerraEDaGente,3a.ed.(RiodeJaneiro,RJ:Topbooks:NECdoBrasil,1997)203.

ThetranslatedbookwasessentiallyacanonofturnofthecenturyJapanese

Page | 77 jiujitsuwhichtheBrazilianversionreproducedintheoriginalwithoutany

additionalmeaningfulchanges.However,initsintroduction,thetranslatorCapitan

SantosPortoshedsomelightonimagesandselfimagesofBrazilianurbanwhite

middlesectors.

Initially,hedemonstratedhisconcernaboutthefutureofBrazilianraceand

itscapacitytoeffectivelyoccupyanddevelopsuchvastcountry.Healsopraisedthe

effortsmadebysportsassociationsparticularlytherowingclubsindevelopamore

physicallyaptpopulationvisvisclimaticunfavorableconditions,poornutrition

andlackofphysicalactivities. 129 TheweaknessofBrazilianbodies,contrasts

Page | 78 starklywithcountrysexuberantandvibrantnaturewhichwoulddemanda

tremendousefforttoimprovephysicaleducation.Thepracticeofjiujitsuhowever

wouldbenefitBraziliansasitdidtoJapanesewhobecamethestrongest,calmest,

healthiestandhappiestpeopleintheworld. 130

Herememberedthetimeswhencapoeiraflourishedevenamongthesonsof

distinguishedfamiliestaughtbydomesticslavesinsomesortofpatriarchal

consortium.Thelatermisuseofcapoeirabyvagrantsandcriminalscausethe

129

PeterBeattiepointsoutthecreationofSwissstylegunsclubsencouragedbytheMinisterofWar, MarshalHermesdaFonseca,asmeanstoincreasepublicinterestonmilitaryservice.Beattie,TheTribute ofBlood:Army,Honor,Race,andNationinBrazil,18641945209. 130 MilitaryinBrazilwastraditionallyengagedinexplorationandsettlementofbordersthereforethe institutionanditspersonnelhadtobeapttofulfillthechallengesposedbycountrysvastterritory.Ibid. 211.Alsosee:ToddA.Diacon,StringingTogetheraNation:CandidoMarianoDaSilvaRondonandthe ConstructionofaModernBrazil,19061930(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2004).

abandonmentofanexcellentschoolofphysicaleducation.Today,hewenton,since

Page | 79 both,professionalcapoeiraandstreetgangsarequiterareitwouldbeatimely

opportunitytointroducejiujitsu.Nevertheless,headmits,theremembranceofill

reputedcapoeirastillwasfreshinpeoplesmemoryandmightmakedifficultjiu

jitsusacceptance.Thesolutionwouldbetointroducejiujitsuforwelleducatedand

responsibleyoungmenrecruitedinsportsassociationsaswellhiringJapanesejiu

jitsuinstructors.Forthoseforeseeingpotentialincreaseofviolence,hearguedthat

skilleduseofjiujitsuwouldbelesssociallydangerousthantheuntraineduseof

firearmsbyordinarypeople.Societieshavepowerfulresourcestocombatthe

Hobbesianstateofwar,butinthepast,thestatefailedtopreventcapoeiratoturna

Page | 80 publicthreat. 131 Ontheotherhand,jiujitsucouldbeusedtotrainmodernlawn

enforcementunitsspeciallycreatedtorepresscollectivedisturbancessuchaslabor

strikesaswellcombatordinarytransgressions.FollowingtheexampleofJapan,

policedepartmentsinEuropeandUnitedStateshasadoptedjiujitsuasmartialart

ofchoice.

Both,CapitanSantosPortoandLieutenantRadlerdeAquino,wereprolific

writersandtranslators.Theywerepartofamilitaryintelligentsiaavantgarde

131

MatthiasRhrigAssuno,Capoeira:AHistoryofanAfroBrazilianMartialArt,SportintheGlobal Society(London;NewYork:Routledge,2005)17.

