Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
ZUENG-SANG CHEN
and to produce good quality of composts. The value of organic wastes as soil conditioners can be estimated in a number of ways, depending on the ultimate objectives of their use. Inoculants of mixed cultures of beneficial microorganisms have considerable potential for controlling the soil microbiological equilibrium, thus providing a more favorable environment for plant growth and protection. Organic matter content is usually used as an index of soil fertility. In their general review of the effects of organic matter, many researchers indicated that it influences the soil in three ways, such as, physically, chemically, and biologically. The fibrous portion of organic matter plays an important role in improving soil physical properties. It promotes soil aggregation and improves permeability and aeration of clayey soils. Its high moistureabsorbing power and high carbon for growth of microbial mycelia may help in the granulation of sandy soils to improve their nutrient- and water-holding capacity. Organic matter accounts for at least half the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soils. Thus, it is very important not only in retaining nutrients from fertilizers applied but also in increasing the buffering capacity of soils, enabling crops to better cope with such stresses as soil acidity and nutrient excess. It helps increase availability of many nutrient elements. By itself, organic matter is a source of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), and other major and secondary nutrient elements. The management of soil organic matter is important in maintaining soil productivity, reducing soil erosion, keeping the soil structure and nutrient pools, and controlling the water balance for sustainable soil management system. This book discusses composting, which has been found to be an efficient means of managing soil organic matter.
FOR MANY CENTURIES, the key to a permanent and sustainable agriculture had been the regular and extensive recycling of organic materials on soils as soil conditioners. Such materials included animal manure, green manure, crop residues, wood ashes, tree leaves, weeds from canals, wild grasses, urban sewage, and street refuse. Many of these materials were composted to destroy weed seeds and potential human and plant pathogens; to enhance their nutrient availability; and to facilitate their storage, transport, and application to land. These practices enabled farmers to maintain their soil quality and to maximize their crop production with negligible soil erosion and nutrient runoff. However, agriculture in the Asian and Pacific region has changed considerably, and farmers are now facing problems of rapid soil degradation and soil productivity loss. It is readily apparent that alternative agricultural practices and the ultimate goal of a long-term sustainable agriculture depend largely on regular additions of various organic amendments to soils. The quality and acceptability of many organic wastes, from both on-farm and off-farm sources, can be greatly enhanced through composting. Composting is allowing organic materials to decompose under more or less controlled conditions to produce a product that can be used as a fertilizer and/ or soil conditioner. In more recent technology of composting, forced aeration, mechanical shredding, mixing, grinding, drying, and even inoculation with microbial decomposers have been introduced. Composting is basically a microbial bio-oxidative process. Its purpose is to change the properties of an organic material or a mixture of organic biomass into a material that is safe to apply to crops as fertilizer or soil conditioner. The critical factors that affect composting and their interrelationships must be thoroughly understood to ensure optimum composting conditions
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2.1 Introduction
Composting is the natural process of decomposing and recycling organic materials into a humus-rich soil amendment by the successive action of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, or earthworms. Many common materials can be composted on-site, including food wastes, leaves, grass clippings, plant trimmings, straw, shredded paper, animal manure, and municipal solid wastes. The final product is a stable dark-brown or black humus material with an earthy smell. Like other recycling efforts, composting has many benefits to agriculture, the environment, the economy, and the society. However, composts have some disadvantages to agriculture and the environment if they were processed or used under incorrect conditions. This chapter provides a brief introduction to the benefits and drawbacks of using composts.
Reduces the soil bulk density and improves the soil structure directly by loosening heavy soils with organic matter, and indirectly by means of aggregate-stabilizing humus contained in composts. Incorporating composts into compacted soils improves root penetration and turf establishment. Increases the water-holding capacity of the soil directly by binding water to organic matter, and indirectly by improving the soil structure, thus improving the absorption and movement of water into the soil. Therefore, water requirement and irrigation will be reduced. Protects the surface soil from water and wind erosion by reducing the soil-dispersion action of beating raindrops, increasing infiltration, reducing water runoff, and increasing surface wetness. Preventing erosion is essential for protecting waterways and maintaining the quality and productivity of the soil. Helps bind the soil particles into crumbs by the fungi or actinomycetes mycelia contained in the compost and stimulated in the soil by its application, generally increasing the stability of the soil against wind and water erosion. Improves soil aeration and thus supplies enough oxygen to the roots and escapes excess carbon dioxide from the root space.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Increases the soil temperature directly by its dark color, which increases heat absorption by the soil, and indirectly by the improved soil structure. Helps moderate soil temperature and prevents rapid fluctuations of soil temperature, hence, providing a better environment for root growth. This is especially true of compost used as a surface mulch.
!
1) successful competition for nutrients by beneficial microorganisms; 2) antibiotic production by beneficial microorganisms; 3) successful predation against pathogens by beneficial microorganisms; 4) activation of disease-resistant genes in plants by composts; and 5) high temperatures that result from composting kill pathogens. Reduces and kills weed seeds by a combination of factors including the heat of the compost pile, rotting, and premature germination.
Enables soils to hold more plant nutrients and increases the cation exchange capacity (CEC), anion exchange capacity (AEC), and buffering capacity of soils for longer periods of time after composts are applied to soils. This is important mainly for soils containing little clay and organic matter. Builds up nutrients in the soil. Composts contain the major nutrients required by all plants [N,P,K, calcium (Ca), magnesium(Mg), and S] plus essential micronutrients or trace elements, such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), and molybdenum (Mb). The nutrients from mature composts are released to the plants slowly and steadily. The benefits will last for more than one season. Stabilizes the volatile nitrogen of raw materials into large protein particles during composting, thereby reducing N losses. Provides active agents, such as growth substances, which may be beneficial mainly to germinating plants. Adds organic matter and humus to regenerate poor soils. Buffers the soil against rapid changes due to acidity, alkalinity, salinity, pesticides, and toxic heavy metals.
Absorbs odors and degrades volatile organic compounds. Binds heavy metals and prevents them from migrating to water resources or being absorbed by plants. Degrades and, in some cases, completely eliminates wood preservatives, petroleum products, pesticides, and both chlorinated and nonchlorinated hydrocarbons in contaminated soils.
! !
Supplies food and encourages the growth of beneficial microorganisms and earthworms. Helps suppress certain plant diseases, soilborne diseases, and parasites. Research has shown that composts can help control plant diseases (e.g. Pythium root rot, Rhizoctonia root rot, chili wilt, and parasitic nematode) and reduce crop losses. A major California fruit and vegetable grower was able to cut pesticide use by 80% after three years of compost applications as part of an organic matter management system. Research has also indicated that some composts, particularly those prepared from tree barks, release chemicals that inhibit some plant pathogens (Hoitink and Fahy 1986). Disease control with compost has been attributed to four possible mechanisms:
Avoids methane production and leachate formation in landfills by diverting organics for composting. Absorbs odors and degrades volatile organic compounds. Prevents pollutants in storm water runoff from reaching water resources, and protects groundwater quality. Prevents erosion and turf loss on roadsides, hillsides, playing fields, and golf courses. Minimizes odors from agricultural areas. Composting raw manure can minimize any potential environmental or nuisance problems. Raw manure is one of the primary culprits in the pollution of waterways, and odor from farms is considered an increasing problem in the rural areas.
tipping fees, and reduces waste disposal fees and long-distance transportation costs. - Offers environmental benefits from reduced landfill and combustion use. - Creates new jobs for citizens. - Produces marketable products and a less-cost alternative to standard landfill cover, artificial soil amendments, and conventional bioremediation techniques. Provides a source of plant nutrients and improves soil fertility; results in significant cost savings by reducing the need for water, pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, and nematodes. Used as an alternative to natural topsoil in new construction, landscape renovations, and container gardens. Using composts in these types of applications is not only less expensive than purchasing topsoil, but it can also often produce better results when establishing a healthy vegetative cover. Used as mulch for trees, orchards, landscapes, lawns, gardens, and makes an excellent potting mix. Placed over the roots of plants, compost
mulch conserves water and stabilizes soil temperatures. In addition, it keeps plants healthy by controlling weeds, providing a slow release of nutrients, and preventing soil loss through erosion.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
particularly mixed municipal solid wastes. The potential for contamination becomes an important issue when compost is used on food crops. Long-term and/or heavy application of composts to agricultural soils has been found to result in salt, nutrient, or heavy metal accumulation and may adversely affect plant growth, soil organisms, water quality, and animal and human health (Figs. 6 and 7).
2.7 Why are so many farmers in Asia buying compost instead of making it by themselves?
Whatever composting system is used, farmers must have adequate land area and suitable equipment to manage a composting operation, and stable sources of raw materials for composting must be available. In addition, it usually takes a long time perhaps years to produce a stable compost product. Therefore, the requirements of raw materials, space, and equipment as well as the length of time required for composting usually discourage farmers from making compost by themselves.
A farmer's composting system costs include the annual fixed and variable costs attributable to the system. Capital investments include all composting system structures and equipment. Variable costs include labor, fuel, electricity, and maintenance charges. It is less economical and more expensive for farmers to make compost by themselves than to buy it from the market. A successful composting operation should have appropriate background in and techniques for producing high-quality composts without creating odor and other environmental problems. Some negative effects on agriculture and the environment have been found when immature or low-quality composts, usually produced under an inadequate composting process, were added to the soil (Fig. 8). It is better to use highquality composts bought from the market than to use immature ones produced by farmers if their knowledge of and/or techniques for composting are not proper. If not carefully and properly controlled, the composting process can create a number of environmental concerns such as air and water pollution, odor, noise, vectors, fires, and litter that can be a cause of complaints from neighbors or nearby residents. In addition, the potential worker's health and
Fig. 6.
Poor growth of tomato in soil with high EC value due to heavy application of animal compost.
Fig. 7.
Poor seed generation of cabbage in soil with salt accumulation due to heavy application of animal compost.
