CENTRE FOR POLICY ANALYSIS (CEPA)

GHANA
SELECTED ECONOMIC ISSUES
No. 3 2000

Soil Classification in Ghana

Henry Obeng

Copyright CEPA 2000

Centre For Policy Analysis No. 35 Josif Broz Tito Avenue Switchback Road Accra Mailing Address: P. O. Box 19010 Accra North Ghana

Tel: [233-21] 778035/779364/779365 Fax: [233-21] 773670 E-mail: cepa@ncs.com.gh Website: www.ghana.com.gh/cepa

ISSN

Preface

CEPA: Selected Economic Issues, No.3

LAND CLASSIFICATION IN GHANA Henry Obeng

1. Introduction In 1998, the half year drought and evidence of a failing agriculture became the basis for CEPA's policy recommendations that beyond macroeconomic stabilisation, the stabilisation of agricultural water supplies is essential to stimulate and sustain growth in that sector. This could call for imaginative and diversified use of the large body of water in the Volta Lake and its tributaries not only for generating electricity but also for irrigating available arable land, especially within the Savannah and the Forest-Savannah Transition Zones of the country with a view to ensuring increased and sustained agricultural production. But, beyond water there is also the question of land. There is the general notion that Ghana is endowed with extensive good arable land for a diversified crop and animal production. However, the true status of the land situation is not very clear to policy analysts. CEPA is therefore, anxious to obtain accurate data on land in Ghana: classification, the extent to which classes will support increased and sustained production of traditional and non-traditional crops under both rain fed and irrigated conditions not only for home consumption but also for export to earn much needed convertible foreign currency.

Further, in line with its objective of keeping policy research relevant to the economic necessities of Ghana, CEPA will publish a series of discussion papers, which identify the impediments that constrain agricultural development. Thus policies can be defined that are not only implementable, potentially effective, but will also promote efficiency in agricultural land use and development.

Soil Classification in Ghana

1.1 Agricultural Production Outcomes versus Income It is an issue of major concern that arable agricultural production in Ghana is a nightmarish recurring cycle of poor farmer incomes irrespective of production outcomes. Thus when the weather is good and output levels are high, gluts force prices down and farmers are confronted with low incomes. On the other hand, when bad rains lead to low production outcomes, there is nothing to sell anyway and production outcomes are limited to subsistence. Policy attention must focus on breaking this recurring cycle of perpetually reinforcing poverty outcomes in the arable sector that make players therein the largest single group who earn below the poverty line in Ghana as outlined in the GLSS4.

In this issue, the focal spotlight will be placed on the natural resourceswater and land, and, to a limited extent, on the influences of markets to convert agricultural production outcomes into farmer incomes.1

2. Water Resources2 Throughout Ghana, natural rains will successfully support one cropping regime every year. The problem has been the unpredictability of the rainfall. Global geographical changes have distorted rain patterns and left very well confounded, those traditional farmers who hitherto held on to experience as their sole tool for predicting planting times and crop husbandry. They have looked helplessly on to science and technology to help them predict planting times for rain fed crops, but in vain.

Agricultural policy pursuit, therefore, has little choice but to dwell on the exploitation of water harnessing capacity to give the sector a much-needed boost. The need for

supplemental irrigation as a means to reduce the risk of crop failure is dire. The high
1

The analyses in this section are supported by the findings of a team of water and soil resources specialists. 2 This section is an abridged version of a commissioned study by CEPA conducted by Dr Henry Obeng and Nii Boi Ayibotele which is forthcoming.

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risks associated with the production environment scares away rational lenders and investors from the sector. A high degree of certainty in yield outcomes will translate

into greater formal banking confidence in much the same way as lower risks of crop failure will translate into lower lending and investment risks.

Irrigation will also allow multiple cropping especially of high value export crops. More readily available returns to farming will build up farm capital and lead to greater capacity of producers to meet the costs of improved technologies either of a mechanical nature (land tillage, water pumps) or of a chemical nature (fertilisers, pesticides both of production and storage)for, even with green/organic farming, appreciably high costs of up to 20 percent of gross returns can still be incurred in the current production environment3.

The history of irrigation in Ghana has been fraught with failure upon failure of large schemes. This must not necessarily be so. Nor do Ghanaian policy makers have to reinvent the wheel in a search for new methods of irrigation. Mali, a country right in the Sahara Desert is reported to be recording growth in arable agriculture over the last five years as a result of small irrigation schemes. The successful residential-plot-sized

vegetable gardens of Denu have shown the way to the feasibility and benefits of tubewell irrigation for example, in areas of high groundwater levels. So too has the relative success of the Okyereko small-scale irrigation scheme. On a general scale, the constraints that have so far played against extensive irrigation culture can be grouped into threea) Physical factors, b) Social Factors, and c) Financial limitations.

As illustrated above from the Ketu district, organic fertilizer costs are in excess of 20% of farm returns to irrigated export vegetable farming.

Soil Classification in Ghana

2.1 Physical Constraints In general, the lay of the land conditions irrigation feasibility. Where land is relatively flat over large stretches, dam walls need to be long to be effective. The cost of building a longer dam wall can be prohibitive. Further, a considerable amount of cultivable land is lost to submersion. Vast expanses of such shallow reservoirs also then allow high evaporation and water. On the other hand, if the lay of land is hilly, then on the need arises for huge investments in groundwork not only for dam building but also for ground levelling on crop fields. This can be considerable if the surface condition of the land is uneven.

Sheer unavailability of ground water can constrain options open to irrigation. In the lower half of the SGSG belt for instance, borehole-tunnelling work by the Ghana Water Company has revealed that groundwater is low yielding and groundwater cannot therefore be relied upon for extensive irrigation. Under such circumstances, the effective strategy should be in the establishment of small reservoir schemes rather than expensive large-scale reservoirs. This is the system used in Burkina Faso, and the strategy that has made the arable sector in Nigeria currently the fastest growing agricultural sector in SubSaharan African. These small schemes also allow more efficient management as

responsibility rests on smaller sizes of beneficiaries, than would be the case for huge reservoir schemes.

2.2 Social Factors The social implications of dam construction are often under emphasised probably in the belief that the benefits will be so overwhelming that the beneficiaries will work together to ensure legitimate, orderly and peaceful exploitation of irrigated land resources. This has been proven wrong all over the worlda reflection of the danger of replacing advocacy in development work over policy research. In Ghana, the Vea dam was raised in 1979 and yet to date the conflict on land distribution still rages. The lessons of Aveyime are even more current. It is important therefore that potential beneficiaries from

CEPA: Selected Economic Issues, No.3

irrigation investments be assured of sufficient security regarding land tenure. An outright freehold title to the land will, for instance, offer them sufficient confidence to invest in, maintain and improve their irrigated holdings. research on land tenure in Ghana. These point to the need for policy

It has also been established empirically that the smallholder farmer will sometimes turn down apparently clear advantages of new technology because it is attendant with such increased use of labour resources as may be beyond their means.