engagedinmodernscientifictrendsintheaftermathofrepublicsinauguration. 132

Page | 81 ThemoststrikingaspectofSantosPortostextiswhenhedidnotapproachissuesof

racebasedonfiendesiclesocialDarwinismsomuchinvogueamongBrazilian

intellectualsoftheday. 133 Instead,hesoughttoredeemcapoeiraandblamethe

pastregimeforitsmisuseadoptingaprotoculturalistanalysis.Inpicturingan

idyllictimewhencapoeirawaspracticedinharmonybymastersandslaveshe

purgedthesinsofBrazilianslavery.TheideaspresentedbySantosPortoeven

132

FrankD.McCann,"TheFormativePeriodofTwentiethCenturyBrazilianArmyThought,19001922," TheHispanicAmericanHistoricalReview64,no.4(Nov.,1984).CaptainSantosPortoandLieutenant RadlerdeAquinowroteandtranslatedanumberofworksdealingwithscience,warfareandsports amongothersubjects.MoreovertheyweremembersofscientificsocietiesinBrazilandabroad.See FranciscoRadlerDeAquino,ANavegacoHodiernaComLogaritmosDe1633!...3aEdicao1935(Riode Janeiro:ImprensaNaval,1935). 133 ThoseareintellectualswhoadaptedEuropeantheoriesofwhitesuperioritytotheBrazilianracial reality.TheycouldbeseenasthelocalversionoftheMexicanscientificos.Beattie,TheTributeofBlood: Army,Honor,Race,andNationinBrazil,18641945227.

anticipatedthefamousarticlepublishedinthetrendyKosmosmagazinein1906.

Page | 82 Thisarticlestartedupthelongprocessofcapoeirasredemptionandlegitimization

thatfinallyoccurredduringGetulioVargasregime. 134

SantosPortosdiscourseechoedtransformationsoccurredwithinthe

militarythatledtostrengththeemergentnationalismseekinginspirationin

emergentpowerssuchasGermanyandJapan. 135 Hence,thelatterbecameobjectof

134

Thereaftertheseminalarticlewasrepeatedlymentionedwheneversomeonewanttopromote capoeiralikewisethenewspaperFolhadoNortedidalmosttenyearslater.Seefootnote46.TheKosmos wasParisianstyledmagazineandoneofthemostimportantperiodicalsintheRiodeJaneirosbelle poque.Theperiodicalscollaboratorswerethecrmedelacrmeoftheliteratiofthedaywritingforthe Cariocaselite.InoneoftheissueswaspublishedapictureofCaptainSantosPortowherestandsonthe botton:JoaoAugustodosSantosPortoCaptainofCorvet,subchiefofMilitaryOfficeofPresidency. Kosmos,RevistaArtistica,ScientificaeLiteraria,Anno3,1,Janeiro1906.Seealso:AntnioDimas,Tempos Eufricos:(AnliseDaRevistaKosmos,19041909)(SoPaulo:EditoraAtica,1983). 135 Interestingenoughboth,CaptainSantosPortoandLieutenantRadlerdeAquinowereamongtheNavy officerswhodidnotjointothefleetsrevoltof1893inRiodeJaneiro.Theformerwaspromotedfor distinguishedservicesindefenseoftherepublicandthelatterappearsinthelistofNavyofficerswho didnotfollowtherebelledAdmiralSaldanhadaGama.Thereforebothofficerswereideologically attachedtotherepublicanandideasofmodernizationinvoguewithinthemilitary.AtanagildoBarata Ribeiro,SonhoNoCarcere.DramasDaRevolucaoDe1893NoBrazil.Poema(RiodeJaneiro:Casa Mont'alverne,1895)xxxv,xxxix.

greatcuriosityinmilitaryjournals.ArticlesonJapanwereonlysurpassedbythose

Page | 83 onGermanandFrancewhichclearlydemonstratethemilitarysinterestinnew

modelsofmodernization. 136 Thus,SantosPortoandRadlerdeAquino

quintessentiallyepitomizedthetransitionsoccurredwithinthemilitarywhen

professionalsoldiersembracedthecitizensoldierideasasvehicletoreformthe

army. 137 Lastly,isnoteworthytoobservetheauthorsclassistconceptsthat

suggestusingjiujitsuasmodernmeanofsocialcontrol.TheadoptionofJapanese

martialartwouldhelptopromotehealthiercitizensandtoprovidetheurban

136

McCann,"TheFormativePeriodofTwentiethCenturyBrazilianArmyThought,19001922,"743.The growinginterestofmilitarycertainlyhadtodowiththesuccessfulapplicationofjiujitsubytheJapanese armyinKoreaagainsttheRussians.TheJapaneseareapplyingtheprinciplesofjiujitsutotheartof war.TheNewYorkTimes,NY,05/12/1904,p.2. 137 FrankD.McCann,"OriginsofThe"NewProfessionalism"OftheBrazilianMilitary,"Journalof InteramericanStudiesandWorldAffairs21,no.4(1979):510.