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safety problems must be dealt with and solved. It may be too difficult for farmers to manage these problems.
2.8 References
Black, R. J and G. L. Miller. 1998. Benefits of using compost and mulch in Florida roadside planting. ENH-126. Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Finck, A. 1982. Fertilizers and fertilization: Introduction and practical guide to crop fertilization. Verlag Chemie. GimbH, Weinheim. Federal Republic of Germany.
Hoitink, H. A. J. and P. C. Fahy. 1986. Basis for the control of plant pathogens with compost. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 24: 93-114. Mark Risse and Britt Faucette. 2000. Food waste composting, institutional and industrial application. Cooperative Extension Service, the University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. http://www.ces.uga.edu/pubcd/ B1189.htm U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1993. Markets for compost. EPA1530-SW-90-073b. Washington, D.C.: Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation; Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
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3.1 Introduction
Composting is the science of converting organic matter to useful products by the action of various organisms. Decomposition as a process occurs in nature at various levels. To attain the goal of having quality end products, various modifications have been applied to this natural process with a careful monitoring of the process. Composting is associated with the reclamation, recycling, treatment, and disposal of wastes. Reclamation and recycling are means of saving and reusing natural resources. Disposal has become a less desirable option because of environmental concerns. The composting process mainly involves a battery of actions carried out by the interplay of various organisms that form a web of life. Composting is generally defined as the biological oxidative decomposition of organic constituents in wastes of almost any nature under controlled conditions (Sharma et al. 1997). In this process, the organic substances are reduced from large volumes of rapidly decomposable materials to small volumes that continue to decompose slowly. The process brings the ratio of carbon to other elements into a balance, thus providing nutrients to plants in the absorbable state (Fig. 1). To understand the science of composting, a basic understanding of the various organisms involved is necessary. Based on their functions, these organisms have been classified as first-order consumers, which feed directly on the dead plant or animal materials; second-order consumers, which feed primarily on the first-order consumers or on the produce of these consumers; and third-order consumers, which feed on the second-order consumers. This system keeps different populations in check and maintains a healthy and balanced system. Further, the vast array of organisms found in the compost pile can be classified based on their functions as chemical and physical decomposers. Microscopic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and protozoa are the chemical decomposers, while larger organisms such
Heat Water Vapor RAW MATERIALS Minerals Water Fresh organic matter CO2 Gas
Finished Compost
O2
Fig. 1.
CO2
O2
#
Humification (Polymerization)
# " !
#
Respiration
!
Slowly decomposable
"
CO2
H2O
#
Microbial Biomass Energy
Fig. 2.
Organic matter decomposition pathways for aerobic respiration. (Adapted from Reddy et al. 1986, with modifications)
NO-3 NO-3
Nitrification
! " NH4
Carbohydrates Fatty acids Organic acids NO
4
"
#
#
NO-2 N2
#
Organic matter
" Dissimilatory
! " N2O
Slowly decomposable Zone II- NO3 - reduction Mn+ reduction Zone III- Fe3+ reduction
!
CO2 Energy H2O Mn4+Reduction
Microbial
!!
Fe2O3
! ! ! !
!
" Fe3+Reduction ! #
Fe 2+
Mn O2
! #
Mn2+
Fig. 3.
Organic matter decomposition pathways for facultative respiration. (Adapted from Reddy et al. 1986, with modifications)
CO2
$
SO 42-
Sulfide oxidation
Methane oxidation
Organic matter
Easily decomposable
"
!
Slowly decomposable
"
#
#
Sulfate
" HS 2
Energy CO2 CH 4
#
H 2S
#
Acid fermentation
Microbial biomass Zone II- Sulfate reduction Zone III- Methane formation
" #
FeS
Methane formation
Fig. 4.
Organic matter decomposition pathways for anaerobic respiration. (Adapted from Reddy et al. 1986, with modifications)
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most of the initial mechanical breakdown of the materials into smaller particles. Mesophilic bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and protozoa (microorganisms that function at temperatures between 10o and 45oC) initiate the composting process. As temperature increases as a result of oxidation of carbon compounds, thermophiles (microorganisms that function at temperatures between 45o and 70oC) take over. Temperature in a compost pile typically follows a pattern of rapid increase to 49o-60oC within 24-72 hours of pile formation and is maintained for several weeks. This is the active phase of composting. The process involves the degradation of easily degradable compounds under aerobic conditions. The increased temperature kills pathogens, weed seeds, and phytotoxins. During this phase, oxygen must be supplied by either mixing, forced aeration, or turning the compost pile. As the active composting phase subsides, temperature gradually declines to around 38oC. Mesophilic organisms recolonize and the curing phase begins. During curing, organic materials continue to decompose and are converted to biologically stable humic substances (mature or finished composts). The maturing phase requires minimum oxygen and the biological processes/ activities become very slow. Considering the various stages of compost formation, the bio-oxidation phase used for the degradation of organic substances can be identified. In contrast, the synthesis phase of humic substances, started during the first phase of composting, develops and finally will be completed in the mature phase of the compost. Curing is a very critical stage and should be kept for 1-4 months. Compost is considered finished or stable after the temperature of the pile core reaches near-ambient levels. The processes are accomplished by different phases and are discussed below. ! Initial phase, during which readily degradable components are decomposed; ! Thermophilic phase, during which cellulose and similar materials are degraded by the high biooxidative activity of microorganisms; ! Maturation and stabilization phase. The processes can also be explained in terms of two well-defined phases, namely, mineralization and humification. The former is an intensive process involving the degradation of readily fermentable organic substances like carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and lipids. The degradation involves high microbial activities and generates heat, carbon dioxide, and water in addition to a partially transformed and stable organic residue. When the assimilable organic fraction is utilized, some of the cells undergo decay by auto-oxidation, which provides energy for the remaining cells (Fig. 5). The transformation process of the organic substances is completed in the second phase under less oxidative conditions, thus allowing the formation of the humic-character substance and eliminating the dense toxic compost, eventually formed during the first
phase. The humification phase is carried out by specific microbes, which synthesize the complex polymers that create the energy substratum for future microbial activities.
3.3.1 Temperature
Temperature is an important parameter affecting microbial activity, and variations in temperature affect the various phases of composting (Epstein 1997; McKinley et al. 1985). Temperature is produced during the composting process, resulting from the breakdown of organic materials by microbes. The organisms in composting systems can be divided into three classes: cryophiles or psychrophiles (0o-25oC); mesophiles (25o-45oC); and thermophiles (>45oC). Cryophiles are found only during winter composting. Mesophiles, in association with thermophiles, generally predominate commercial composting systems. The temperature can range from near freezing to 70oC. Starting at ambient temperature when the components are mixed, the compost can reach 40o-60oC in less than two days depending on the composition and environmental conditions. Hence, heat is generated from within the compost medium, and applying external temperature is not necessary unless ambient temperature is far below freezing. Temperature is also a good indicator of the various stages of the composting process. The process is divided into four phases based on temperature. The first stage is the mesophilic stage, where mesophilic organisms generate large quantities of metabolic heat and energy due to availability of abundant nutrients, but gradually this will pave the way for the dominance of thermophiles. With depletion of food sources, overall microbial activity decreases and temperature falls to ambient, leading to the second mesophilic stage, where microbial growth will be slower as readily available food is consumed. Finally, compost material enters the maturation stage, which might take some months.
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breakdown of the cellulose in their environment, and do not waste energy on the unnecessary formation of enzymes for degradation of molecules that may not be present. Cellulose is a polymer of glucose, which is digested by a variety of enzymes. In simple terms, the enzymes may either cleave glucose molecules from the end of the polymer (exocellulase), or fragment the cellulose polymer into smaller molecules by internal digestion (endocellulase). Cellulases are especially common in soil- and plant-inhabiting fungi. Many fungi in the Ascomycotina and Basidiomycotina are able to digest cellulose. The necessary enzymes are less common in members of the Zygomycotina. Lignin is commonly found in plants. Lignin is a polymer of phenyl-propanoid units (C6C3), with a variety of carbon-carbon and carbon-oxygen linkages resulting in a complex chemistry and structure. Various enzymes are needed to completely degrade lignin. These can be classified into two functional groups: lignin peroxidases and manganese peroxidases. The enzymes are only induced in the absence of readily available nutrients. Thus, degradation of lignin is delayed and slow. Lignin molecules are commonly found associated with cellulose. Fungi with ligninases usually digest cellulose. Fungi with ligninolytic potential are more common in the Basidiomycotina than in any other group. Generally, lignin is broken down slowly because only few uncommon fungi are able to degrade the organic material when the environment is highly competitive.
! "
White rot fungi
HUMIC SUBSTRATES
!
Mineral substances
Bacteria
Actinomycetes
"
!
Metabolism of microorganisms
!
Metabolic products Water phase
"
CO2
" "
Water vapor
Hemi cellulose
Cellulose, pectin
Lignin
Fig. 5. Generalized food-web scheme of the composting ecosystem. (Adapted from Kaiser 1996, with modifications)
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Source: Palmisano, A.C. and Bartaz, M.A. (1996) Microbiology of solid waste, pp. 125-127. CRC Press, Inc. 2000. Corporate Bld. N.W. Boca Raton. FL 33431 USA.
odor. Maintaining C:N ratio after composting is also important to determine the value of finished compost as soil amendment for crops. The final C:N ratio of 15 to 20 will be expected and the value of more than 20 might have a negative impact and will damage the crop and seed germination. The value of 10 has been suggested as ideal.
3.4.2 Phosphorus
Levels of P along with N and K will be important to determine the quality of compost, as P is also one of the essential nutrients for plant growth. A C:P ratio of 100 to 200 is desirable (Howe and Coker 1992). Phosphorus is not lost by volatilization or lixiviation during the composting process, but P concentration might increase as composting proceeds (Warman and Termeer 1996).