2.3 Financial Factors By far the most constraining factor to irrigation development is the lack of funds. It is however a constraint that cannot be solved in isolation. MoFA reports that their effort at facilitating irrigation have been frustrated by the high the high capital outlay required for putting up any form of irrigation infrastructure. Even small schemes are expensive to develop. To reduce the cost of dam construction, road culverts in India and neighbouring Burkina Faso that are close to agricultural settlements are constructed to hold water in reservoirs, rather than just allow the water to flow through as pertains in Ghana. This shares costs between road construction and irrigation development.

3. Land Resources Agricultural sector productivity in Ghana is at the crossroads. The years of low and declining real income from the arable sector sits uncomfortably with vanishing incomes from lower global demand of our historically rewarding cocoa sector, as well as the environmental correctness of lowered harvests of timber and forest products. The need therefore, for policy to explore new directions to harness natural resources and improve their marginal productivities, is a sine qua non for economic growth. Key to

Soil Classification in Ghana

sustainability of agricultural development though will yet remain the land factorits availability, access/tenure and soil quality.

3.1 Land Availability Published statistics of the MoFA reveal a vast amount of land that is potentially available for agricultural use. MoFA reports that of the total land area of 23.9 million hectares, 13.6 million hectares (57.1%) can be classified as agricultural land area but only 5.3 millions (22.2% of all agricultural land area) were under cultivation at the last count (1995). A paltry 4 percent is was under irrigation. 4 It should not be a surprising

therefore when causal observers assert that Ghana is a land abundant country. For land to be declared agriculturally useful though, a lot more factors must be considered than just the mere fact of availability. Two such factors worthy of discussion are suitability and tenure.

3.2 Tenure of Land Whereas outright landlessness may be unusual in this country, widespread practices of land division and fragmentation through inheritance are resulting in ever decreasing holdings. In the Upper East Region, CEPA surveys are picking up indications that some scale of landlessness is emerging. If the ordinary producers of Ghana are going to meet and overcome the current and future challenges of globalisation, then land tenure and access issues are sufficiently important to warrant wider and much more rigorous policy research than is currently the case.

CEPA does not profess to be sole repository of knowledge or in deed the authority on solutions to land laws and legislative instruments that will revolutionise the system. The

Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) Medium Term Agric Development Programme (MTADP) Document, Accra

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primary objective, in bringing this up for review is therefore to excite policy minds on what the need, opportunities and challenges are, for providing a land policy that is altogether equitable, efficient, sustainable and not just supportive of, but actually promotional to the agricultural sector.

In respect of agricultural land in particular, but also for much of the country, customary land tenure is more widespread in Ghana than statutory land tenure. In general, customary tenure systems have two features. The first is that customary title is

inalienable. Thus, in most areas of the country, those in whom ownership has been vested cannot cede full property rights. The second feature is that multiple claims can be made over a same piece of land. Whilst one party may have farming rights to a piece of traditional holding, any community member can exploit the land for a different purpose or use it in some other way at a different time, just so long us there is no conflict or destruction to their respective interests. Thus in the SGSG belt, our survey identified that any person can pick sheanuts from a farm that may not belong to their farm household. The Vea Irrigation scheme provides a further example where traditional landlords cultivate the land during the rainy season and tenant farmers cultivate it in the dry season. These and other smaller features make long term development of customarily acquired and held land rather unattractive investment options. Thus, long-term acquisitions on holdings for which rights have, over generations, shifted from lineage to individual landlords tend to hold a huge potential for conflict. Competing claims for land as from aggrieved gender-based victims of land loss, or between patrikin and matrikin, newcomers and latecomers, and statutory-backed versus customary-backed claimants to title can all add to such litigation costs as to dent the competitiveness of production if the such land would be a production.

It is also the case that in some cases, the value of land held under customary title is not immediately discernible to the landlord, until it has been acquired and is being used for income generating ventures. The now increased awareness of the export and income generating potential for cashew production to a hitherto unmindful rural sector has placed

Soil Classification in Ghana

new value on land and is upsetting longstanding tenant-landholder relationships. Our survey identified that in some areas of the Transition zone, stretching from the western border of Ghana to the upper fringes of the Volta region, tenant farmers are beginning to express doubt on the fairness of the sharecropping schemes that has existed for decades. The fact that inputs such as pesticides and fertiliser are now becoming more and more a necessity as soil fertility is falling, could itself be putting a new perspective to the meaning of share. Ambiguities abound. For instance, in some parts of the Volta region, tenant farmers, whether local or immigrants must only harvest two-thirds of their produce after farming. The landlord owns the other third, irrespective of inputs cost. Along the same latitude to the West around Techiman, tenant farmers, if they insist, may be allowed to deduct costs of inputs before the sharing is done.

The survey sought to establish a picture of land prices in Ghana for agricultural purposes. Even this proved futile. Even within a distance of ten kilometres of Wenchi, land sale prices differed by over 100,000 per acre (450,000 per hectare). No clear and consistent reasons could be assembled to categorise sales. These included level of kinship,

friendship or other relationship with the landlord, use to which the land will be put (cassava, cashew, maize or tomatoes, for instance), proximity to water or settlement, number of years land will be held and such others. There was no possibility to organise these into land price categories. In deed, in many areas of the Northern Ghana (SGSG zone) as well as the Ashanti and Volta regions, as already mentioned, outright and irreversible sale was said to be impossible.

Livestock development is particularly in jeopardy in Ghana.

Cattle breeding, by

intensive grazing is a practice that has as yet not widely practised in Ghana. The MoFA has a series of pilot schemes presently. Generally, therefore, headsmen, usually of the Fulani traditions who are known to be masters of livestock management, would collect and husband cattle from several owners for a fee. 5 Common grazing lands are however not demarcated in community settlements in Ghana and the headsmen are free to exploit

CEPA: Selected Economic Issues, No.3

all un-farmed land for grazing purposes. The conflict sets in when cattle move out of their communal lands into neighbouring or even distant communal lands. In some cases the herdsmen are simply labelled as Alien over extending their welcome, and the ensuing conflicts can often result in loss of stock. The time is ripe for the encouragement and guidance by policy to communities to allocate communal grazing grounds with water wells. Even better will be such policy guidance that will encourage the development of pastures.

It is clear that land policy in Ghana is required at the very least, to redress the many ambiguities that prevail currently. The challenge to policy thinking is how effectively to marry customary laws with statutory laws of acquisition and tenure, without sowing seeds of discontent, nor perceived threat of a future landlessness state for grandchildren yet unborn to current traditional holders, and yet, confer such statutory rights that will engender such security as to attract and allow the private sector to sink capital investments in land development and agricultural production.