bourgeoiswithaneffectiveselfdefensesystemagainsttheunrulymasses. 138

Page | 84 JapanesejiujitsushouldsucceedwhereAfrodiasporiccapoeirafailed,becausethe

absenceofacombatsportmightalsosignifyculturalweaknessandracial

inferiority. 139

138

In1904brokeoutthepopularrevoltagainstmandatoryvaccinationthatdegenerateinwildstreet fightinginvolvingpolice,armyandpopulation.Perhapsnotbychanceoneofthebarricadesbuildbythe rioterswascalledPortArthur.LiketheoriginaloneinRussiawhichfellunderJapaneseattackits Cariocascongenerfellundertheforcesofmodernization.See:JeffreyD.Needell,"TheRevoltaContra Vacinaof1904:TheRevoltAgainst"Modernization"InBelleEpoqueRioDeJaneiro,"TheHispanic AmericanHistoricalReview67,no.2(1987). 139 Roden,"BaseballandtheQuestforNationalDignityinMeijiJapan,"512.

V
Page | 85

Decadence,bankruptcyandjiujitsu:TheGraciesreturntoRiodeJaneiro

InAmazon,wayfromthedevelopmentsofKanojujutsujudoinJapan,

MayedaMitsuyocontinuedhistrajectoryasafighterandteachingearlyKodokan

judo.Atsomepoint,between1917and1918,CarlosGastoseldestsonenrolledin

CountKomasdojoduethefriendshipbetweenthetwoborninthecircus.

Nevertheless,aroundthistime,GracienolongerhadbusinesswiththeQueirolo

Page | 86 brothers. 140

Astherubberbasedeconomyintheregioncontinuestodeclineafter

theWorldWarI,GastospassageinAmazoninitiatedintheturnofthecentury,

seemeddoomedtofailure.Thedreamsoftheyoungaristocratandquasidiplomat

intheAmazonEldoradoturnedintoalifeofupanddownsanddisappointment.

Moreover,in1921thefamilypatriarchPedro Peter GraciepassedawayinRiode

Janeiro.ThisfatalitydefinitelypromptedGastotoreturntohisrootsaftertwo

140

ThemagazineOCruzeirointhesamearticlementionedearlierprovidedsomekeyinformationthat helpstoshedsomelightinthelengthofthetimeofCarlostrainedunderMayeda.Thearticlestatesays thatCarloswas1415yearsoldwhenwatchedMayedastroupepresentationatTeatrodaPaz(Theatreof Peace)andthenheadedtoenrollinMayedasdojoafterwards.IfCarloswas1415yearsoldatthetime hestartedtrainingaround1917.SinceheleftAmazonOCruzeiro,statedbasedoninformationprovided certainlybyCarlosGraciethathespentthreeyearstrainingunderMayeda.

decadesawayfromhome. 141 ThepassagethroughtheAmazonwasrelativelyshort,

Page | 87 yetbecameawatershedintheGraciestrajectoryintwentycentury.SinceGeorge

GracieleftlowlandScotlandthefamilywascontinuouslyengagedinfinance,export

businessanddiplomacythroughoutthenineteenthcentury.IntheAmazon,

however,theyacquiredknowledgeofaparticularculturalaspectofJapanese

modernizedtraditionthateventuallybecametransnationalandwasstillrandomly

knownintheWestatthetimeasjiujitsuandjudo. 142 TheythusreturnedtoRiode

Janeirofinanciallyweakenedbutcarryingaculturalasset.CommendatorePedro

141

IclaimthatGastaoGraciesfindhimselfindirestriatedfinancialsituationinBelmconsidering economicdecadenceintheregionandghislargenuclearfamily.PedroGraciesdeathintheotherhand certainlygavehimthefinalpushtoreturntoRiodeJaneiroforsentimentalreasonsandperhaps inheritanceissuesnonethelesshismotherMarianaGraciewasalive. 142 EveninJapanthetransition

Graciesdeathmarkedtheendofagenerationoreventhecloseofthelong

Page | 88 nineteenthcenturyfortheGraciefamily.ForCarlos,theyoungGraciescion,his

siblingsandagenerationofBrazilians,itwouldbeaperiodofintenseandperennial

consequences.