3.4.3 Sulfur
Presence of S in sufficient quantities can lead to the production of volatile, odorous compounds (Day et al. 1998). The major sources of S are two amino acids, namely, cysteine and methionine. Under well-aerated conditions, the sulfides are oxidized to sulfates, but under anaerobic conditions, they are converted to volatile organic sulfides or to H2S, leading to a bad odor. Some compounds like carbon disulfide, carbonyl sulfide, methyl mercaptum, diethyl sulfide, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide might also lead to bad odors.
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A compost pile that is too hot can destroy its own biological community. It can also leave a mass of organic material that must be repopulated to continue the necessary conversion of organic matter into humus. Such sterilized compost is more likely to be colonized by unwanted microorganisms, such as Salmonella. Researchers have shown that the biodiversity of compost acts as a barrier to colonization by such unwanted microorganisms as Salmonella. Without a biodiverse indigenous flora, such as what happens through sterilization, Salmonella are able to regrow. The microbial biodiversity of compost is also important because it aids in the breakdown of the organic material. For example, in high-temperature compost (80C), only about 10% of sewage sludge solids could be decomposed in three weeks, whereas at 50-60C, 40% of the sludge solids were decomposed in only seven days. The lower temperatures apparently allowed for a richer diversity of living things, which, in turn, had a greater effect on the degradation of the organic matter. Even if every speck of the composting material is not subjected to the high internal temperatures of the compost pile, the process of thermophilic composting nevertheless contributes immensely to the creation of a sanitary organic material. Or, in the words of one group of composting professionals: The high temperatures achieved during composting, assisted by the competition and antagonism among the microorganisms (i.e., biodiversity), considerably reduce the number of plant and animal pathogens. While some resistant pathogenic organisms may survive and others may persist in cooler sections of the pile, the disease risk is, nevertheless, greatly reduced.
more than 20 different types of volatile organic compounds and their intermediates were recovered from the municipal solid waste composting facility (Komilis et al. 2004). The major phytotoxic compounds include either phenolic compounds or short chain fatty acids (Young and Chou 2003). Some of the phenolics are vanillic, trans-p-coumaric, cis-p-coumaric, phydroxybenzoic, ferulic, and o-hydroxyphenylacetic acids; short chain fatty acids include acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid. The amount of these compounds varies with the composting method and feedstock.
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activities that cause the transformation of the material in composting. Most composting should include temperature in the thermophilic range. At these temperatures, the rate of organic matter decomposition is maximum, and weed seeds and most pathogenic microbes cannot survive. It is also very important to mix the composting substances so as to ensure that all parts are exposed to high temperatures.
will be dependent on the feedstock, influenced by aeration, temperature control, and nutrient levels.
3.8 Mineralization
The end products of any composting process are water, organic and inorganic matter that can be used as soil amendment to supply essential nutrients to the plants, in addition to the buffering action and to increase water-holding capacity (Fig. 6). During the composting process, the ash or inorganic component increases due to the loss of 2 organic fraction or volatile solids as CO . Values of volatile solids present in feedstock are between 65% and 99%. About one-third (20%) of the organic 2 material is decomposed into water and CO , but this
Carbohydrates (soluble), Cellulose Hemicellulose, Proteins, Lipids, etc. CO2 H20, "NH3 H2S, etc.
#
Microbial decomposition
"
#
Microbial protoplasm & metabolic byproducts Modified lignin & aromatics
#
Aromatic Structures
Mineralization
#
Humus
Mineralization
Fig. 6.
Organic matter decomposition and the formation of humic substances. (Adapted from Bear 1964, with modifications)
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3.
4.
5.
6.
conductive and convective phenomena developing in the biomass. The unsuitability of the system to the use of mycelial microorganisms is due to the fact that the mycelium is damaged when the biomass is turned and so prevented from developing to the optimal degree on the surface of the substrate to be used and converted to useful biomass and/or to a particular product. The low number of active contacts between microorganisms/enzymes and substrate is due mainly to the limited surface area of the substrate. The lack of protection for the enzymes/ microorganisms from external agents is due mainly to the virtually non-existent porosity of the solid substrates. The limited use of the capacity of the bioreactors is linked to the need to mix the biomass with bulking agents and/or to turn or stir the biomass.
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CBCT is a proprietary blend of beneficial microorganisms (BM), macro- and micronutrients, amino acids, enzymes, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. The microorganisms in CBCT are selected both for their effectiveness in degrading organic matter and for their ability to grow synergistically to high concentrations. They are among the most effective decomposers in the composting process. CBCT produces odorless, hygienic, mature compost that can be safely applied to the land for improved soil structure, moisture retention, and addition of a wide range of nutrients. CBCT initiates and accelerates the composting process. When CBCT is activated in an environment in which essential nutrients (organic materials) are present, the CBCT microbes rapidly grow to high concentrations and become the dominant organisms. These microbes provide optimized degradation for the biodegradable component in organic wastes. The end product of the process is a 100% organic fertilizer containing primary nutrients as well as trace minerals, humus, and humic acids. The by-products of the process are carbon dioxide and water. CBCT microorganisms are unaltered microbes originally derived from the soil, which utilize organic matter as a food source. The cultures are safe for the environment and are not harmful to animals, plants, and humans. Their other benefits are the following: ! They control composting. ! They are convenient to use. ! CBCT is safe for the environment. ! CBCT is non-toxic to animals, plants and humans. ! They control flies and insects by creating a poor breeding substrate. ! The resulting compost is odorless and hygienic and can be safely applied to any soil. Compost Treat is a scientifically developed combination of selected microbials and nutrients designed to initiate and accelerate the composting process. Compost Treat assists natural composting of organic matter and produces a more consistent, mature compost. The bacteria in Compost Treat are a selected mixture of mesophiles and thermophiles. Mesophiles grow and metabolize well at medium temperatures (70-115F); thermophiles do well at higher temperatures (95-140F). These types of bacteria are the most effective decomposers in the composting process. The viable bacteria in Compost Treat also produce several enzymes. The highly active enzymes assist in the decomposition of plant cell walls and other organic materials. Protease, amylase, xylanase, and pectinase all work on hard-to-digest components of the plant cell wall. Benefits from these include more rapid heat production; controlled, optimum composting; and convenient to use.
3.12 Conclusion
The process of composting is complex and can also happen naturally. The human wit has been successfully put in use in order to apply this technique of decomposition to convert the organic litter to useful compost, which in turn is eco-friendly. As the types of wastes utilized for the process vary in their qualities, modifications are incorporated day by day in order to achieve quality product. Further, to meet the complex nature of wastes, which contain toxic, hazardous substances that affect the end product, composting needs to be handled carefully. Since compost products vary significantly in terms of biological, chemical, or physical contaminants, the quality level of a compost product must be suited to the intended use of the product. When the process is managed efficiently, composting ensures that the finished product can be safely returned to the environment.
3.13 References
Atkinson, C. F., D.D. Jones and J.J. Gauthier. 1996. Biodegradabilities and microbial activities during composting of municipal solid waste in benchscale reactors. Compost Science and Utilization. 4,4: 14-23. Bear, F.E. 1964. Chemistry of the soil, ACS Monograph series No. 160, P. 258. Chefetz, B., F. Adani, P. Genevini, F. Tambone, Y. Hadar, and Y. Chen. 1998. Humic acid transformation during composting of municipal solid waste. Journal of Environmental Quality 27: 794-800. Day, D.L., M. Krzymien, K. Shaw, W.R. Zaremba, C. Wilson, C. Botden, and B. Thomas. 1998. An investigation of the chemical and physical changes occurring during commercial composting. Compost Science and Utilization 6 (2): 44-66. Epstein E. 1997. The science of composting. Technomic Publishing, Inc., Lancaster, Pennsylvania, p. 83. Finstein , M. S., F.C. Miller, P.F. Strom. 1986. Waste treatment composting as a controlled system. pp. 363-398. In: W. Schenborn (ed). Biotechnology. Vol. 8-Microbial degradations. VCH Verlaqsgedellschaft (German Chemical Society): Weinheim F.R.G. Hamoda, M. F., H.A. Abu Qdais and J. Newham. 1998. Evaluation of municipal solid waste composting kinetics. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 23: 209-223. Haug, R. T. 1993. The practical handbook of compost engineering. Lewis publishers, Boca Raton. Florida. 717 p. Howe, C.A. and C.S. Coker. 1992. Co-composting municipal sewage sludge with leaves, yard wastes and other recyclables a case study. In: Air Waste
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Management Association. 85th Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Kansas City, Missouri, 21-26 June 1992. Kaiser, J.. 1996. Modeling composting as a microbial ecosystem: a simulation approach. Ecological Modeling, 91 25-37. Komilis, D. P., R.K. Ham and J.K. Park. 2004. Emission of volatile organic compounds during composting of municipal solid wastes. Water Research 38: 1707-1714. Liao, P. H., May, A. C. and Chieng S. T. 1995. Monitoring process efficiency of full-scale invessel system for composting fisheries wastes. Bioresource Technology 54: 159-163. McKinley V.L., and J.R. Vestal. 1984. Biokinetic analyses of adaptation and succession: Microbial activity in composting municipal sewage sludge. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 47 (5). pp.933-941 Mc Kinley, V. L., J.R. Vestal and A.E. Eralp. 1985. Microbial activity in composting. Biocycle 26 (10): 47-50. Naylor, L. M. 1996. Composting. Environmental and Science and Pollution series 18 (69): 193-269. Neto, J. T. P., E.I. Stentiford and D.D. Mara. 1987. Comparative survival of pathogenic indicators in windrow and static pile. pp. 276-295. In: M.de Bertoldi, M. P. Ferranti, P. L Hermite and F. Zucconi (eds.). Compost: Production, Quality and Use. Elsevier Applied Science, London, United Kingdom.