3.3 Land Suitability Physical impediments such as rocks and mountains have been cited earlier as constraints to irrigation. But this is not specific to irrigation. Rocky areas and mountainous terrain are generally difficult to cultivate. An even more critical constraint is the soil that the weathering of rocks and parent material produce. As natural medium for the growth of land plants, soil is the most valuable natural resource a nation possesses. There are, however, different types of soils with different suitability rating for various crops and for different farming systems. The soil type that pertains in any locality depends on several factors. These include, as mentioned, the parent rock, the climate, the relief, the

drainage, the living organisms on the land and the time taken for a particular parent material to break down into soil. Such is the importance of the climate among these

Our survey identified a wide variety of these forms of payment ranging from monthly cash and all milk to the herdsman, through a calf at start and at close of contract to the more common

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factors that in Ghana, soil zoning can be grouped into two based on the two major distinct vegetation zones, namely forest and savannah.

3.3.1 Soils of the Main Agro-Climatic Belts and their Potential for Agricultural Production The local classification system of soil in Ghana is based on characteristics that are the result of the major climatic differences that in turn have given rise to two major distinct vegetation belts, namely, Forest and Savannah.

The soils of the Forest belts of Ghana are easily distinguished from those of the Savannah belts by the greater accumulation of organic matter in the surface horizon resulting from the more abundant leaf-fall under Forest vegetation and the slower rate at which humus is oxidised. The soils of the Savannah belts are on the other hand, generally lower in organic matter within the surface horizon due to the fact that grass is the dominant vegetation. In addition, over extensive areas, such soils have unfavourable moisture relationships due mainly to the fact that rainfall is less reliable in occurrence than in the Forest belts.

3.3.2 Soils of the Forest Belt The major soils are those developed as weathering products of metamorphosed and basic intrusive rocks, principally, granites, phyllites, quartzites, sandstones and epidiorites, greenstones, balsalt and upper Birrimian phyllites. They fall mainly within the Great Soil Groups of Forest Ochrosols, Forest Ochrosol-Rubrisol Intergrades, Forest Lithosols (on uplands), Forest Gleisols, and Forest Gleisol-Alluviosol Intergrades (on lowlands).

payment of the fourth calf of any flock to the herdsman.

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Forest Ochrosols Forest Ochrosols cover approximately 3,144,575 hectares within Ghana. They are red, brown and yellow-brown, well to imperfectly drained soils occurring on summits, upper, middle and lower slopes. Such soils have a marked concentration of organic matter in the upper topsoil (A horizon) with strongly leached lower horizons.

The upland Forest Ochrosols consist of three main subgroups of which the Wenchi series are not of much agricultural importance. They are , in any case very minor in extent, and should be permanently kept under forest to prevent undue accelerated soil erosion.

The second subgroup is the moderately shallow to moderately deep, red and brown concretionary and/or gravelly, moderately heavy to medium textured soils overlying mostly highly weathered phyllite (Bekwai series), biotite schists (Swedru series), (Kumasi series) or quartzites (Juaso series). This subgroup constitutes the most extensive soils within the semi-deciduous Forest belt. Due to their concretionary and gravelly nature and their occurrence over moderately undulating to sloping topography, they are not generally considered suitable for intensive mechanised cultivation of arable crops. They are, however, eminently suited for extensive food crop and tree cash crop cultivation of such crops as cocoa, coffee, oil palm, black pepper, sweet berry, nutmeg, ginger, cassava, plantain, cocoyam and maize.

The third subgroup, associated mainly with weathered phyllite (Akumadan series), granite (Boamang series), quartzites (Bompata series), or sandstones (Bediesi series), are deep to very deep, red and brown, well to moderately well-drained soils which are devoid of concretions and gravel at least to 60 cm and are moderately heavy to medium textured.

This group are the best for crop production due to the fact that they are non-concretionary and non-gravelly to considerable depths, are mainly medium textured and occur on relatively flat uplands. Such soils are potentially suited to mechanised and hand

cultivation of both arable and tree crops. They are, however, limited in extent.

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Some Forest Ochrosols also occur on the lower slopes. These are mainly deep to very deep, yellow brown, moderately to imperfectly drained and medium to light textured. When they are associated with upland soils over phyllite they are moderately heavy to medium textured and are recognised as Kokofu series. Those occurring along with sedentary soils over granite are mainly medium textured (Akroso series) or very light textured (Nta series). Those occurring along the lower slopes and derived from quartzites are predominantly medium textured and are recognised as Asuboa series.

Forest Ochrosols are by far the most extensive and the most important soils within the Forest belts for both food and tree cash crop cultivation. Such soils, under natural conditions contain adequate nutrients that are tied-up with the organic layers in their topsoils. They can, therefore, sustain good crop growth. As soon as the Forest is cleared for cultivation, however, the nutrient level is drastically reduced and crops are adversely affected. For increased and sustained food crop and tree cash crop production, therefore, it will be necessary for manure and/or commercial fertilisers such as a compound of NPKMgS to be applied. In areas where the topography is sloping especially where arable crops are to be grown, in addition to increasing the fertility level of the soils, mulching, contour ploughing or terracing and rotations that include legumes and long term crops like cassava and plantain will help to counteract erosion.

Forest Rubrisol-Ochrosols Intergrades Forest Rubrisols consist of dark red, firm or plastic, nutty to blocky clays developed over basic rocks. They are limited in extent, occupying only about 524,400 hectares mainly in the Eastern, Western, and Ashanti regions). They are formed from an underlay of hornblende and biotite granodiorites, epidiorites, dolerite intrusions and green stones that have been found to give rise to soils that are intermediate between true Rubrisols and Ochrosols. Such soils, which are represented by the Wacri, the Koforidua and the Susan series constitute the most valuable within the Forest belt of Ghana. They are more fertile, have a better moisture holding capacity and are more resistant to erosion than both the Ochrosols and the Oxysols. They are thus capable of offering a better medium for the

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prolific growth of arable and tree cash than the much more widespread Forest Ochrosols. Unfortunately they are very limited in extent. But it is suggested in the literature, that with proper management, the limited areas covered by soils of the Forest RubrisolOchrosol intergrades could by themselves produce about half of the total quantity of cocoa produced from the whole Forest belt of Ghana. 6

Forest Lithosols These soils occur mainly over Togo quartzites, Voltaian sandstones and Takwaian quartzites. They are found largely along the Akwapiman and Volta ranges and on the escarpment running through the Forest belt from Koforidua through Nkawkaw and Ashanti Mampong in a northern direction towards Wenchi. They occur on high ranges within the Forest belts over basic rocks (Atukrom), granites (Nyanao) and Birrimian phyllites (Kobeda) especially within the vicinity of Lake Bosomtwi. The predominant soils within the Volta Region are the Adomi and Afeyi series. Forest Lithosols, which cover an area of approximately 554,400 hectares within the country are very shallow to shallow, excessively well-drained soils directly covering incompletely weathered and/or hard rock, usually on steep slopes. Due to their shallowness and occurrence around areas with steep slopes, they are considered generally unsuitable for arable cropping and are to be reserved for Forestry purposes in order to protect existing watersheds. Any attempt to cultivate them extensively may result in severe accelerated soil erosion.