FortheCountKomahowever,Amazonbecamethefinaldestinationand

towardsthe1920shedecidedtoretirefrompublicmatchesdespitekeepinghis

activitiesinthedojo.Mayedaslongtrajectoryasawrestlerfinallyendedupfifteen

yearslater.InJuly1920,inanopenletter,heacceptedthechallengeoftheItalian

wrestlerVictorioSegatoforajiujitsuboutatPalaceTheatre.CountKomaspupil

andfavoritestudent,JachyntoFerro,alsoacceptedtofighttheItalianacrobat. 143

Page | 89 Thefightwassetforthelastfourroundsoftwominutesandshouldbedecidedby

surrender.Themainrefereeandotherjudgeswereeithermemberoflocaleliteor

foreignexpatriates. 144 CountKoma,inhislastmatch,wontheItalianwrestlerby

armbarinafightdescribedasspectacularbeforealargeaudienceatPalace

Theatre. 145 FollowingCountKomasvictory,JacynthoFerro,alsodefeatedVictorio

SegatobyachokeatPaysanduClub. 146 JachyntoFerrowasalocalwrestlerand

athletewhomstartedtopracticejiujitsuunderCountKomain1915.Overtheyears

143

FolhadoNorte,Belm,07/03/1920,p.4.Both,MayedaandFerro,declaredthattheynolongerwill acceptchallengesunderanycircumstance. 144 FolhadoNorte,Belm,07/08/1920,p.4.ThejudgesareCarlosOrnstein,OswaldoBarbosa,Gordon Pickrell,EugenioSoares,JeanMarechal,GuilhermeChermont,GuilhermeLaRocque,JachyntoFerroe RaphaelGomes.TheprogramstartedwiththesilentfilmTheSongsofSongsstarredbyElsieFerguson andticketsrangedfrom2$000to15$000. 145 FolhadoNorte,Belm,07/09/1920,p.4.CountKomadefeatedSegatointhelastround. 146 FolhadoNorte,Belm,07/12/1920,p.4.

becameMayedasinstructorandoftenreplacedthemasterinthedojoduringthe

Page | 90 latterabsences.CarlosGraciereportedlytrainedunderFerroneverthelesshisname

remainedlargelyunknowntothepubliclater.IfMayedahadalocalpupilinAmazon

certainlywashimasdemonstratedinmanyoccasionswhenFerrowaspublicly

recognizedasCountKomasmostcompletestudentinAmazon. 147

In1921,MayedaMitsuyo,alongOkuraandSatake,travelledtoCuba,Mexico,

andprobablyUnitedStates.InCuba,Mayedawonajiujitsucontestwhich,

accordingtohim,wasequivalenttoaworldtitleafterafourteenroundfinalagainst

147

FolhadoNorte,Belm,08/04/1920,p.6.JachyntoFerrogavealonginterviewtothenewspaperby whichhetoldabouthislifeandlongacquaintancewithCountKomauponthelatterarrivalinAmazonin October1915.FolhadoNorte,Belm,12/14/1923,frontpage.Thenewspaperspiececelebrated JachyntoFerrosanniversaryandrecognizehimasMayedaMitsuyosbeststudent.Ofcoursethis promptedthediscussionaroundthequestionofMayedasmartialartlineagethat,inthiscase,should continuethroughFerro.BruceKumarFrantzis,ThePowerofInternalMartialArtsandChi:Combatand EnergySecretsofBaGua,TaiChi,andHsingI,Rev.ed.(Berkeley,Calif.:EnergyArts,2007)115.

theJapaneseIto.Exaggerationsaside,hebecamethejiujitsuworldchampionand

Page | 91 OkuraandhislongtimefriendSatakewenttoteachjiujitsutotheMexican

police. 148 InJuly1922,CountKomareturnedtoBelm,andhispupil,Jachynto

Ferrorentedasmallboattowelcometheoldmasterofftheharbor. 149

Despitehehadpublicallydeclaredhisretirement;wrestlerspassingby

Belmkeptchallengingtheformerfighter.In1923,hedeclinedtofightthewrestler

knownasMr.GallantduehisrecentsurgeryinthelocalhospitalwherehiswifeMay

IrisMayedaworked. 150 Thereafter,andmorespecificallyfrom1925onwards,the

148

FolhadoNorte,Belm,06/18/1922,p.5.MayedabeatsItointhefinalbyarmbarandwonUS$8,000. HealsospentfewdaysinRiodeJaneirowheretheGraciesalreadylived;neverthelesstherewasno mentiontoanycontactbetweenthem. 149 FolhadoNorte,Belm,07/08/1922,p.4.MayedaarrivedonboardoftheshipJooAlfredo. 150 HeprobablymarriedMayIrisMayedaaround1921and1922.ShewasScotandperhapsGastaoGracie hadhelpedthecontactbetweenthemduetheircommonScottishbackground.Mayedawasmarried beforewiththeoperasingerOlgaLegrandwhofellvictimofthepostwarepidemicinfluenza.RildoEros deMedeirospersonalinformation.