Pace, M.G., B.E. Miller and K.L. Farrel-Poe. 1995. The Composting Process October 1995. Extension, Utah State University. AG- WM 01 Palmisano, A C and M.A. Bartaz. 1996. pp.125-127. In: Microbiology of solid waste. CRC Press.Inc. 2000. Corporate Bld. N.W. Boca Raton. FL 33431 USA. Palmisano, A. C., D.A. Maruscik, C.J. Ritchie, B.S. Schwab, S.R. Harper and R.A. Rapaport. 1993. A novel bioreactor simulating composting of municipal solid waste. Journal of Microbiological Methods 56:135-140. Reddy, K. R., T.C. Feijtel and W.H. Patrick. 1986. Effect of soil redox conditions on microbial oxidation of organic matter. pp. 117-153. In: Y. Chen and Y. Avnimelech (eds.). The Role of Organic Matter in Modern Agriculture. Nijhoff, Dordrecht. Sharma, V.K., M. Canditelli, F. Fortuna and Cornacchia. 1997. Processing of urban and agroindustrial residues by aerobic composting: review. Energy Conversion and Management 38 (5): 453478. Warman, P. R. and W.C. Termeer. 1996. Composting and evaluation of racetrack manure, grass clippings and sewage sludge. Bioresource Technology 55: 95-101. Young, C. C and C.H. Chou. 2003. Allelopathy, plant pathogen and crop productivity. pp. 89-105. In: H. C. Huang and S. N. Acharya (eds.). Advances in Plant Disease Management. Research Signpost, Trivandrum, Kerala, India.
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4
4.1 Introduction
Categories
Large amounts of agricultural by-products or livestock wastes are produced annually in Taiwan (Table 1). Hogs excrete about 73 x 104 mt/year; chickens, 186 x 104 mt/year; and cattle, 30 x 104 mt/year. Annually, byproducts from bagasse amount to 31 x 104 mt; straw, 31 x 104 mt; rice husk, 1.7 x 104 mt; bark, 5 x 104 mt; fruit and vegetable, 7 x 104 mt; mushroom, 5 x 104 mt; and coconut, 0.5 x 104 mt (Huang and Lin 2001). Composting agricultural wastes and recycling them on arable lands have been widely adopted to lessen the pressure on landfills and conserve natural resources. Thus, the use of organic materials containing essential
Hog manurea Chicken manure Cattle manure Bagasse Rice straw Rice husk Bark compost Peanut husk Wastes from fruit/vegetable markets Sawdust waste from mushroom farming Waste from fish market Coconut shell Total
30 90 50 80 85
Note: a The total amount of animal manure produced in 1999 was calculated from the number of cattle, hogs, and chickens at the end of that year and the amount of their daily excretion. b Estimated values. c The amount of straw produced was about 6 t/ha, and most of it was incorporated directly. d Peanut husk produced was 900 kg/ha. e Each mushroom culture bag weighed 800 g. f Water content in coconut fruit was 25%. Source: Huang and Lin 2001
20
Fig. 1. Composting organic fertilizers in a farmhouse is difficult because of shortage in labor and raw materials.
21
Rice straw Rice hull Sugarcane leaves Wastes from food processing factories Swine manure Manure from other animals Corn cobs Municipal refuse Wastes from fruit/vegetable markets Bark waste Total
Source: Wang 1989
Note: Swine: 50-kg body weight; poultry: adult chickens; cattle: 500-kg body weight. Source: Yen 1989
Table 4. Average content of N, P2O5, and K2O in fresh manure of swine, poultry, and cattle.
Moisture Swine feces Urine Chicken feces Cattle feces Cattle urine
Source: Yen 1989
Unit: %
Table 5. Daily excretions of N, P2O5, and K2O of swine, poultry, and cattle (Unit: g/head/day).
N Swine (ratio) Poultry (ratio) Cattle (ratio) 18 (1) 2 (1) 182 (1) P2O5 9.7 (0.54) 3.5 (1.75) 123.0 (0.68) K2O 6.7 (0.37) 2.1 (1.05) 258.0 (1.42)
Note: Swine: 50-kg body weight; Poultry: adult chickens; Cattle: 500-kg body weight. Source: Yen 1989
22
Table 6. Total amount of N, P2O5, and K2O in swine, poultry, and cattle manure in Taiwan, 1987.
N No. of head Swine Poultry Cattle Total Equivalent to % annual chemical fertilizer consumption
Source: Yen 1989
P2O5
K2O
mt/year 46,830 50,334 11,391 121,113 173.7 25,258 88,119 7,736 87,711 90.1 17,447 54,093 16,171
Table 7.
Sources
Estimated environmental loadings of N, P2O5, and K2O coming from chemical fertilizer consumptions and animal excretions in Taiwan, 1994 (10 kton).
N 26.29 (100) 7.36 6.74 1.10 15.20 (58) 41.49 P2O5 7.37 (100) 4.64 11.80 0.75 17.19 (233) 24.56 K2O 10.53 (100) 2.77 7.24 1.56 11.57 (110) 22.10
with very intensive multiple cropping systems like in Taiwan, some farmers are still growing Sesbania sesban or Crotalaria juncea as a green manure crop in summer, and Berseem clover, milk vetch, and rape in the winter fallow season before planting the main crop like rice, corn, and sorghum. The chemical composition analysis of these green manure crops is shown in Table 9. These green manure crops that have low C:N ratio (lower than 20 at vegetative stage) can be considered primary sources of nitrogen (Fig. 5).
compost should be combined with a proper amount of high-nitrogen manure such as swine or poultry manure or oil extraction residues and be well fermented to kill the mycelia, before applying to the soil (Fig. 8).
23
OM
P2O5
0.05-0.11 0.11-0.46 3.60-4.47 0.37 0.25 0.14 0.37 0.37 0.18
K2O
2.0-2.1 0.28-1.3 1.43-2.45 1.61 1.94 1.63 1.31 1.27 0.50
CaO
MgO
SiO2 (%)
4.9a 12.7 4.1 3.9 2.9 2.5 1.8
Fig. 2. Crop residues usually have low nitrogen content, but fairly high potassium and silica content, and a high C/N ratio: a) rice straw; b) crushed rice hull; c) peanut hull; d) coconut shell.
24
Fig. 3. Crop resides are used to cover the surface of the soil; these materials are good mulches which help maintain a favorable soil moisture content and temperature, and prevent the accumulation of salts or the multiplication of weeds on the soil surface.
Fig. 4.
Crop residues can well be combined with swine or poultry manure with high nitrogen content, to make better compost.
Fig. 5. Green manure which has a low C/N ratio of lower than 20 at vegetative stage, can be considered primarily as a source of N: a) Sesbania sesban; b) Crotalaria juncea; c) Berseem clover; d) Rape.
25
Table 10. Results of chemical analysis of mushroom culture wastes (dry matter basis).
C:N Ratio
White mushroom compost Shitake mushroom compost Jews ear mushroom compost Golden mushroom waste Mushroom waste sawdust
OM %
C %
N %
P2O5 %
K 2O %
CaO %
MgO
44 27-42 75 58-90 57
75
39 37-57 56 0.94-3.5 40
58 71
Fig. 7. Used mushroom compost has low potassium content as a result of leaching losses during mushroom culture, but phosphorus, calcium, and C/N ratio and organic matter contents remain high.
26
Fig. 8. Used mushroom compost should be combined with a proper amount of high-nitrogen manure such as swine or poultry manure or residues after oil extraction, and should be well fermented to kill the mycelia, before it is applied to the soil.
Fig. 9.
The direct application of fresh poultry manure to the soil is discouraged due to its high content of zinc and antibiotics, and low content of fibrous material.
Table 11. Results of chemical analysis of animal manure (dry matter basis).
C:N ratio Cattle Goat Swine Egg chicken Meat chicken 19-28 16-21 17-31 9-14 11-28 C (%) 25-40 36-48 4-54 27-32 25-47 N (%) 0.89-2.1 1.6-2.4 1.6-2.9 0.6-2.9 1.8-2.5 P2O5 (%) 0.55-4.81 1.5-5.27 1.0-7.1 1.4-6.8 2.11-6.6 K2O (%) 1.6-3.5 1.9-4.0 0.16-1.93 0.77-3.8 1.41-3.6 CaO (%) 0.20-2.0 1.3-5.4 0.8-9.0 0.73-8.2 1.57-21 MgO (%) 0.83-2.1 0.7-1.40 0.15-1.7 0.3-1.8 0.5-1.5 Cu Zn ---mg/kg--20 510 80 122 624 724
27
of this manure to the soil can be recommended, but phosphorus should be supplied from other sources to make up for its shortage in this manure. Nutrient content of goat manure is slightly higher than that of cattle manure (Table 11).
these seed residues with rice hull, sawdust, mushroom compost, bone meal, oyster shell, among other things, and fully ferment the compost before use.
Table 12. Chemical analysis of residues left after oil extraction from various oil seeds (dry matter basis).
Sample Sesame cake Soybean cake Soybean meal Cottonseed meal Castor bean meal Rapeseed meal Coconut meal Rice bran
Source: Hsieh and Hsieh 1990
P2O5 (%) 1.26 1.85 1.81 0.80 0.89 0.87 0.57 4.37
K2O (%) 0.70 1.66 1.94 1.52 1.25 1.39 2.23 1.50
CaO (%) 3.02 0.39 0.38 0.36 0.98 1.18 0.25 0.20
MgO (%) 1.13 0.51 0.50 0.83 0.93 0.86 0.66 1.39
Fig. 10. Residues from oil seeds after oil extraction generally have high nitrogen content and low level of carbonaceous material.
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Table 13. Chemical analysis of residues from processing animal products (dry matter basis).