Forest Ochrosol-Lithosol Intergrades These cover approximately 65,200 hectares of the country and consist of soils that are transitional between Forest Ochrosols and Forest Lithosols. These intergrades, unlike true Forest Lithosols, are not too shallow for limited arable food cropping. Areas of such soils are found on the sloping flanks of some Upper Birrimian ranges around Bechem, Bibiani and Wiawso areas (Bechem and Wiawso series). They are of such high inherent

Brammer (1962)

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fertility status that under strict management practices they can be successfully cultivated to tree cash crops such as cocoa, black pepper, sweet berry and coffee.

Forest Gleisols These cover approximately 486,800 hectares within the country. They are predominantly, very deep to deep, grey, imperfectly to very poorly drained alluvial soils developed in materials transported from upslope and deposited in the valley bottoms. Generally, such soils border the rivers and the major streams within the Forest belts as very narrow bands. They occur in the wide valleys of the major rivers such as the Bia, Tano, Ankobra, Pra, Ochi-Amisa, Ayensu and Densu.

Forest Gleisols associated with granites, (Ofin), sandstones (Sene) and quartzites (Pamusua) are characteristically coarse and/or sandy textured, free draining, near-neutral to moderately acid in reaction and generally medium to low in fertility. Such soils are unable to retain enough moisture for good crop growth during the dry season. During the rainy season, however, they can be successfully cultivated to vegetables. However, they can also be found associated with phyllites (Oda), schists (Densu) and greywache (Debia) in which case they are clayey with considerable amount of silt. Unlike their sandy counterparts, these latter associations have better moisture relationships and are, as such, more capable of being mechanised and/or hand cultivated for the cultivation of rice, sugarcane and vegetables. Within the high rainfall areas of the Forest belt the

imperfectly drained, brown to yellow-brown moderately heavy textured, very acid old alluvial soils such as Kakum series are capable, upon draining and the application of fertilisers, of sustaining good growth of cocoa, oil palm and bananas.

Forest Gleisol-Alluviosol Intergrades These cover approximately or 104,192 hectares of the country. Alluviosols are mainly deep, moderately to imperfectly drained sandy loams and loose sands developed along the levees of the major rivers (Chichiwere series). Such soils are, however, in such

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limited extent that they cannot be mapped separately on a map of a scale of 1:1,000,000 and as a result they have been grouped with their associated Gleisols within the valley bottoms. Detailed physico-chemical data for Chichiwere series is presented in Table 32 in the Appendix Section.

Forest Oxysols These are fond largely within the extreme south-western part of the country where they extend over approximately 647,773 hectares. They are generally are more paler in colour and more acid than Forest Ochrosols and characterised by deeply weathered, yellow, moderately well drained, acid, medium to moderately heavy textured upland soils either over phyllite (Boi series) or over granite (Abenia series) or developed in tertiary sands in which case the soil is mainly reddish brown to brown, well drained and medium textured (Tikobo series). Rainfall within areas occupied by Forest Oxysols is generally within the annual average of 2,000 mm. This high precipitation coupled with the poor nutrient retentive capacity of the existing parent materials is mainly responsible for the occurrence of strongly leached soil profiles. Soil reaction trends within the profiles of Forest Oxysols are very different from those found in the Forest Ochrosols.

Forest Oxysols are generally unsuitable for cocoa. Also, arable crops do not appear to do as well as on Forest Ochrosols and Rubrisols. It will seem that these soils are best suited to tree cash crops such as rubber and oil palm, mainly because of the high rainfall regime and not because of any special soil properties.

Forest Regosols and Other Minor Soil Groups Forest Regosols cover approximately 40,000 hectares, occurring as a narrow band bordering the coast and stretching from Axim to the western frontier with Cote D'Ivoire. The soils consist of either deep, brown sands (Fredericksburg series) on the raised beaches or moderately shallow white sand grading into about 61 cm of dark brown, weak

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organic pan underlain again by white sand occurring on the shoreward side (Princess series).

Where the organic pan is compact a soil known as Atuabo series and classified as Regosolic Groundwater Podzol, is developed. Such a soil and other minor groups cover approximately 7,200 hectares within Ghana.

Forest Regosols are highly acid in reaction and almost barren of nutrients. They have, however, favourable moisture relationships due mainly to the over 2,032m of well distributed annual rainfall which they receive. Such soils are considered suitable for coconut cultivation but because of their poor nutrient status, manuring and the application of Nitrogen fertilisers will be required if good yields of the palms are to be obtained.

In perennial waterlogged sites, black, highly acid, peaty clays, distinctly different from Forest Regosols (Mpataba series) occur. These soils cover only about 1.6 hectares of the Coastal Savannah belt and have been suggested in some literature as potential rice lands. The soils are however highly infertile and may therefore serve only a limited purpose other than for poor rough-grazing for some time to come.

3.4 Soils of the Transition belt The general relief is mainly level to near-level with isolated Inselbergs capped by the prevailing geological rocks that in this case are mainly sandstones. Substantial areas of level to near-level relief within the Savannah patches are covered by deep, to very deep, non-gravelly, sandy clay Savannah Ochrosols, mainly Ejura and Damongo series. Though the soils are quite low in inherent fertility and subject to erosion and droughts, they are considered to be well suited to extensive mechanised cultivation of maize, guinea corn, sunflower, cashew nuts, yams, tobacco, soybeans, groundnuts and fibre crops such as cotton, urena lobata and kenaf. However, for increased and sustained crop production, there will be the need to improve upon the fertility status of the soils through

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manuring and the application of commercial fertilisers, especially a suitable compound of NPKMg. In addition, accelerated erosion will have to be controlled through crop

rotations in which a leguminous crop is included, mulching, strip cropping or contour ploughing and appropriate water control measures during the rainy season. During the long dry season, for all year round cultivation, there will be the need to provide irrigation water.

Within the Afram Plains, especially, parts falling within the Sene and Obosum basins, such soils as occur near the Volta Lake, can easily be irrigated for increased and sustained production of the crops mentioned above.

Additionally, in areas with moderately deep and concretionary soils, improved pastures, can be established for livestock production, especially with a pangola grass-centrocema mix for extensive livestock production.