veteranjiujitsumasterwasincreasinglyinvolvedwiththeprojectsandsettlement

Page | 92 oftheJapaneseinAmazon. 151

TheJapanesepresenceintheAmazoncanbetracedbackwellintothe1880s

andbytheturnofthecenturyanumberofthemcamefromthePacificcoast

attractedbytherubberboominBoliviaandthewesternBrazilianAmazon. 152 In

1925,theJapanesegovernmentsentatechniciantoprospectagriculturalviabilityin

ParstateafterJapaneseofficialsandthelocalgovernmentstartednegotiationsin

1923.ThedecisiontoattractforeigninvestmentstotheAmazonandthewillingness

151

ThereareindicationsthatMayedagetinterestedinhelpJapansomehowaftertheKantoearthquakein 1923.Also,roughlyamonthaftertheearthquakeaAmericanmissionvisitedAmazonprospectingfuture investmentsintheregion.TheearthquakeandtheAmericaninterestinAmazonmayhaveinfluenceon MayeadasinvolvementonJapaneseimmigration.FolhadoNorte,Belm,08/01/1923,frontpage 152 In1895thefirsttreatyBrazilJapanwassignedandin1897thefirstdiplomaticmission.Onlyin1908 JapaneseimmigrationstartedinSoPaulo.

tograntvasttractsoflandswaspartofastrategytorecoverthelosteconomic

Page | 93 momentumandthecrisesthatfollowedthedeclineoftherubberbased

economy. 153 In1926,MayedaMitsuyojoinedtheJapanesecommissionthatcameto

surveyandplanfutureJapanesebusinessinareasgrantedbylocalauthoritiesand

hostedtheJapaneseambassadortouringAmazon.Thepresscoveredeveryevent

duringthediplomaticvisitanditisclearthatMayedaMitsuyowasanimportant

localliaisontotheJapanesesprojectofsettlement. 154

153

TheStateofPargrantedvasttractoflandsforJapaneseandAmericans.ForHenryFordsenterprise inAmazonseeamongothers:JohnGaley,"IndustrialistintheWilderness:HenryFord'sAmazonVenture," JournalofInteramericanStudiesandWorldAffairs21,no.2(1979).TheStateofAmazonfollowedsuit grantedtotheJapanesetractsoflandtoproducejute.MariaIzildaSantosdeMatos,TramaEPoder:A TrajetriaEPolmicaEmTornoDasIndstriasDeSacariaParaOCaf,SoPaulo18881934,2a.ed.(Rio deJaneiro:SetteLetras,1996). 154 FolhadoNorte,Belm,05/03/1926,05/14,05/16,05/24,05/25,05/29,05/31,06/14,06/05and 06/07.HachiroFukuharawasinchargeoftheJapanesecommissionandalongwithMayedanavigated throughouttheregiongrantedbythestategovernment.Par(Brazil:State).SecretariadeEstadoda Cultura.,Arigat([Belm,Brazil]:GovernodoEstadodoPar,1995)unpaged.Alsosee:HenriDelanghe, "TheOriginofSignificantJapaneseBrazilianTradeandInvestmentRelations:Origin,Contentand Consequencesofthe1935JapaneseTradeMissiontoBrazil,"inCenterforEconomicStudiesDiscussion papers(Leuven,Belgium:KatholiekeUniversiteitLeuven,1999).

Oncethedecisionwasmade,thefirstgroupofimmigrantsarrivedin1929,

Page | 94 followedbymorearrivalsinfollowingyears.Nevertheless,theinitiallyenthusiastic

JapanesesettlersfoundenormousobstaclestotheirtropicalventureinAmazon. 155

ItisalsosignificantthatMayedawhoreceivedhislastKodokandegree dan

in1912finallyreceivedthesixthdan rokudan onJune1929. 156 Thereasons

behindsuchlong17yearlonggapareunknown,butmayhavedueMayedas

performancesinnonhonorablepublicspacessuchcircusandtheatres.Since1912

untilhisretirementin1920hewasinvolvedwithstagesperformancesmore

155

Thesettlersfacedhardshipsinherenttotheculture,weather;diseasesandrelationshipwiththe CompanhiaNiponicadePlantacesdoBrasilS/A(JapanesePlantationCompanyofBrazil)branchofthe NankatuCo. 156 June251929.KodokanArchives.