Samples N (%) Animal blood Snail meal Fur meal Oyster shell Eggshell Bone meal 12.6 3.9 4.5 0.2 1.0 4.7 P2O5 (%) 0.16 3.39 0.11 0.14 0.21 21.98 K2O (%) 0.22 0.54 0.02 0.02 0.15 0.27 CaO (%) 0.28 20.30 0.56 28.84 30.52 17.22 MgO (%) 0.17 1.46 0.18 0.75 0.65 0.63 Cr (%) 2 18349 5 7
4.4 Conclusion
Because of their multiple roles in improving the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil, organic materials are very important in maintaining soil fertility. However, organic materials per se cannot give the full range of soil benefits. Some carbonaceous organic materials such as rice straw, corn stalk, rice hull, and sawdust are very useful in improving the physical and biological properties of soil, but they are very slow in releasing nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Some nitrogenous organic materials such as residues left after oil extraction and swine and poultry manure are high in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium but have little impact on improving soil physical properties. A proper combination of carbonaceous and nitrogenous organic materials makes an ideal compost or an effective and complete fertilizer. Furthermore, because some organic materials contain harmful mycelia, antibiotics, plant pests, and excessive level of heavy metals, proper mixing and composting, leading to dilution and sterilization, may greatly promote the quality of organic materials.
Composting improves the physical characteristics of agricultural wastes. It lowers the C:N ratio, thus avoiding the nutrient competition between plants and microorganisms. Because agricultural wastes contain relatively less nitrogen, they inhibit the growth and reproduction of nitrogen-loving microbes. It lowers the volume of waste by four-fifths its original volume. It sterilizes, because of high temperatures during composting, weed seeds, germs, and pests in agricultural wastes, reducing the cost of production and disease and pest control. It minimizes poor aeration problems. When directly applied without composting, agricultural wastes may exude toxic substances such as H2S, organic acids, and phenolic compounds and gas of methane and N2O.
Composting lessens pollution impact on environments. It boosts soil fertility, improving both the biological and physicochemical properties of the organic material. It allows the utilization of essential nutrients from agricultural wastes in growing crops. It aids the use of slow-release fertilizers, particularly its nitrogen content, which after onethird is used, becomes slow-release humic nitrogen. It has a growth-promoting humic substance or phyto-hormone that accelerates root development. It increases and diversifies the microbe phase, reducing pathological and pest incidence. It minimizes nutrient loss as negatively charged organic material maintains and holds nutrients. It produces humic substances (humates) with high buffering capacity for better soil management.
4.5 References
Chang S.S. 1995. Research and development in the appropriate use of organic materials for crop productions current status and perspective. pp. 114. In: Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute (ed.), Proceedings of the Conference on Rational Application of Organic Fertilizer. Huang S.N. and C.C. Lin. 2001. Current of organic materials recycling in southern Taiwan. pp. 14-24. In: Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for Asian and Pacific Region (ed.), Proceedings of the International Workshop on Recent Technologies of Composting and Their Applications. Hsieh, S.C. and C.F. Hsieh. 1990. The use of organic matter in crop production. 315:1-19. Taiwan, ROC: Taichung District Agricultural Improvement Station. Lin, Y. W., T. S. Liu, and C. H. Wang. 2003. Study on nitrogen mineralization characteristics of organic materials. J. Agric. Res. China 53:178-190.
29
Wang, H.H. 1989. Utilization of agricultural wastes in organic farming. Organic Farming, special publication 16:217-227. Taiwan, ROC: Taichung District Agricultural Improvement Station. (In Chinese). Yen, S.C. 1989. Utilization of animal wastes in organic agriculture. Organic Farming, special publication 16:229-242. Taiwan, ROC: Taichung District Agricultural Improvement Station. (In Chinese).
30
5
5.1 Introduction
In Taiwan, lots of livestock manure and agricultural wastes are produced each year (Lin 1999; Chien 1999). If the wastes are not treated properly, they will cause serious environmental pollution. In the past, there were five methods of dealing with organic wastes. These were: throwing them away directly into country roadsides, streams, and brooks; burning them; using them as feed; incorporating them directly into farmland; and composting them (Chien 1999). The first two methods are not environment-friendly. The third method cannot be adapted for all organic wastes. The fourth method, though economical, may pose some sanitary problems, and may cause the soil to become too reductive, thus retarding the normal growth of crops. Only the fifth method is generally accepted by the people and the government. Through the composting process, the malodorous and unstable organic wastes are converted to organic fertilizers and soil conditioners. Using composts increases soil fertility and saves on chemical fertilizer costs.
31
Compost pile
Slope 1/50
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Harada 1995). They are turned frequently during the initial period of high oxygen demand and heat generation and may be turned less frequently as the composting process proceeds. They may need to be turned several times per week, depending on the material being composted. Piling materials in a unit block volume surrounded by partition walls (Fig. 4) are 4-6 m (length) x 3-5 m (width) x 1.0-1.8 m (height) in Taiwan. A bucket loader (1-3 m3) is frequently used as a turner to agitate the materials once a week. The time for composting the materials to be stabilized is about two to three months. If the piling materials are agitated with a bucket loader once a week along with pumping with air, the time needed for organic materials to be stabilized as compost is about 28-35 days. Materials added with some maturity composts should be degraded more quickly than those without. A forced aeration system is placed under the piles (Fig. 5) to maintain a minimum oxygen level throughout the composting mass. This aeration system usually consists of a series of perforated pipes or floors running underneath the pile connected to a pump that blows air (positive pressure) through the pile to provide 100-300 L/min.m3 gas flux with 320 mm Hg aeration pressure. Aeration time is set
to pump air 10 min and stop 50 min intermittently. The capacity of the system to treat wasted organic materials can reach 40 t per day. It will produce 5,000-12,000 t of compost a year in southern Taiwan (Lin 1999).
Fig. 5. Forced aeration pipe system is placed under the piling materials.
33
Screw conveyer
Fig. 7. Composting box chambers filled with organic materials by using a screw conveyer (Harada 1995).
5.5 Open strip furrow with scoop type or rotary type turner composting
A strip furrow (Fig. 8) is 3-6 m wide, 1.5-2.0 m deep, and 50-80 m long (Lin 1999). Organic materials are composted in the strip furrow with turning machines and aeration. A turning machine is supported on a set of rails equipped over the strip furrow, and moves automatically without a manual operator. The wellmixed organic materials are placed at the front end of the strip furrow by using a bucket loader or conveyor. As the turning machine moves forward, 0.5-2 m/day, on the rails from another end of the furrow, it mixes and transfers the composting materials behind (Lin 1999; Ibuki 1996; Harada 1995). They are agitated automatically with the turner once or twice a day. At the bottom of the furrow, there is an aeration system containing aeration pipes and blowers (Fig. 9). Two types of turning machines, the scoop type stirrer (Fig. 10) and the rotary stirrer (Fig. 11), are usually used for agitating the composting materials.
When the strip furrow is equipped with a scoop type stirrer or rotary type stirrer, the suitable material stacking height is 1-1.5 m or 1 m, respectively. The composting period is dependent on the length of strip furrow, the frequency of turning, and the transfer distance of composting materials at each turning. Usually, the machine is operated once a day. It moves the materials 1-2 m at each turning, and if the strip furrow is 60 m long, the composting period is 30-60 days. In Taiwan, the composting capacity is enough to treat the feces produced from 1,200 heads of cow or 130,000 heads of layers to produce 1,100 t of mature compost each year (Lin 1999).
5.6 Open strip furrow with hung axle (crane) type turner composting
This composting system is basically modified from the above-mentioned open strip furrow with scoop type or rotary type turner composting (Lin 1999; Ibuki 1996). In this system, the hung axle (crane) type turner (Fig. 12)
34
Fig. 9. At the bottom of composting strip furrow, there is a pipe system aerated with blowers.
is equipped, and the width of the strip furrow is larger. Usually, it may have 10-20 m in width. The turner automatically carries composting materials from one place to another in the furrow. Forced aeration is also provided in the composting system, which can treat the feces produced from 150,000 heads of hogs to produce 5,000 t of compost each year in Taiwan (Lin 1999).
moves round from the end of the other side, while the materials are transferred in an opposite direction in the elliptical furrow (Fig. 13). The scoop type or rotary type turning machine system and an aeration pipe system (the principles of operation are essentially the same as above) are equipped in this system. The materials are matured and dried after one round. The composting capacity and composting time are the same as those of the above open strip furrow with turner composting.
35
Fig. 10. Sketch (Harada 1995) and picture of scoop type turner on strip furrows.
36
Fig. 11. Sketch (Harada 1995) and picture of rotary type turner on strip furrows.
37
Turntable 180oC
Hopper
Wall
Wall
Wall
Fig. 13. Sketch (Harada 1995) and picture of elliptical composting furrow equipped with turners.
38
Deodorized air
Fig. 14. Sketch (Harada 1995) and picture of circular column furrows equipped with turners.
system, which is the same as that mentioned above. Raw composting materials are put into the circular column furrow from the circumference with a conveyor or bucket loader. The materials are mixed and transferred to the center of the column by using the scoop type stirrer (Ibuki 1996; Harada 1995). The mature compost is moved from the bottom of the center of the furrow. The characteristic of this composting method is that the scoop type stirrer is equipped almost vertically (Fig. 15). Raw organic materials are usually piled to a height of 1.5-2.5 m. This system may be adopted for composting in a cold region because the higher stacking of raw materials can be kept warm (Ibuki 1996; Harada 1995). In Taiwan, the composting capacity is enough to treat the feces produced from 88,000 heads of layers to produce 720 t of mature compost each year. The time needed for stabilizing the organic materials is 30-45 days in Taiwan (Lin 1999).
39
Fig. 15. Sketch (Harada 1995) and picture of scoop type stirrer equipped vertically on circular column composting.
40
Heater
Blower
Exhaust gas
"
$ %
& !
