AFFECTIVE DOMAIN examples of experience, or demonstration and evidence to be measured listen to teacher or trainer, take interest in session or learning

experience, take notes, turn up, make time for learning experience, participate passively participate actively in group discussion, active participation in activity, interest in outcomes, enthusiasm for action, question and probe ideas, suggest interpretation decide worth and relevance of ideas, experiences; accept or commit to particular stance or action 'key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level) ask, listen, focus, attend, take part, discuss, acknowledge, hear, be open to, retain, follow, concentrate, read, do, feel react, respond, seek clarification, interpret, clarify, provide other references and examples, contribute, question, present, cite, become animated or excited, help team, write, perform

level

category or 'level'

behaviour descriptions

Receive

open to experience, willing to hear

Respond

react and participate actively

Value

attach values and express personal opinions

argue, challenge, debate, refute, confront, justify, persuade, criticise,

Organise or Conceptualize values

reconcile internal conflicts; develop value system

qualify and quantify personal views, state personal position and reasons, state beliefs

build, develop, formulate, defend, modify, relate, prioritise, reconcile, contrast, arrange, compare act, display, influence, solve, practice,

Internalize or characterise values

adopt belief system and philosophy

self-reliant; behave consistently with personal value set

The Affective Domain

The affective domain describes learning objectives that emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion, or a degree of acceptance or rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple attention to selected phenomena to complex but internally consistent qualities of character and conscience. We found a large number of such objectives in the literature expressed as interests, attitudes, appreciations, values, and emotional sets or biases. [ Krathwohl et al, 1964 ] This domain is critical for learning but is often not specifically addressed. This is the domain that deals with attitudes, motivation, willingness to participate, valuing what is being learned, and ultimately incorporating the values of a discipline into a way of life. Stages in this domain are not as sequential as the cognitive domain, but have been described as the following: Receiving (willing to listen) Responding (willing to participate) Valuing (willing to be involved) Organizing (willing to be an advocate) Characterization (willing to change ones behavior, lifestyle, or way of life)

We do not necessarily expect our math students to become math instructors or mathematicians, but we want them to be willing to show up for class, participate in class, and become involved with the content. We expect students to expend effort in their courses and sustain the effort throughout the duration of the course. We also would like our students to take the next higher course or another course in the curriculum because they value what they have learned. The affective domain is not best handled with just text on a screen. Class meetings or an initial class meeting to support an online course might be used for affective development. Videos and audio clips are also excellent ways to engage the affective domain. These should be short and may include the following: Former students giving tips on how to be successful The instructor informing the students of the value of the course Professionals who are using the knowledge from the course in their lives An overview of the program with key support personnel and facilities visible to the student Streaming audio files throughout the course encouraging students and providing helpful tips Short video clips of the instructor explaining course content

Additionally, chunking information into small steps and designing opportunities for the students to be successful facilitate affective learning for students. Face-to-face courses can include affective online components by allowing students to have a place to post questions, get feedback, and hear encouraging messages from the instructor (with a text accompaniment). Encouraging students to set goals for themselves that are reasonable can also enhance affective learning. To the extent that students are

challenged or are new to a content area, we would expect instructors to include more affective learning outcomes. Activities for the Affective domain: Goal setting Self-reflective writing in a journal Practice tutorials designed for student success Here are descriptions of each step in the taxonomy, starting at the most basic level. (From Krathwohl's Taxonomy of Affective Domain) Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Examples include: to differentiate, to accept, to listen (for), and to respond to. Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Examples are: to comply with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim. Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or phenomena. Examples include: to increase measured proficiency in, to relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to debate. Organization is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine. Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she has internalized. Examples include: to revise, to require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to manage, to resolve. Relevance of the affective domain in education If we are striving to apply the continuum of Krathwohl et al. to our teaching, then we are encouraging students to not just receive information at the bottom of the affective hierarchy. We'd like for them to respond to what they learn, to value it, to organize it and maybe even to characterize themselves as science students, science majors or scientists. We are also interested in students' attitudes toward science, scientists, learning science and specific science topics. We want to find teaching methods that encourage students and draw them in. Affective topics in educational literature include attitudes, motivation, communication styles, classroom management styles, learning styles, use of technology in the classroom and nonverbal communication. It is also important not to turn students off by subtle actions or communications that go straight to the affective domain and prevent students from becoming engaged.