appropriatedforavaudevilleartistthanarepresentativeoftheprestigious

Page | 95 modernizedKanojujutsu.Herealsocanbefoundexplanationforhisdecisiontouse

thegenericlabeljiujitsuinsteadhisrealaffiliationtoKodokanjudo.Ofcoursefor

nonJapanesewasdifficulttograspsubtlelinguisticandhonor/shamecodesto

explainwhyMayedaMitsuyodidnotpaypublicallegiancetohismartialartschool.

Furthermore,theunusualsituationandhisuncertainstatusasKodokanmaster

certainlymadehimtotransmitfragmentedpiecesofknowledgewithoutany

intentiontoformlineagesuccessors. 157 Mayedalikelyfoundhimselfinasimilar

157

Perhapsconfirmingthefullrecoveryofhisyamatodamashiivisvishisroleinthesettlementof JapaneseandrecognitionfromKodokanhewithhelpofhisNavyofficerstudentspublishedajiujitsu bookletin1935.ThebookletisthePortugueseversionfromtheoriginalinEnglishpublishedin1933 basedonKanoJigorosexhibitionheldatVictoriaTheatreinSingapore.Jiudo,inArtofJapanesePhysical Culture,(Singapore:NanyoPrintingOffice,1933).ThePortugueseidenticalversionis:Jiudo:UmaArteDe CulturaPhysicaJaponesa,(Belem:LivrariaEscolar,1935). OnecopyisheldatKodokanArchivesinTokyo.ThetilejiudoconfirmedthatMayedaremainfaithfulto theprinciplesofKodokan.Theexpressionyamatodamashii(spiritofYamato)coinedintheTokugawa

conflictualsituationofJapaneseelsewherewhentheyhavebeenbroughtupto

Page | 96 trustinasecuritywhichdependsonothersrecognitionofthenuancesoftheir

observancesofacode. 158

Increasinglyinvolvedwithimmigration,MayedaMitsuyoalsohostedand

guidedtheAmericanmissionarrivingfromRiodeJaneiroinlate1929,toinspect

theJapanesepioneerandexperimentalcamplocatedatTomAu stateofPar .

TheAmericanMilitaryAttachatRiodeJaneiro,MajorLesterBakerandthe

periodembodiedthevalorofancientJapan.TheconceptwasrecoveredduringtheMeijitobolsterthe Japaneseclaimofuniqueness.CatharinaBlomberg,TheHeartoftheWarrior:OriginsandReligious BackgroundoftheSamuraiSysteminFeudalJapan(Sandgate,Folkestone,Kent:JapanLibrary,1994)189. IwouldtothankmycolleagueFrankPedeyeforforwardingthecopiesfromJapan.Imalsoindebtto TaekoAbefromtheKodokanJudoInstitute,InternationalDepartmenttofindtheoriginalsandgenerously providethecopiesaswellotherimportantinformationonMayedasrecordsheldatKodokanArchives. 158 PeterN.Dale,TheMythofJapaneseUniqueness(NewYork:StMartin'sPress,1986)157.

AmericanViceConsulinBrazil,GeraldA.Drew,formedthemission. 159 The

Page | 97 JapanesereadinesstoguidetheAmericansdidnotimpresstheAmericanconsul

who,inturn,producedamemorandumdeliveredtotheStateDepartmentthatcited

suspicionsagainsttheJapaneseinitiativesintheregionandagainstMayedaMitsuyo

inparticular.Inthedocument,Drewadmitted:

that the Japanese agricultural and colonizing companies in the Amazon

Valley is, with the possible exception of the Companhia Ford Industrial, 160 the

159

TheNewYorkTimes,NY,01/05/1930,p.E7.TomAudistant197kilometersofthecapitalBelmand becamethepioneercampfortheJapaneseimmigrationintheAmazonValley. 160 TheCompanhiaFordIndustrialcanbeconsideredainitiativeintheframeworkofAmericansdecision tobreakBritishcartelorubber.TheFordenterpriseinAmazonaimedtogiveitselfsufficiencyinrubber. WarrenDean,BrazilandtheStruggleforRubber:AStudyinEnvironmentalHistory(Cambridge [Cambridgeshire];NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987)71.