" Material inlet # Air outlet $ Air filter % Reduction gear & Outlet ! Hopper
Blower
Fig. 17. Aeration system of enclosed vertical column composting (Harada 1995).
reactor is smaller than those of the other compost bins and the composting shed. Mainly used for poultry wastes, this system has also been used for swine and cattle wastes recently (Ibuki 1996; Harada 1995).
5.10 References
Barkdoll, A. W., R. A. Nordsedt, and D. J. Mithchell. 2002. Large-scale utilization and composting of yard waste. CIR 1027:1-15. Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Chien, S. Y. and T. C. Juang. 1999. Developing technology for producing compost from wasted mushroom sawdust. Composting Technology. pp. 91-106. In: Special Bulletin No.88 of Agricultural Research Institute, COA, Republic of China (In Chinese). Fabian, E E., T. L. Richard, D. Kay, D. Allee and J. Regenstei. 1993. Agricultural composting: A feasibility study for New York farms. Cornell University, USA: Cornell Composting. pp.1-50. Harada, Y. 1995. Practical aspects of animal waste composting. pp. 64-86. In: Lecture of international training course on microbial
fertilizers and composting. Rural Development Administration (Republic of Korea) and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for Asian and Pacific Region. Ibuki, T. 1996. Examples of dairy manure composting in Japan. pp. 142-153. In: Proceedings of international training workshop on microbial fertilizers and composting. Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for Asian and Pacific Region. Lin, C. W. 1999. Composting of livestock feces. Composting technology. pp. 107-141. In: Special Bulletin No.88 of Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, COA, Republic of China. (In Chinese). Lin, C. W. and S. Y. Chien. 1995. The research of using agricultural waste to produce compost. Proceedings of the techniques of reasonably using organic fertilizers. Tauoyang District Agricultural Improvement station, Republic of China. pp. 43-58. (In Chinese). Shen, S. Y., Lin, C. W., Hong, C. M. and M. D. Kao. 1995. Manual of using poultry feces as organic resources. pp. 68-70. In: Special Bulletin No.34 of Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, COA, Republic of China. (In Chinese).
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6
6.1 Introduction
Composting methods
YUH-MING HUANG
!
Composting does not fully decompose all degradable organic materials. Because of various conditions, composting depends on the purpose, scale of production, materials, site, and climate. But whether it is for a small farm or a commercial plant, the first consideration in composting is processing the farmyard manure and crop wastes into a safe compost. The composting method should be able to inactivate the weed seeds and animal and plant pathogens. Accordingly, maintaining a ceiling temperature is very important during the process. The starting materials consist of readily degradable, slowly degradable, and resistant components in suitable proportions. For onfarm scale, the procedures designed and the investment required to process composting should be as simple as possible, especially for remote areas.
Residues of leguminous plants and green manure are also dried before being stored for composting and kept away from the rain. These materials have high C and N contents, so they can be used as animal feed. The animal manure can be used as a composting material. Manure from an animal feeding farm should not be exposed to the rain and its water content must remain low before composting to avoid N loss and sanitation problem. Wet manure from the farm should be put directly into the composting process; otherwise, it must be kept covered with 10-cm layer of mature compost, rice husk, straw, or sawdust as biofilter to prevent the release of odorous gases.
6.3 Pretreatment
Before composting, the raw materials, depending on their type, are stored and pretreated as follows: ! Straw and husk of grains/cereals (e.g., rice and wheat), corn stalk, bagasse, sawdust, and other materials (e.g., tree trunks and branches) with a high C:N ratio used as main component for soil organic matter additives should be dried and stored in a nearby place.
42
composted for about 6-10 weeks. The produced compost is ideal for organic farming of short-term vegetables. It is also a good base fertilizer for vegetables and fruit trees. ! To serve as supplemental fertilizer for vegetables (including leaf, fruit, stem, and root crops) and fruit trees, the starting C:N ratio of the mixed materials should be around 20-25. Under this formula, the materials have to be composted for about 4-6 weeks. The height of piles for this formula should be lower than the general suggestion. Calculating the amount of ingredients is the most important step in the whole composting process. Rather than buying materials outside of the farm, composting wastes available on-farm is the better alternative to develop the required composted mixture of materials. Besides, because they are bulky, the transport cost is quite high for most organic materials.
6.6.2
Windrow system
For the windrow system, its bottom width is around 2-3 m with a height of 1.5-1.8 m, but its length depends on the scale of the place. A multi-windrow system placed side by side (Fig. 2) is also allowed. The preparation process is the same as that for static piles.
6.7 Turning
Turning composting materials gives the benefit of forcing aeration, homogenizing materials, releasing excess heat, and adjusting water content. Since a high quantity of heat may be released to the media (23 MJ/ kg dry weight of volatile solids) during the decomposition of organic matter, the rise in temperature is inevitable. As such, the faster and higher the temperature rises, the lower is the C:N ratio of the materials formulated. To inactivate the
1.8 m 1.2
2.5 - 3.5m
Fig. 1. Wet raw materials piled up as a round type, the bottom part measuring about 2.5-3.5 m in diameter and 1.5-1.8 m in height.
43
pathogens, the ceiling temperature must be kept at 60-70C for the first two weeks. After which, the ceiling temperature can be kept at 45-55C for maximum biodegradation. Therefore, at the different stages, especially when the temperature rises higher than the ceiling temperature, the composting materials must be turned over. Most soil-borne plant viruses are more heatresistant than other pathogens. Materials infected by the tobacco rattle virus, for instance, require a ceiling temperature of 70C. Otherwise, a ceiling of 55-60C is suggested.
are acceptable for the test. When the germination rate is higher than 80% that of the control, then the composting process is ready to be terminated.
44
7
7.1 Introduction
Management of composting
SHANG-SHYNG YANG
anaerobic methods. However, the aerobic method is generally preferred, since it proceeds more rapidly and provides greater pathogen reduction because higher temperatures are attained.
Proper and regular additions of on-farm organic wastes such as animal manure and crop residues are of utmost importance in maintaining the tilth, fertility, and productivity of agricultural soils; in protecting them from wind and water erosion; and in preventing nutrient losses through runoff and leaching. The restoration and rehabilitation of degraded soils to an acceptable level of productivity can be enhanced by using various off-farm sources of organic wastes such as sewage sludge, municipal solid wastes, crop wastes, and agricultural and industrial processing wastes. However, the quality and acceptability of these materials as soil amendments can be greatly improved through composting, or even by co-composting them with available on-farm wastes. Sustainable agriculture is increasingly viewed as a long-term goal that seeks to overcome problems and constraints on the economic viability, environmental soundness, and social acceptance of agricultural production systems worldwide. Soil quality has focused on soil productivity, food safety and quality, human and animal health, and environmental quality. It may also play a major role in plant health and in the nutritional quality of the food that is produced. Composting is a viable means of transforming various organic wastes into products that can be used safely and beneficially as biofertilizers and soil conditioners. It can resolve a number of problems associated with the use of raw and unstable organic wastes as soil amendments such as malodors, human pathogens, and undesirable chemical and physical properties. During the composting process, organic wastes are decomposed, plant nutrients are mineralized into plant-available forms, pathogens are destroyed, and malodors are abated (Parr and Hornick 1992; Yang 1997b). Composting is a microbiological process that depends on the growth and activity of mixed populations of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi that are indigenous to the wastes being composted. It can be done by either aerobic or
45
Table 1.
Materials
Straw, husk, sawdust, pulp, bark, corncob, bagasse, tea residue, coconut pulp Waste mushroom media Animal wastes, animal by-products, fishery by-products, sludge, vegetable-market wastes, household wastes, sewage Green manure Municipal refuse
Table 2.