In the educational literature, nearly every author introduces their paper by stating that the affective domain is essential for learning, but it is the least studied, most often overlooked, the most nebulous and the hardest to evaluate of Bloom's three domains. In formal classroom teaching, the majority of the teacher's efforts typically go into the cognitive aspects of the teaching and learning and most of the classroom time is designed for cognitive outcomes. Similarly, evaluating cognitive learning is straightforward but assessing affective outcomes is difficult. Thus, there is significant value in realizing the potential to increase student learning by tapping into the affective domain. Similarly, students may experience affective roadblocks to learning that can neither be recognized nor solved when using a purely cognitive approach. Framework for the Affective Domain in Science Education The affective domain (from the Latin affectus, meaning "feelings") includes a host of constructs, such as attitudes, values, beliefs, opinions, interests, and motivation. Research in the affective domain is limited by

confusing definitions of affective constructs underdeveloped assessment practices, including scale construction affective variables being "add-ons" to investigations of cognitive learning

While the affective dimensions of science learning have long been recognized as important, they have received much less attention by researchers than have the cognitive dimensions. Reasons for this imbalance include the "archetypal image of science itself," where reason is separated from feeling, and the "long-standing cognitive tradition" of science education research (Alsop & Watts, 2003, p. 1044). A contemporary view is that the "affective dimension is not just a simple catalyst, but a necessary condition for learning to occur" (Perrier & Nsengiyumva, 2003, p. 1124). Attitude and motivation are indeed the most critically important constructs of the affective domain in science education. Attitude Attitude is commonly defined as a predisposition to respond positively or negatively toward things, people, places, events, and ideas. After almost three decades of proliferation, attitude research in science education began to wane in the 1990s, in part because attitude researchers seemed to reach an empirical plateau. Many studies produced results that provided little direction for improving classroom practice or advancing research in the field. A second reason for the decline is that research paradigms in social psychology and educational psychology that had influenced research in science education shifted from a behavioral to a more cognitive orientation (Richardson, 1996). This shift in theoretical orientation saw attitude aligned with affect, or feeling, and belief with cognition. With the separation of attitude from cognition, and the emergence of belief as a construct thought to explain the actions of learners, attitude became less important. Research on students' science-related attitudes is again receiving increased attention. The disturbing decline in science class enrollments at the secondary level and post-secondary levels, particularly in Western countries, the disdain expressed by

many students for school science, and the promise of new research methods [linked to physiological expression] have prompted renewed interest in attitude research (Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 1993). Attitude has been defined in many ways and has often been used interchangeably with such terms as interest, value, motivation, and opinion. Values are more complex and broader than attitudes and tend to be more enduring. The relationship between belief, attitude and behavior is presented as a causal model in Ajzen and Fishbein's theories of reasoned action and planned behavior. Theory-based strategies for attitude change can be addressed through manipulations of the variables in the question: Who (communicator) says what (message) to whom (audience) with what effect (attitude change)? Attitudes and attitude change can be assessed through self-report scales, drawings, personal interview, photographs, personal diaries and physical expression, including body posture, gestures, and facial expressions. Attitudinal components are present in many, if not most, instructional plans, whether or not they are stated explicitly (Miller, 2005)

Motivation Motivation is an internal state that arouses, directs, and sustains behavior. The study of motivation by science education researchers attempts to explain why students strive for particular goals when learning science, how intensively they strive, how long they strive, and what feeling and emotions characterize them in the process. As science education researchers respond to current national initiatives to foster students' science achievement, the emphasis placed on motivation has been increasing. Attitudes influence motivation, which in turn influences learning and ultimately behavior. This sequence is relevant to investigating learning in many science contexts, although the relationships among these variables can be more complex than this basic sequence suggests. Historically, science education researchers have adopted four orientations to motivation when studying learning: behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, and social. A behavioral orientation to motivation focuses on concepts such as incentives and reinforcement. A humanistic orientation to motivation emphasizes students' capacity for personal growth, their freedom to choose their destiny, and their desire to achieve and excel. A cognitive orientation to motivation emphasizes students' goals, plans, expectations, and attributions. A social orientation to motivation emphasizes students' identities and their interpersonal relationships in the communities that exist inside and outside of school. According to Brophy (1988), motivation to learn is "a student tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to derive the intended academic benefits from them" (pp. 205-206). The important motivational constructs being examined by researchers include intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, goal orientation, self-determination, self-efficacy, and assessment anxiety.

Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals

Goal Orientation refers to dispositions toward developing or demonstrating ability in achievement situations Self-determination, the idea of a positive freedom, a freedom for actions that we originate, actions that are "up to us" Self-efficacy It has been defined as the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain a certain set of goals. Anxiety is a normally occurring, but unpleasant, psychological and physiological state.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Educational psychology has identified two basic classifications of motivation - intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation arises from a desire to learn a topic due to its inherent interests, for self-fulfillment, enjoyment and to achieve a mastery of the subject. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is motivation to perform and succeed for the sake of accomplishing a specific result or outcome. Students who are very grade-oriented are extrinsically motivated, whereas students who seem to truly embrace their work and take a genuine interest in it are intrinsically motivated. Motivating Students Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that they can do well.

Ensure opportunities for students' success by assigning tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult. Help students find personal meaning and value in the material. Create an atmosphere that is open and positive. Help students feel that they are valued members of a learning community.

From Vanderbilt Center for Teaching Make it real In order to foster intrinsic motivation, try to create learning activities that are based on topics that are relevant to your students' lives. Strategies include using local examples, teaching with events in the news, using pop culture technology (iPods, cell phones, YouTube videos) to teach, or connecting the subject with your students' culture, outside interests or social lives. ([Brozo, 2005] ; McMahon and Kelly, 1996) Provide choices Students can have increased motivation when they feel some sense of autonomy in the learning process, and that motivation declines when students have no

voice in the class structure. Giving your students options can be as simple as letting them pick their lab partners or select from alternate assignments, or as complex as "contract teaching" wherein students can determine their own grading scale, due dates and assignments. Kurvink, 1993 Reeve and Hyungshim, 2006 (Perkins 2002, GSA Abstract) Balance the challenge Students perform best when the level of difficulty is slightly above their current ability level. If the task is to easy, it promotes boredom and may communicate a message of low expectations or a sense that the teacher believes the student is not capable of better work. A task that is too difficult may be seen as unattainable, may undermine self-efficacy, and may create anxiety. Scaffolding is one instructional technique where the challenge level is gradually raised as students are capable of more complex tasks. (Wang and Han) [Margolis and McCabe, 2006] [Adams, 1998]) Seek role models If students can identify with role models they may be more likely to see the relevance in the subject matter. For example, Weins et al (2003) found that female students were more likely to cite a positive influence with a teacher as a factor for becoming interested in science [Wiens et al, 2003] . In some cases, you can be a role model but it's unlikely that you will connect on that level with everyone in the class due to differences in gender, age and social circles. However there can be many sources of role models, such as invited guest speakers, fellow students or other peers. Use peer models Students can learn by watching a peer succeed at a task. In this context, a peer means someone who the student identities with, not necessarily any other student. Peers may be drawn from groups as defined by gender, ethnicity, social circles, interests, achievement level, clothing, or age.[Margolis and McCabe, 2006] Establish a sense of belonging People have a fundamental need to feel connected or related to other people. In an academic environment, research shows that students who feel they 'belong' have a higher degree of intrinsic motivation and academic confidence. According to students, their sense of belonging is fostered by an instructor that demonstrates warmth and openness, encourages student participation, is enthusiastic, friendly and helpful, and is organized and prepared for class. [Freeman, Anderman and Jensen, 2007] [Anderman and Leake, 2005] Adopt a supportive style