development of most interest to the American Government in that section of the

worldatthepresenttime. 161

Page | 98

His statement confirmed that the US government had kept track of the

JapaneseenterpriseinAmazoneversinceand,underthesecircumstancesit

mayhaveleadhimtooveremphasizehisfindings.Whateverhismotivations

were,helashedoutatHachiroFukurawa,thepresidentandorganizerofthe

Japanese company, labeling him as opportunistic, dissimulated and

ultimately very secretive when asked about the companys plans. The

161

NoblesseobligetomentionthatthedocumentwasbroughttomyattentionwhilereadingJeffrey Lessers,inmyopinion,seminalworkinhyphenatedidentitiesinBrazil.JeffLesser,NegotiatingNational Identity:Immigrants,Minorities,andtheStruggleforEthnicityinBrazil(Durham,N.C.:DukeUniversity Press,1999).MemorandumofGeraldA.DrewUSViceConsulinBrazil,toDr.Munroe27June832.52 J27/68S,USNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,p.1.

zealous diplomat however, concluded that such behavior was

Page | 99 understandableforthoseacquaintedwiththeJapanesecharacter. 162

The next Japanese official who fell under the watchful eye of Drew

was Mayeda Mitsuyo, whose trajectory made him a much easier target for

speculations.Heevenemphasizedthathisconclusionswerenotnecessarily

basedonhispersonality,butratherduetohispeculiarhistory.Thejiujitsus

master,Drewclaimed,cametoAmazonasamemberofatroupeofacrobats

and magicians. Afterwards, he decided to settle in Belm teaching jiujitsu

162

HachiroFukurawa,amongotherthings,wasaccusedofbeingagentoftheJapanesegovernment,of usinghisCatholicismasmeanstoobtainfavorsfromBrazilianauthorities,andmakingcalculatedefforts tobecomepopularamongBrazilians.Memorandum,p.2.

lessons,however,suchoccupationalonewasnothisonlysourceofincome.

Page | 100 Besides, he lost much of his Japanese secretiveness due to his long and

close relationship with Europeans and Brazilians which made him quite

communicative. Drew compiled a lengthy, detailed 38 pagelong

memorandum about the facilities at TomAu and concluded that the

Japanese government had great interest in the whole enterprise. Yet, the

Count Komas recruitment seemed highly suspicious and significant. He

indeed implied that Mayeda was the field agent and link between the

companyandtheJapanesegovernment. 163 TheAmericanembassyinTokyo

163

DrewreportedthatFukurawaletslipindicationstheMayedawasaccountabletosomesuperior. Memorandum,p.34.

howeveranalyzedandcriticizedDrewsmemorandumaspronetocloakthe

Page | 101 activitiesoftheJapanesewithanunnecessaryairofmystery.Moreover,the

embassy officialsin Tokyo, held Fukurawa in high regard and thisincluded

his intentions. As for the Count Koma, the embassy doubted he had any

official connection with the government. Rather, he would be what they

defined as China Ronin, or Japanese wanderers in China who exploit both,

ChineseaswelltheirJapanesecompatriots. 164 Theversionpresentedbythe

AmericanembassyinTokyoandresenttotheStateDepartmentiscertainly

more accurate than Gerald Drews conspiratorial version. Nevertheless,

164

Roninoriginallymeansamasterlesssamurai.

concerningMayedasrole,hewasoriginallyanadventurerinAmazon,buton

Page | 102 the contrary of this ruthless image of Japanese buccaneer roaming wild, he

become quite respected and integrated into the local society. The

memorandum was full of negative stereotypes about the Japanese. 165 I

assume that Mayedas colorful trajectory and unexpected behavior was

atypicalforaJapaneseandconfusedtheAmericandiplomat. Idon`tknowif

mysuggestionheremakessense,buthopefullyithelps Thejiujitsumaster

had been away from Japan since 1905, living a truly transnational

165

SadaoAsadaobservedthatbytheearly1920shadtwoopposedstereotypedimagesofJapan:cherry blossomsandyellowperil.InadditiontherewereimagesofJapanesemystery.SadaoAsada,Culture ShockandJapaneseAmericanRelations:HistoricalEssays(Columbia:UniversityofMissouriPress,2007) 27.

experience.AfterfifteenyearslivinginAmazon,hesurelyincorporatedlocal

Page | 103 traits with his Japaneseness. Besides, nothing indicates that he was a

predator of his own brethren despite many troubles faced by the settlers.