Crop waste
mg/kg
0.16 0.36 0.20 0.46 0.14 0.05 0.20 0.07 0.12 0.25 0.15 0.43 0.15 1.41 0.10 0.97 0.48 0.17 1.69 0.25 2.49 0.26 11.39 0.26 0.39 0.03 0.05 0.29 0.37 0.69 0.63 0.15 0.21 1.02 0.68 8.5 10.3 11.2 14.1 3.0 3.8 3.1 3.4 1.8 1.2 4.8 1.8 406 455 186 160 183 268 672 610 388 2885 281 146 418 347 110 108 23 30 45 27 45 47 63 188 34 31 40 43 35 40 33 17 18 175 70 156 8 5 7 6 6 10 15 4 10 8 16 17 20 24 18 21 5 26 26 2 3 4 6 3 4 4 4 9 22 8 4 0.52 0.45 0.28 0.22 0.41 0.49 0.43 0.35 1.16 1.74 2.65 3 5 3 2 3 3 8 4 27 6 9
Rice straw (Japonica) 107 Rice straw (Indica) 85 Rice hull (Japonica) 116 Rice hull (Indica) 151 Corn stalk 61 Sorghum stalk 74 Soybean stem 39 Peanut stem 40 Peanut hull Bark Tobacco leaves 11 Tobacco factory waste 39
0.48 0.67 0.48 0.50 0.91 0.73 1.36 1.33 0.70 1.58 3.50 1.12
0.07 0.09 0.05 0.07 0.16 0.11 0.16 0.11 0.12 0.05 0.14 0.21
1.44 1.41 0.31 0.68 1.34 1.61 1.09 0.91 0.46 0.60 2.54 0.30
Corn and sorghum stalks contained potassium (1.341.61%) and nitrogen (0.73-0.91%). Soybean and peanut stems had high contents of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Although bark had high contents of nitrogen, calcium, and potassium, it also had high content of phenolic compound. Therefore, composting of bark is necessary. Tobacco leaves and tobacco factory wastes had high contents of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and nicotine (Hsieh and Hsu 1993) (Table 2). Vegetable wastes had high crude protein and crude fat contents, while bamboo shoot wastes had high cellulose and hemicellulose contents. Food wastes contained high total carbon and total nitrogen contents, while C:N ratio was low. Cow feces contained high crude fiber and ash contents, while total nitrogen, crude protein, phosphate, and potassium contents were low. Hog feces had average total nitrogen, crude protein, phosphate, and potassium contents; while chicken feces had high ash, total nitrogen, crude protein, phosphate, and potassium contents (Yang et al. 1991; Tsai and Yang 2004) (Table 3). Biosolids, municipal solid wastes, yard wastes, and food wastes contain pathogens. In yard wastes, the major source of pathogens is domestic animal
feces; in food wastes, eggs, chicken parts, and other contaminated sources can result in significant levels of pathogens. Composting, if carried out properly, is very effective in destroying pathogens. This is primarily the result of temperature-time relationships. However, other factors contribute to the demise of pathogens such as antagonistic organisms and ammonia. Regrowth of salmonellae is not a serious problem as these organisms die very quickly during curing and storage. Knoll (1961) described several experiments on different Salmonella strains subjected to composting temperature at the composting plant. After 14 days of reactor time with temperatures of 55o-60oC and a moisture content of 40-60%, the product did not contain pathogens. Pig manure has a considerable copper content coming from feed materials. Sewage sludge has a relatively high nutrient content and can be used as an organic fertilizer. However, it has a high content of heavy metals and, possibly, harmful organic materials. Human manure waste sludge had high phosphate and lead contents (Um and Lee 2001). Food wastes mainly come from agricultural products and can be used as raw materials for composting. The problem with food wastes was high salt (4.10%) and fat (3.53-8.02%) contents (Tsai and Yang 2004). According to company
46
Sludge Rice root Rice straw Rice hull Wheat straw Paper waste Sawdust Lignin reagent Vegetable waste Bamboo shoot waste Food waste Food waste in college dormitory Food waste in national apt. Cow feces Hog feces Chicken feces
6.3 45.9 60.2 74.1 126.0 140.0 242.0 923.0 9.00 11.5328.42 21.4623.26
P2O5
K2O
Cu
Cr mg kg
-1
Cd
Pb
20.13 26.86 32.26 30.83 49.98 43.29 30.67 38.43 41.75 37.14
0.91 2.05 2.72 3.73 3.51 5.86 0.48 4.28 4.05 1.47
0.59 2.58 7.31 1.51 1.52 4.68 0.17 1.18 2.03 0.70
0.52 0.38 0.35 0.29 0.54 0.55 0.30 0.99 0.56 0.23
3 3 1 8 0.4 3 0.4 17 19
67 35 65 9 42 67 148 191
type, harmful materials in sludge are different. Sludge from food processing companies has a lead content and that from dairy industries has a low metal content. Sludge from oil industries has chromium and lead contents, and some harmful effects on plant growth were reported (Table 4). Sludge from industrial wastewater treatment process used as raw materials for composting needs safety examination. Some say that mixing harmful material with sound material can dilute adverse effects. But it is necessary to exclude such contaminant in the selection of raw materials. There are specific inspection standards for the preinspection of required usable materials. These standards include effective constituents of classified
harmful materials. In Korea, the standards of composting materials are as follows: organic material, >60%; As, <50 mg kg-1; Hg, <2 mg kg-1; Pb, <150 mg kg-1; Cd, <5 mg kg-1; Cu, <500 mg kg-1; Cr, <300 mg kg-1; Zn, <900 mg kg-1; and Ni, < 300 mg kg-1 (Um and Lee 2001). Co-composting is a waste treatment method where different types of wastes are treated together. As an attractive method of resource recovery and waste disposal, it offers many advantages. Co-composting is expected to cost less than separate treatment systems, mainly due to the low cost per volume treated at large treatment plants. Co-composting of potato starch sludge and piggery manure as a substitute for sawdust
47
was established. Composting by the aerated static pile method for 10-14 days and curing process with stacking the composts in 10-12 bags high can obtain a good product (Yang et al. 2001). Municipal solid wastes contain 74-84% organic matter, 1.4% nitrogen, 0.1% phosphorus, and 0.1% potassium in Jakarta, Indonesia. The addition of nitrogenous compounds to adjust the C:N ratio can often accelerate the process by alleviating the microbial demand for nitrogen. Urea addition accelerated the composting process (47 days for urea addition and 54 days for control) (Prihatini and Kurnia 2001).
composts and vegetable-market waste composts are the major composts in Taiwan. However, some companies provide sewage sludge as raw materials for composting. These materials are mixed with livestock manure for composting and have a high phosphate content (Table 5). Therefore, compost is applied with a mixture of chemical fertilizers to get appropriate ratios in N, P, and K.
% Hog waste compost Hog waste and rice hull compost Cow waste, chicken waste, sawdust, and bagasse compost Cow waste and rice hull compost Chicken waste compost Chicken waste and rice hull compost Sheep waste compost Manure compost Bagasse compost Bagasse and hog waste compost Bark compost Sawdust compost Sludge and rice hull compost Vegetable waste compost 6.9 7.98.3 7.5 7.1 7.7 7.1 9.3 8.1 6.9 41.1 25.636.8 42.0 36.2 29.6 22.9 57.2 60.0 68.0 67.0 19.4 60.4 85. 71.677.6 65.0 63.2 50.0 55.2 76.1 73.0 58.0 37.6 42.2 53.9 63.8
% 2.1 1.42.4 1.9 2.3 2.2 2.0 2.7 0.3 1.08 16 1523 15 12 10 12 13 36 30 21 10 34.4 1.0 3.85.5 2.3 2.9 9.2 6.3 2.1 0.1 0.2 0.25 6.6 0.76 0.4 1.73.1 1.7 4.2 3.34.3 5.5 0.5 0.92.4 1.3 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.2 -
5.0 3.0 4.6 14.3 4.5 4.2 0.04 0.57 0.48 0.7 1.13 8.6 5.9 -
26.0 1.22 2.0 189.3 1.9 22.0 24.3 37.1 2.4 1.08
48
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amounts of plant nutrients such as organic matter, N, P, and K, it is not used in agricultural practices because of its high concentration of heavy metals. The Cu contents are generally high in poultry and hog composts from 9 mg kg-1 to 394 mg kg-1 and from 6 mg kg-1 to 301 mg kg-1, respectively. The Zn contents are between 56 mg kg-1 and 1,147 mg kg-1 and between 35 mg kg-1 and 623 mg kg-1, respectively. The Cr contents are often high in organic manure of animal origin, in hog compost, and in compound organic manure. The contents are 2 mg kg-1-54,324 mg kg-1, 3 mg kg-1-8,486 mg kg-1, and 2 mg kg-1-9,196 mg kg-1, respectively (Table 8). The product of hog compost contains nitrogen, 2.8%; P2O5, 1.7%; K2O, 0.23%; organic matter, 86%; Zn, 349 mg kg-1; and Cu, 140 mg kg-1. Rice straw contains potassium (1.41-1.44%) and nitrogen (0.48-0.67%); the contents of other components are low. The high content of Cr in the manure is conjectured to be related to the admixing of animal skin powder which is the by-product of the leather industry (Lian and Lee 1994). The sludge of final clarifier has the highest Cu content, the primary clarifier of aerobic treatment comes next, and the anaerobic treatment has the lowest. However, the sludge of anaerobic treatment has the highest Fe and Mn contents (Fu and Chen 1990). The heavy metal contents of sludge depend on the feed supplement.
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The application of microbial inoculants as microbiofertilizers can accelerate the decomposition of organic residues in various processes with a concomitant release of plant nutrients through mineralization; facilitate the uptake of plant nutrients (e.g., mycorrhizal association); increase the nitrogen content of plants through symbiosis (e.g., Rhizobium) and other associative N2-fixing systems (e.g., Azospirillum); and improve plant growth and vigor by providing plant growth-promoting substances. The well-nodulated legumes reduce soil erosion and increase soil fertility. The young rubber trees also benefit from the mineralizable nitrogen released during the decomposition of the legume residue. Nitrogen fixation by Azorhizobium, Azospirillum in association with several plants had been well documented: maize, kallar grass, sorghum, millet, sweet potato, and oil palm. It increased the number, yield, and nitrogen concentration of the crops. Inoculation with VAM (vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza) had also been found in rubber, cocoa, Calopogonium caeruleum, chili, and groundnut. Bacillus pumilus could decompose cellulose and grow at high temperature (Shamsuddin 1994). In Taiwan, nitrogen-fixing microbes, Rhizobium, had been applied in lupins, alfalfa, peanuts, crotelarias, and soybeans to increase crop yields; phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, Bacillus, had been used to improve the phosphate availability in the soil; VA-mycorrhizal fungi, Glomus, had been inoculated to enhance the nutrition of the host plant (Chang and Young 1992; Tseng et al. 1993; Young 1994; Chang et al. 2001). For the inoculation of microbes for biofertilizer preparation, it is necessary to investigate the following items: 1) selection of effective and competitive biofertilizers for the crops; 2) inoculant production and application to the field to ensure the benefits of plant-microorganisms symbiosis; 3) study of microbial persistence of biofertilizers in soil environments including stresses on production; 4) agronomic, soil, and economic evaluation of biofertilizers in agricultural production; and 5) study of rhizosphere environment and microbial interaction. The quality of the municipal solid waste compost could be improved by inoculation with beneficial microorganisms such as antagonists. Inoculation of non-pathogenic Pseudomonas spp. to control Pythium and Sclerotium in tomatoes reduced the damage intensity by the pathogen from 63.0% to 38.9% and from 41.7% to 16.7%, respectively (Iswandi 1994a, b). Antagonistic fungi Gliocladium frimbiatum or Trichoderma hamatum inoculation into municipal solid waste compost inhibited the Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Pythium, and Fusarium diseases in peanuts (Sinaga 1992). Inoculation of non-pathogenic Pseudomonas spp. LIES and LD reduced the infection of peanuts by Sclerotium rolfsii (Iswandi 1994b). Inoculation of Trichoderma sp. SS33 into the compost hastened the decomposition of rice strawchicken manure mixture, Azotobacter sp. H1BFA 4b
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promoted the biological nitrogen fixation and enriched the nitrogen content, and Trichoderma-Azotobacter increased the decomposition rate and nitrogen fixation activity. The biofertilizer prepared with the inoculation increased the soil nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, organic matter, and rice yield (Espiritu and dela Torre 2001).