The Forest patches within the belt have soils developed over granites (Kumasi series), phyllites (Bekwai series) and quartzites (Juaso series), similar to those occurring within the Forest belt. Within these areas, cash crops such as cocoa, coffee, black pepper, sweet berry and ginger as well as food crops like maize, plantain, cocoyam and cassava can successfully be extensively cultivated if management practices afore-mentioned for such soils are strictly enforced. Extensively developed along the banks of the major rivers and streams within the belt are Forest and Savannah Gleisols. These too can be developed for the prolific and sustained production of rice, sugarcane and vegetables.

It is interesting to note that in between the Forest and Coastal savannah is a somewhat illdefined narrow belt of up to 48 km wide between Kade and Kibi. The relief is one of several hill ranges, prominent among which are the Bogosu Hills and the Atewa range to the north and east of the belt, respectively. The main rivers draining the entire belt are the Ankobra, Tano and the Birim. The major soils are those developed over or in the weathering products of Upper and Lower Birrimian rocks, granites and quartzites. The resulting soil are therefore, generally inherently more fertile than their counterparts

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within the more limited Forest belt. Such soils have characteristics that are transitional between the very acid, Forest Oxysols and the moderately acid Forest Ochrosols of the semi-deciduous Forest belt. They are thus mainly classified on the uplands as Forest Ochrosol-Oxysol Intergrades. Other soils that occur within the belt are similar to the Forest Rubrisol-Ochrosol intergrades, Forest Literosols and Forest Gleisols already described above.

3.5 Soils of the Coastal Savannah belt The vegetation here is grassland, interspersed with fire resistant trees and tall grasses in sparsely settled areas with short grasses and scattered shrubs occurring around heavily cultivated areas. The predominant rocks within the belt are mainly basic and acidic gneisses with substantial areas of quartzites and tertiary sands. Such rocks have given rise to a variety of soils locally classified as Savannah Ochrosols, Savannah Lithosols, Savannah Ochrosol-Lithosol Intergrades, Tropical Black and Brown Clays, Savannah Gleisols, Tropical Grey Earths and Regosolic Groundwater Laterites, Sodium Vleisols and Savannah Regosols.

Coastal Savannah Ochrosols Savannah Ochrosols are mainly red and brown well to moderately well-drained, medium to light textured soils that are very extensive within the Savannah belts of the Country with a total coverage of some 5,730,880 hectares. They tend to have thin organic layers due to insufficient accumulation of organic matter.

Like their Forest counterparts, there are three subgroups of Savannah Ochrosols. The shallow to very shallow, reddish brown and brown, concretionary, medium to light textured soils which belie directly over sandstones and/or Togo quartzite schists (Nyigbenya series) are unsuitable for any type of arable or tree crops production.

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The second subgroup are moderately shallow to moderately deep, red and brown, concretionary and/or gravelly, moderately heavy to medium textured soils overlying mostly weathered quartzites (Mamfe series) and phyllites (Jakiti series). While not quite suited to mechanised cultivation, this subgroup can easily be hand cultivated for the growing of both arable and tree crops. They are also quite suited for pasture grazing of livestock.

By far the best soils for both mechanised and hand cultivation of both arable and tree crops are the non-gravelly soils of the third group. They are deep to very deep, red and brown, moderately heavy to medium textured soils, devoid of concretions and gravel to at least 60 cm from the surface. They are developed in the weathered products of either quartzites (Oyarifa series) or tertiary sands (Toje series). Notably, their inherent fertility is quite low and they are liable to be eroded if strict management practices are not followed. They must be manured and fertilized, especially with NPKMg compound fertilisers and protected against undue accelerated erosion through mulching, rotation of crops in which a suitable legume is included and/or contour ploughing, strip cropping or terracing. Crops that thrive very well on the soils are cashew nuts, sunflower, pineapples, maize, cassava, soybeans, maize, pepper and tomatoes.

Coastal Savannah Lithosols Savannah Lithosols are very shallow, concretionary and/or gravelly soils over little weathered and/or hard rock occurring over steep slopes. They cover some 1,132,400 hectares within the country. Within the Coastal Savannah belt, the soils have either been developed over quartzites (Kloyo, Fete and Krobo series) or over phyllites, shales and sericite schists (Salom series). Such soils are highly susceptible to erosion due mainly to their shallowness and occurrence over steep slopes. They are thus considered unsuitable for arable cropping. They must be put under tree crops in a Forest reserve system.

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Coastal Savannah Ochrosol-Lithosol Intergrades These are Intergrades between Savannah Ochrosols and Savannah Lithosols. The soils are, therefore, somewhat less gravelly and deeper than true Savannah Lithosols. They are, thus capable under strict management practices, of being cultivated mainly by hand to arable crops similar to those recommended for Savannah Ochrosols. Together, they cover about 468,400 hectares within the Savannah belts.

Coastal Tropical Black and Brown Clays Tropical Black and Brown Clays are dark coloured, heavy, alkaline, cracking clays occurring over level to near level gilgai micro-relief. Within the whole country (SGSG belt inclusive) they cover approximately, 212,710 hectares. Clay content of the soils is more than 30% and base saturation is more than 50% throughout their profiles. Organic matter content is generally less than 4% in the A horizon. The soils become saturated with water during the peak of the rainy season and dry out almost completely to develop wide vertical cracks during the dry season.

These soils consist predominantly of Akuse series and their shallow phase, the Prampram series developed over basic gneiss on low uplands. They are associated within the valley flats with very plastic somewhat acid variants that are referred to as the Bumbi and Lupu series.

In Ghana, Tropical Black Clays are not extensively cultivated. Under hand hoe culture, indigenous small-scale farmers have avoided cultivating such soils mainly because of their heavy nature and difficult moisture relationships. However, similar soils in India, South Africa and the West Indies are known to be intensively cultivated to rice, cotton, vegetables and sugarcane. They require the use of heavy machinery, skilled

management, proper irrigation and careful drainage to enable the soils to be irrigated with a view to producing high yields of vegetables, rice, sugarcane and cotton on large scale.

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Tropical Brown Clays, which have been grouped with Tropical Black Clays are very minor in extent and generally lighter in texture within the topsoil (A horizon) than their Black counterparts. They occur mainly within the Accra Plains (Ashiaman series) around the vicinity of the peri-urban settlement of Ashiaman in Accra. As a result of their lighter topsoil texture, they are more extensively cultivated by indigenous farmers with food crops such as maize, tomatoes, okro, garden eggs, pepper and cassava.

Coastal Savannah Gleisols Savannah Gleisols are mainly poorly drained alluvial soils covering some 1,608,000 hectares within the Savannah belts. They are, predominantly, very deep, grey, nongravelly, and imperfectly to very poorly drained soils developed in materials transported from up slope and deposited in valley bottoms. Such soils are heavy to medium textured with moderately acid A horizon becoming alkaline with depth. Organic matter content is generally very low (less than 2%).