A supportive teaching style that allows for student autonomy can foster increased student interest, enjoyment, engagement and performance. Supportive teacher behaviors include listening, giving hints and encouragement, being responsive to student questions and showing empathy for students. Reeve and Hyungshim, 2006 Strategize with struggling students When students are struggling with poor academic performance, low self-efficacy or low motivation, one strategy that may help is to teach them how to learn. That is, to outline specific strategies for completing an assignment, note-taking or reviewing for an exam. [Tuckerman 2003] [Margolis and McCabe, 2006]

Six Cs of Motivation Choice Malone and Lepper (1983) suggest that providing explicit choices among alternatives can enhance intrinsic motivation. Schiefele (1991) identified two components of interest: feeling-related and value-related valences. Feeling-related valences are feelings attached to a topic. Value-related valences relate to the importance of the topic to an individual. Value-related valences are associated with "constructing meaning" and are discussed later in this chapter. Feeling-related valences are the degree of enjoyment that an individual has toward a topic or object. If students are allowed to select tasks that they personally enjoy doing, their motivation to learn increases. Challenge Providing or operating tasks just beyond the skill level of the students is a good approach to challenge learners. In the motivation chapter, the Flow Theory is presented (Csikszentmihalyi, 1985). Students may experience flow if the challenge of assignments matches their skills. Work that is too difficult raises anxiety, whereas tasks that are too easy contribute to boredom; both situations decrease motivation toward learning. In order to ensure that goals remain challenging, teachers should continue giving students the opportunity to provide feedback. Helping students search for more information to improve and revise their tasks plays an integral part in the learning process. Control If students are involved in the process of classroom control, they will be more responsible, independent, and self-regulated learners. To share the classroom control with students means involving them in the process of decision-making, organization of content, and choosing team members. However, too many choices may lead to increased anxiety, so providing assistance at appropriate times is essential when the teacher shares the classroom control with students. Collaboration Vygotsky (1978) theorized that communication and collaborative group work can enhance individuals thinking and learning. Students can share learning strategies and perspectives with each other through social interaction. Collaboration seems to

work best when students depend on each other to reach a desired goal, when there are rewards for group performance, and when students know how to work together effectively (Driscoll, 1994). Constructing Meaning Value-related valences are associated with the construction of meaning. If students perceive the value of knowledge, their motivation to learn will increase. Setting a meaningful goal for students is an important factor to promote motivation. Students should be given the opportunity to construct meaning in text as well as to build a rationale for the meaningfulness of literacy activities (Turner & Paris, 1995). In the geography class, Group C spent five minutes introducing the natural resources of their country, leaving only five minutes to present the rest of the information. Ms. Betty suggested they reduce the amount of time spent on natural resources even though they liked this topic. She helped the students understand the importance of a balanced report. Ms. Betty knew that if she did not help students discover the value and importance of doing the assignment, they would doubt its usefulness, and their motivation would decrease.

Consequences People enjoy having their work and learning achievement appreciated and recognized by others (Malone & Lepper, 1983). When students are provided channels to display their work, motivation will increase. There are various strategies for displaying students work, such as hanging their posters on the wall, presenting their work at a science fair, publishing their work on web sites, and providing links to other students. There is no correct way to complete a project, and students can compare their creativity, integrating articles and presentation ability with other teams. This strategy creates a positive feeling about effort, ownership, achievement, and responsibility (Turner & Paris, 1995). To implement this strategy, Ms. Betty borrowed a camera from the media center. She taught students how to film and asked each group to film their television news release. When each group finished filming, Ms. Betty displayed the news clips in the classroom so that everyone could compare the performance and results with other teams. She duplicated these tapes for each student as a souvenir. It was a very popular gift during the semester. Conclusion The Six Cs of Motivation strategies have the potential to enhance students' motivation when applied to open-ended tasks (Turner & Paris, 1995). There is no single correct answer in the open-ended tasks, allowing students to make their own choices and goals. In the open-ended task context, teachers should guide students in selecting the most appropriate choices, setting up short- and long-term goals, planning and evaluating their projects, working collaboratively, constructing personal meaning through the task, and displaying their final projects. When integrating the six Cs of Motivation into curriculum design, it is important to be aware of the progress of each group and provide feedback based on that progress.

When students engage in meaningful open-ended tasks, their motivation increases and the effect of learning is more powerful.