Lastly,itisworthspeculatingthereasonsbehindGeraldA.Drewssuspicions

basedonthispassageinhislongreport:

most important of all is the significance of the introduction of a large

number of Japanese settlers into a portion of world falling within the egis of the

MonroeDoctrine. 166

166

Memorandum,p.2.

TheUSforeignpolicehadsincethemidnineteenthcenturyputLatin

Page | 104 Americaundertheirsphereofinfluence.ThecombinationoftheMonroeDoctrine

andthegrowingUSJapaneserivalry,whichultimatelyledtowar,certainly

heightenedtheanimosityandmutualdistrust. 167

TheJapanesesettlementfacedmanifoldlogisticdifficultiesontheground

andhadtoendurethetransitionofimmigrationpolicieswhichplacedtheproject

undergrowingscrutinybynationalismandxenophobia. 168

167

USJapanrelationshipstarttodeteriorateconsiderablyduringthe1930s,speciallyaftertheSino JapaneseWarin1931. 168 GeorgiaA.Persons,RaceandDemocracyintheAmericas(NewBrunswick,N.J.;London:Transaction, 2003).

Atanyevent,MayedaMitsuyobecameamemberoftheboardresponsiblefor

Page | 105 thesettlement,shiftinghisactivitiesfromteachingKodokanjudotoJapanese

immigrationintheAmazon. 169 By1937,hebecameaBraziliancitizen,adoptedthe

nameOtavioandconvertedatleast,nominally,toCatholicism. 170 Thisdecisionmay

reflecthisconcernfortheradicalizationofnationalismandimplementationof

toughermeasuresbytheEstadoNovo NewState ,whichtargetedimmigrantsin

generalandJapaneseandotherundesirablegroupsinparticular. 171 Mayedalived

169 170

Memorandum,p.6. AlongarticleintheChicagoTribuneentitledJapaneseRushtoBrazil:NewColonyOpendescribedin detailstheJapaneseenterpriseinTomAuandtheAmericanmilitaryvisitheadedbyMajorLester Baker.YetmoresignificantisthementionofmassconversiontoCatholicismamongthecolonists. Japanesechildrenwerechristenedandtheirparentsdemonstratedwillingnesstoembracethenew religion.ChicagoTribune,Chicago,02/03/1930. ThereisinformationthatMayedabecameaffiliatedtoAlanKardecsspiritualism.Perhaps,spiritualism turnedouttobeclosestlocalalternativetotheJapaneseShintosincebothshareshamanistroots. HirochikaNakamaki,JapaneseReligionsatHomeandAbroad:AnthropoligicalPerspectives(LondonNew York:RoutledgeCurzon,2003)114. 171 TheEstadoNovosdictatorshipstartedin1937.Fromtheearly1930sonwardBrazilianlawsget increasinglytougheronimmigrationasresultofacombinationbetweeninternalandinternational politics.CertaingroupswereparticularlytargetedsuchasJews,SyrianLebanese,GypsiesandJapanese

fortherestofhislifeinBelmalongwithhiswifeandadoptivedaughter.Hedieda

Page | 106 weekpriortotheJapaneseraidonPearHarborandwasburiedinaCatholic

cemeteryinBelm.ThelocalnewspapershighlightedCountKomasbiographyand

achievementsduringhislifetime.Asizeableburialentouragesmotorcade,

composedbyformerstudents,localacquaintances,andmembersofJapanese

communitypaidthelasttributetotheoldjiujitsumaster. 172 TheKodokan

headquartersissuedhispromotiontoseventhdanblackbelt nanadan on

consideredtobeinginassimilable.JeffLesser,SearchingforHomeAbroad:JapaneseBraziliansand Transnationalism(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2003)10113. 172 HewassurvivedbyhiswifeMayIrisMayedaandhisadoptivedaughterCelesteIrisMayeda.Belms newspapersgaveconsiderablespacetonoticeMayedasfuneralin1941.Thenewspapersprovideda shortbiographyandhighlightedhisroleintheprojectofJapaneseimmigrationandhispositioninthe councilofNankatuCo.OEstadodoPar,,Belm,11/29/1941,FolhadoNorte,Belm,11/29/1941.

November271941,onedaypriorhisdeath,whichmeansthatlasthonorificgesture

Page | 107 reachedMayedaMitsuyosensei,theCountKoma,toolate. 173

173

KodokanArchives.