Due to the fact that the relief within the Savannah belts is more level than within the Forest belts, Savannah Gleisols are more extensively developed and they, therefore, constitute potentially, some of the most important agricultural soils in the country. Within the Coastal Savannah belt extensive lowlands along the Lower Volta flood plains consist of very deep to deep, grey, non-gravelly, medium to heavy textured alluvial soils (Amo, Tefle and Hake series) which have tremendous potentialities under irrigation for large scale arable crop production (Maize, cotton, vegetable, rice and sugarcane), especially, around the Aveyime area of the Accra plains.

Coastal Tropical Grey Clays Tropical Grey Clays are grey, hard claypan soils occupying very gentle Savannah topography over acidic gneisses and schists (Agawtaw series) mainly within the southeastern section of the Coastal Savannah belt. They are low in organic matter (less than

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2% in the A horizon) with a pH of near neutral in the A horizon (6.4-6.5) becoming increasingly alkaline with depth (8.2-8.8).

Agricultural development of the Tropical Grey Clays is definitely a difficult undertaking. Not only will it involve breaking up the hard claypan so as to allow deeper rooting but also improving the internal drainage to leach out the sodium. However, with gypsum treatment (which will be very expensive) and the application of fertilisers under a suitable irrigation system, such soils can be developed for the cultivation of millet and vegetables and for the rearing of livestock under an improved pasture.

Mapped with the Grey Clays are limited areas of Regosolic Groundwater Laterites which consist from few centimetres to several meters of pale-coloured sands overlying mottled, gravelly, sandy clays underlain by weathered acidic gneiss or granite (Doyum, Simpa and Ziwai series). Both groups together, cover some 150,037 hectares within the Coastal Savannah belt. Such soils when properly managed can be cultivated to groundnuts, millet, guinea corn and cassava.

Coastal Sodium Vleisols Sodium Vleisols (Ada, Songaw, Oyibi, Agbozome and Muni series) border the saline coastal lagoons and creeks along the Lower Volta, covering, an area of, approximately, 89,728 hectares. They comprise of black or dark grey clays, sticky when wet and hard when dry, occurring extensively in highly saline areas, mottled sandy loams and clay encrusted salt crystals at the surface occurring on the almost bare lagoon margins.

Indigenous farmers sometimes cultivate the less saline soils intensively to sugarcane and vegetables along the Volta, where they are annually flooded with fresh water. For increased and sustained crop production on such soils, though some drainage control, irrigation and the application of commercial fertilisers will be required. It will, however, be uneconomical to attempt to bring the soils of the salt flats under cultivation for, they are considered to be one of the worst soils in the Ghana.

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Coastal Savannah Regosols Savannah Regosols are mainly sands developed on the coastal sand dunes. They consist, predominantly, of a few centimetres of yellowish, incoherent, coarse sand grading into a layer of yellowish coarse sand containing shell fragments that are sometimes underlain by hard, laminar, calcareous pan (Keta series). Together, they cover approximately 50.7 hectares within the Coastal Savannah belt.

Savannah Regosols, especially over the sand dunes, characteristically, support coconut with a sparse ground cover of short grasses. They are droughty and almost barren of nutrients. They have therefore little potential for agricultural development. With heavy fertilization involving chemical fertilisers or organic manure and the supply of irrigation water, though, they may be utilised for intensive vegetable production.

3.6 Soils of the SGSG belt The relief within the belt is predominantly level to very gently undulating. Broad valleys are broken by isolated low-lying inselbergs characteristically capped sandstone, shales, mudstone and phyllites and, to a lesser extent, granite. The major rivers that drain the entire belt are the White, Red and Black Voltas, the Kulpawn, Sissili and the Nasia.

The geology of the SGSG belt is quite diverse consisting of granites, phyllites, greywaches, schists and basic intrusive rocks within the northern section. A greater part of the belt occupying the central and southern sections, usually termed the Voltaian basin, is however, underlain mainly by Voltaian sandstones, shales and mudstones.

The underlying rocks of the sandstone, shale and phyllite series are usually ferruginous with ironstone impregnations when they are encountered capping the inselbergs. Such rocks are very old, of Lower Birrimian age (late tertiary, Junner 1940) and they suggest that a great part of the belt had been raised and degraded several times. It is generally believed that such areas once formed part of an extensive peneplain which was later

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mostly eroded away leaving isolated remnants behind which are presently typified by the ironpan capped inselbergs.

The prevailing climatic conditions of rainfall for half the year, with the rest of the period very dry and hot registering practically no rains at all coupled with the general gentle relief are conducive to alternating wetness and dryness resulting in the extensive occurrence of very shallow soils overlying impenetrable ironpan (ironpan soils). Majority of such soils have been classified locally as Groundwater Laterites but they may actually be Petrosols. In any case, they are by far the most extensive soils occurring within the SGSG belt.

Other major soils are Savannah Ochrosols, Savannah Ochrosol-Groundwater Laterites Intergrades, Savannah Ochrosol-Rubrisol Intergrades, Savannah Lithosols, Tropical Black and Brown Clays, Savannah Gleisols, Savannah Gleisol-Tropical Black Clay Intergrades and Savannah Gleisol-Alluviosol Intergrades, all of which, except ironpan soils (Petrosols), Savannah Ochrosol-Groundwater Laterites, Savannah OchrosolRubrisol Intergrades, Savannah Gleisol-Tropical Black Clay Intergrades and Savannah Gleisol-Alluviosol Intergrades, have already been discussed under soils of the Coastal Savannah belt.

Savannah Ochrosols The Techiman series lead a subgroup of three in this classification. They are shallow to very shallow soils overlying in situ developed ironpan within 55.9cm. The second

subgroup is moderately shallow to moderately deep concretionary and/or gravelly, heavy to medium textured soils overlying mostly highly, weathered granites (Puga series), phyllite (Dorimon series) and shales (Nyankpala series). The third subgroup is deep to very deep, red and brown, and mostly medium textured non-gravelly soils developed in weathered products of either sandstones (Mimi series) or granites (Varempere series) or phyllites (Baleufili series).

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Savannah Lithosols These are very shallow soils mostly on steep slopes either over Bongo granites (Nangodi and Pusiga series) or phyllites (Gbeshie series) or basimorphic rocks (Gbache).

Tropical Black and Brown Clays Also rather limited in extent within the belt, these occur mainly in pockets around areas underlain by basic intrusive rocks within the northwest and along the White Volta to the extreme Northeast of the country (Pani and Yagha series).

Savannah Gleisols Savannah Gleisols are mainly heavy in texture (Kupela, Pale, Siare and Volta series) or medium textured (Dagere series) that are liable to the flooded during the peak of the rainy season.

Savannah Gleisols-Alluviosol Intergrades These soils have been developed, mainly, along the lower part of the White Volta and around the vicinity of the village of Walewale. Such soils are predominantly, Brownish grey , loose sands which occur in pockets within the levees of the large rivers and streams (Kunkwa and Sirru series). In view of the fact that they are too minor to be

mapped separately, they have been grouped with their more extensive associated Gleisols. They are suitable for the cultivation of maize, guinea corn, beans, tomatoes and onions

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Ironpan Soils7 Ironpan soils are the associations with the geomorphic surfaces of high-level, footslope and low-level peneplain remnants. They are highly weathered, sesquioxide-rich, humuspoor and mainly kaolinitic soils that may contain considerable quantities of 2:1 lattice clays, especially in respect of low-level ironpan soils associated with shales. Ironpan Soils have distinct, in situ developed, super-hard, sesquioxide-rich horizon at varying depths within their profiles. They occur extensively within the SGSG belt of Ghana and are also reported to be very predominant in other West Africa countries, like Niger, Togo, Benin, Upper Volta, Cote DIvoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea and Senegal.

High level ironpan soils typified by Wenchi series are also associated with high level peneplain remnants mainly on flat summits. They are characteristically, red to reddish brown, very shallow, highly concretionary, light to medium textured soils overlying, (within 12.7cm of the surface) several centimetres of in situ developed ironpan horizons. These in turn may either be underlain by weathered or incompletely weathered rock. On lower slopes occur footslope colluvial ironpan soils often associated with the highlevel ironpan soils. These are moderately deep, characteristically, yellow brown mottled, imperfectly drained sandy to silty clays overlying several centimetres of in situ developed, hard, ironpan horizon within 46-51 cm of the surface and are typified by Bianya series . The low-level ironpan soils are the most extensive among the ironpan soils of West Africa. In Ghana, for example, they cover almost 25 per cent of the land area of the country mostly within the SGSG belt. They are characteristically, shallow to very shallow with sheet ironpan encountered mostly around the edges where it sometimes forms extensive bovals. Such soils are of two kinds: imperfectly drained, occurring within the east on the low lying uplands (Kpelesawgu series) and poorly drained, occupying the lower slopes and valley bottoms (Changnalili series). Within the west, such soils have either been developed over granite (Gulo series), or phyllite (Dugu series).

They are also classed as Petrosols (See Obeng, 1970).

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All the low-level ironpan soils are mainly coarse textured and concretionary in the A horizon with a hard, in situ developed ironpan (ferricrete) B horizon which cannot easily be broken up with ordinary iron implements. They are in general pale-coloured with marked manganese staining in the B horizon and with the layer immediately above it (B horizon) showing soft ochre mottles indicative of impeded drainage condition.

In general, Ironpans restrict root penetration and are therefore a hindrance to crop production.

Savannah Ochrosol-Groundwater Laterite Intergrades Savannah Ochrosol-Groundwater Laterite Intergrades are extensively developed over the Voltaian Basin within the SGSG belt. They cover, approximately, 3,082,800 hectares within the country. They are in the main, a mixture of Savannah Ochrosols and Groundwater Laterites but could also be true intergrades between the two. Such soils occur where drainage is more impeded than the Groundwater Laterites and may be due either to a more sandy bedrock in the case of Voltaian areas, possibly to a high biotite content in the case of granites or to recent slight dissection of the topography.

In these soils, the top layer just below the humus-stained layer may be yellow-brown to pale orange-brown in colour and the upper part of the ferruginous layer consists of darkcoloured, spherical, ironstone concretions in an orange-brown, porous, loamy matrix in the case of the Voltaian Sandstone, mudstone and shale areas or of orange-coloured, semi-hard, gritty, vesicular ironpan in granites areas (Babile series). Such soils only become waterlogged in the lower part of the profile. They are droughty during dry spells. Where drainage improves still further, true Savannah Ochrosols are developed.

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Savannah Rubrisol-Ochrosol Intergrades These soils are limited in some extent within the Savannah belts of the country. Within the SGSG belt they cover approximately 78,260 hectares. They consist either of deep, well-drained, reddish brown, non-gravelly silty clays overlying basic micaceous intrusive rock (Kaleo series) on the flat uplands or moderately deep to moderately shallow, moderately to imperfectly drained, red, brown and olive mottled concretionary sandy clays over granite (Nakori series).

4. Cocoa and Export Diversification for Sustainable Growth A topical issue of discussion in Ghana is the decision by cocoa producers in the West African subregion to influence world market cocoa prices via artificial shortages expected to be triggered through the destruction of cocoa already harvested. In Ghana, this sits uncomfortably against a government grant pledged to private companies to rehabilitate the Cocoa industry for increased production of 75,000 Metric tonnes in the next year. The question that begs itself is, should the destruction succeed in making

cocoa more expensive, and if global research for alternative artificial replacements is then heightened, then would the producers continue to destroy more cocoa year after year?

The better policy alternative is to diminish the importance of cocoa standing alone, and in its raw form, as a foreign exchange earner. Adding value for higher returns should be

the strategy for increased incomes rather than physical destruction. In any case, there are alternative crops that hold as much potential for Ghana as cocoa had and sustained research could give them a boost. Export diversification must not remain a political platform piece of rhetoric. Both scientific and economic research must continue to identify new and suitable alternative crops and the associated cultural practices in production and marketing that will unearth Ghanas competitive advantage in the export of those alternatives. In Box 1, one such an alternative is highlighted.

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Box 1: Alternative Commodity Exports: The Case for the African Sweetberry
When in the 7th century sugar was derived from cane, it was said to be a curious foreign salt which looks like salt, but tastes like honey 8 Today the consumption of sucrose or what is commonly called sugars is on the down turn. In its place, various high-potency plant constituents have been used throughout history to impart sweetness to food. Saccharin about 300 times sweeter than Sucrose and Aspartame, 180 times sweeter than sucrose, are the popular sugar substitutes in drinks and medicines. The search for artificial sweeteners is on the upswing. It will appear that with some scientific and socio-economic research commitment by policy makers, Ghana can tap into that search to diversify our commodity export base for, Thaumatin a substance that is 2000 to 2500 times sweeter than sucrose is found in the African sweet berry plant. The vast rain forests of Ghana have the precipitation, soils and shade that together make a tropical the rainforest natural habitat of this plant. The scientific research aspect of this potential export has already been far advanced elsewhere. The US Food and Drug Administration, in their search for potent and low calorific sweeteners, selected Thaumatin as one of 36 from an initial list of 400 chemicals. It is known that the plant relishes rainfall of 1500 to 2000 and the alluvial soils of river basins. When it is well shaded and the leaves not pruned irresponsibly, harvests of berries can amount to 3 metric tonnes per hectare. It is reported that for purposes of cultivation, this wild plant will not need any more labour or input that would have been required for the production of a normal crop. What may be needed is the scientific enquiry into breeding that will turn it from a wild plant to a domesticated plant. The markets for Thaumatin will also need to be researched. It will seem, though that there is a market for the African Sweetberry. It is reported variously, that exporters of the berries are paying $(US) 150/kg for the crop and harvesting windfalls sales of $(US) 500/kg in Japan. But even at the conservative $5.00 per kg that is widely perceived as the farm gate price, the potential for export incomes of up to $5000 per metric tonne is much better than cocoa revenue. It also means that a diligent farmer who is able to coax a single hectare to yield the optimal three metric tonnes suggested by current research, will have an incomes of $150,000 accruing in a year. If Ghana needs a new export opportunity for the country, it will appear the African Sweetberry is providing a solid basis for further exploration and economic exploitation.

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References Adu, S.V. 1969. Soils of the Navrongo-Bawku Region. Upper East Region, S.R.I., C.S.I.R. Memoir # 5 Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana. Adu, S.V. 1992., Soils of the Kumasi Region, Ashanti Region, S.R.I., C.S.I.R., Memoir # 8. Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana. Adu, S.V. 1995, Soils of the Nasia River Basin, Northern Region, S.R.I., C.S.I.R. Memoir # 11, Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana. Adu, S.V. 1995. Soils of the Bole-Bamboi Area, Northern Region, S.R.I., C.S.I.R., Memoir # 14. Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana. Adu, S.V. and R.D. Asiamah, 1992. Soils of the Ayensu-Densu Basin, Central, Eastern and Greater Accra Regions. S.R.I., C.S.I.R., Memoir # 9, Kwadaso- Kumasi, Ghana. Adu, S.V. and J.A. Mensah-Ansah, 1995. Soils of the Afram Basin, Ashanti and Eastern Region. S.R.I., C.S.I.R., Memoir # 12, Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana. Ahn, P 1961. Soils of the Lower Tano Basin, South Western Ghana. Min. of Food and Agric., Scient. Serv. Div., S.LU.S., Memoir #2 Kumasi, Ghana. Amuzu, A.T. 1978. The Quality of Groundwater in the Accra Plains of Ghana. Water Resources Research Institute (WRRI), CSIR, Accra, Ghana. Asamoa, G.K. 1968. Soils of the Ochi-Nakwa Basin. S.R.I., G.A.S., Memoir # 4. Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana. Asiamah, R.D. 1995. Soils of the Ho-Keta Plains, Volta Region., S.R.I., C.S.I.R., Memoir # 10. Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana Ayibotele, N.B. 1974. Water Resources of Ghana. Proc. Symp. Soil and Water Conser. Toward Increased Agric. Production in Ghana. IDA and SRI, CSIR, Accra and Kumasi, Ghana. Ayibotele, N.B. 1985. Development and Management of Groundwater Resources in Ghana-Some Current Problems. Lecture IV, 2nd Int. Advanced Course on Water Resources Management. Centre for International Studies, Penigia, Italy. Baumquartner, A and E. Reichel, E. 1977. Water on the Earth. In span-Progress in Agriculture. Vol.20 No.2 pages 63-67., Edited by Stevens, J.G.R., Derby, England, U.K. Brammer, H. 1956, C.F. Charters Interim Scheme for the Classification of Tropical
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Markakis, P. (1987) The Sweetener Revolution in Science and Food Agriculture (5)1 pp16-20

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Soils. Gold Coast. Dept of S.L.U.S., Occ. Paper # 2., Kumasi, Ghana. Brammer, H. 1962. Soils of Ghana. in Wills, Brian, ed, Agriculture and Landuse in Ghana Chap. 6, pp. 88-`16., Oxford Univ. Press., New York, N.Y. U.S.A. Min. of Food and Agric. (MOFA), 1997 Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Development Strategy in Support of Ghanas vision 2020. Accra, Ghana. Nii Consult. 1997. Hydrometeorology, Information Building Block Ghana Water Resources Management Study, Min. of Works and Housing, Accra, Ghana. Nii Consult 1998. Water Resources Needs in Strategic Investment Plan., Consultancy Report. Obeng, H.B.., S.V. Adu and G.K. Asamoa 1962. Methods of Soil Survey for Land Development in Ghana. S.R.I., G.A.S. Conf. Paper # 33., Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana. Obeng, H.B., 1963. Soils of the Seilo-Tuni Land Planning Area, Near Wa, Northwestern Ghana, A.R.I., G.A.S., Tech. Report # 62. Kumasi, Ghana. Obeng, H.B., G.K. Smith, 1963, Land Capability Classification of the Soils of Ghana. Ghana J. of Sci. 3 (No1): 52-65, Accra, Ghana. Obeng, H.B., 1965. The Development of Ghanas Natural Resources -Twenty years of Soil Survey and Classification in Ghana. Conf. Paper # 35, S.R.I., C.S.I.R., KwadasoKumasi, Ghana. Obeng, H.B., 1967. Soil Survey and Classification in Ghana. The Ghana Farmer 11 (No.2): 62-69. Min. of Agric. Accra, Ghana. Obeng, H.B., 1968. Land Capability Classification of the Soils of Ghana under Practices of Mechanised and Hand Cultivation for Crop and Livestock Production. Trans 9th Inter. Congs. Soil Science 4: 235-255, Adelaide, Australia. Obeng, H.B., 1970. Characterisation and Classification of Some Ironpan Soils of Ghana. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Library, Iowa State Univ., Ames, Iowa, U.S.A. Obeng, H.B., 1971. (1) Twenty-five years of Soil Survey and Classification in Ghana. FAO/UN World Soil Resources Rpt. No. 40: 93-98 Rome, Italy. Obeng, H.B., 1971. (2) The Major Soils of Ghana and Their Potentialities for Agricultural Development. J. of the AAASA 1(No1):L 19-27, Addis Ababa Ethiopia. Obeng, H.B., 1972. Soil Map and Soil Suitability for Mechanised and Other Cultivation Practices, Erosion Hazard, Food Crops, Export Crops, Import Substitution Crops and,

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Pastures for Livestock Grazing and for Forestry, Game Reserve or watershed Protection Purposes Maps of Ghana. Atlas of Ghana. Survey Department, Accra, Ghana. Obeng, H.B., Soils of the Pra Basin, Eastern, Ashanti and Central Regions. S.R.I., C.S.I.R, Memoir # 13. Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana. Obeng, H.B., Soils of the Dayi-Asukawkaw Basin, Volta Region. Memoir in Press, Kwadaso-Kumasi, Ghana. S.R.I., C.S.I.R.,

Opoku-Ankomah, Y. 1986, Annual Stream Flow Characteristics of the Major Ghanaian Rivers. WRRI, C.S.I.R., Accra, Ghana.

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