Table 9. Values of some organic wastes based on their macronutrient contents. Organic waste Cattle manure Crop residues Sewage sludge Municipal solid wastes N 4.4 1.1 4.0 0.7 Nutrients P % 1.1 0.2 2.0 0.2 K 2.4 2.0 0.4 0.3
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Table 11. Fertilizer N efficiency. Nitrogen source Azolla Fresh rice straw Azolla compost Rice straw compost 1/2 Azolla + 1/2 urea 1/2 fresh rice straw + 1/2 urea 1/2 rice straw compost + 1/2 urea Supergranulated urea Urea Fertilizer efficiency (kg rice kg-1 N applied) 3 2 3 7 9 5 3 10 10
borne plant pathogens through their competitive and antagonistic activities (Kloepper et al. 1989). The possible mechanisms are the shifts in soil microbiological equilibrium following the addition of microbial inoculants and organic amendments. These include antibiosis, competition, parasitism, detoxification, and inhibition.
hand, some negative results have also been reported about inoculation. The rate of composting of sewage sludge is mainly controlled by the degradability of the solid substrate, and not by the kinds of microorganisms inhabiting the compost. The seeding of compost products at the beginning of sewage sludge composting is unlikely to have any appreciable effect on the rate of composting or on the quality of the final product. However, the contribution of thermophilic bacteria and thermophilic actinomycetes to the CO2 evaluation rate depends heavily on the amount of inoculum added. In the fertilizer N efficiency, Azolla and Azolla compost score 3 kg rice per kg N applied as compared with 10 for urea and supergranulated urea (Table 11). However, 1/2 Azolla + 1/2 the recommended rate for urea increased fertilizer N efficiency to 9, which is comparable to that of urea (dela Cruz 1994).
53
remove so much heat that temperatures cannot rise to biologically inhibitive levels. Vacuum has been used as an odor-control measure, so that the exhaust gas can be vented through a scrubber pile. This involves placing a water condenser trap between the composting mass and the scrubber pile. In tests which applied this method, materials composted at the highest temperature gave off the most unpleasant odor, while materials composted at the lowest temperature were judged the least unpleasant. Temperatures which maximized the decomposition rate gave a final product with the least odor.
7.8.2 Biofiltration
Biofiltration involves passing an odorous airflow through a layer of filter material (compost, filamentous peat, etc.), followed by the biodegradation of the captured odor components. The odor components are transferred from the gas to the liquid and solid particles in the filter material. The microbial degradation of the odor components then takes place on these particles. The pressure drop across the biofilters depends not only on the applied air load, but also on the nature and the composition of the filter material.
only 12-70 L, the maximum temperature was only 56o58oC, and temperatures higher than 50oC lasted only two to six days. A temperature higher than 70oC does not favor the growth of fungi in the compost and reduces the rate of decomposition. Therefore, the volume of the different substrates used for composting should be adjusted to give a maximum temperature of around 70oC and temperatures higher than 50oC for more than two weeks. With appropriate aeration, the temperature of swine manure increased on the second day and remained at 50o-70oC for more than two weeks. After 17 days of composting, the volume of the substrate had fallen by 30%. If the compost was not aerated, the maximum temperature was lower than 60oC, and temperatures mainly ranged from 40o to 50oC. Temperatures in the upper layer were higher than those in the middle and bottom layers. Temperature fluctuations in different parts of the substrate were not significantly different in either case. The maximum temperature of pig farm sludge during composting exceeded 68oC. After 30 days incubation, the fermented sludge had become goodquality compost (Fu and Chen 1990). The maximum temperature of a mixture of bagasse and swine manure was 63oC, while temperatures remained between 50o and 60oC for more than one week. In the case of a mixture of bagasse and alcoholic slops, the maximum temperature was 60oC, while temperatures remained above 50oC for only two or three days (Huang et al. 1994). Straw undergoes rapid decomposition when temperatures reach around 70oC, although not as rapidly as animal wastes. When straw had been chopped and placed in a pile for 55 days, temperatures reached their maximum level on the third day, and remained at 60o-65oC during incubation. Temperatures rose again when the substrate was turned, but over time, the maximum temperature gradually decreased. When pig farm sludge was composted with rice hull, the temperature increased to 62oC on the second day, eventually rising to a maximum of 68oC. When the same sludge was mixed with composted pig manure and made into compost, the maximum temperature was 74oC on the second day. In both cases, temperatures remained above 55oC for two weeks. The temperature of compost with mushroom growth medium and chicken manure, soybean residues, bone meal, swine manure, urea, or calcium superphosphate is 50o-60oC for three weeks during incubation. Turning the compost will stimulate the decomposition of organic matter and produce heat from the fermentation (Lin 1994).
7.9.1 Temperature
A temperature rise is necessary not only to accelerate the decomposition of organic constituents, but also to inactivate harmful organisms. Swine manure reached a maximum temperature of 74oC and had an average temperature of 50o-70oC over more than two weeks in a container with a volume of 120 L. In a container of
7.9.2 Odor
Mature composts should smell like forest soil (typical soil odor is caused by actinomycetes). Soil smell is primarily the result of two gases, geosmin and 2methylisobornol, which are by-products of fungi and actinomycetes. If these two gases are present in
54
Methane emission Color Odor Geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol Headspace gas NO2-/NO3Reductant Organic acid Sugar Easy hydrolyze polysaccharides Reducing sugar/total sugar Total organic carbon-soluble sugar-fermentation time Humic substances Humic carbon/total carbon Alkali soluble humic substance Filter paper method UV spectrophotometry Gel chromatography Near infrared spectroscopy
Chen et al. 2003 Sugahara et al. 1982 Chanyasak et al. 1982 Becker 1995 Wang and Tzeng 1986 Finstein and Miller 1985 Spohn 1978 Chanyasak et al. 1982 Morel et al. 1979 Inoko et al. 1979 Morel et al. 1979 Watanabe and Kurihara 1982 Witt 1982 Hertelendy 1974 Morel 1982 Kubota and Nakasaki 1994 Harada 1995
*I.D. = 3.166-(0.111 AGE)+(0.059 TOC)+(0.832 pHs), AGE=Day of fermentation, TOC=Total organic carbon, PHs=Hot water soluble sugar **G.I. = Germination index.
55
compost, it is possible that they could be used to determine maturity (Becker 1995).
components. Apart from the loss of total organic carbon and easily degradable components, an increase in highly polymerized organic products may be found. Total organic carbon, C:N ratio, polysaccharide content, and state of humic substances can all be considered suitable measurements of compost maturity. In addition, cation exchange capacity, waterholding capacity, and ash content may be useful parameters for determining maturity.
1.
1.
Respirometric methods
Respirometry measures the oxygen uptake or carbon dioxide emission, either in pure compost or in compost mixed with soil. It indicates a marked drop in respiratory activity as the compost matures. Compost is considered relatively mature when the respiration rate is less than 5 mg CO2-C/g compost C. Rates over this amount reflect different stages of immaturity. Oxygen uptake and composting time have a significant negative correlation. Oxygen uptake less than 1.0 mg O2/g VS/h is considered relatively mature (Owa 1994; E&A Environmental Consultants 1994). Methane emission from compost below 0.4 mg m-2 h-1 can be used as the index of maturity (Chen et al. 2003).
2.
A number of physico-chemical parameters are useful indicators because of their high correlation with compost degradability. The correlation between the respiration of a soil and compost mixture, and the dry matter production of ryegrass in a similar mixture, allows us to define two classes of maturity. Compost with a value of less than 2.4, corresponding to a low rate of respiration in the soil and compost mixture, may be considered mature. At the other end of the scale, a value of more than 2.7 shows that the compost is still highly degradable and will stunt vegetable growth, so, therefore, is not mature (Morel et al. 1979).
3. Biochemical parameters
The concentration of ATP and the hydrolytic enzyme activity (proteolytic, amylolytic, and cellulolytic activities) can be used as indications of compost maturity.
As composting proceeds, the carbon content falls, while the nitrogen content increases, so that the C:N ratio falls. The C:N ratio changes with the ageing of compost, finally reaching values which are characteristic of a stable organic material. The maturity of compost made from urban refuse could be defined in two classes according to the organic matter/nitrogen ratio: semi-mature urban compost (OM:N < 60) and mature urban compost (OM:N < 50). Organic matter content was 20 g/100 g dry matter (Owa 1994). As Juste and Pommel (1977) indicated, it is preferable to keep a constant check on changes in the C:N ratio during fermentation rather than measure these occasionally. The C:N ratio and the final C:N/ initial C:N ratio provide good indications of the maturity of compost. Swine manure has a low C:N ratio, a high bulk density, and poor aeration. The addition of straw and corncob to the swine manure will improve all three factors, while the addition of carbon and phosphate will improve the composting process. The C:N ratio of compost made from chicken manure, swine manure, soybean cake, and mushroom growth waste medium fell from 30 to 15 during composting (Lin et al. 1994). Composted swine manure contained 2.8% N, 1.7% P2O5, 0.23% K2O, 86% organic matter, 349 mg kg-1 Zn, and 140 mg kg-1 Cu (Wang et al. 1992). Compost made from husk and bark has a C:N ratio of around 35, and may have certain quality problems. Although bark contains a high level of N, Ca, and K, it also has a high level of phenolic compounds (Table 2). Tobacco leaves and tobacco factory wastes had a high content of nicotine as well as of N, K, Ca, and Mg. Composting to reduce the nicotine content was therefore necessary (Hsieh and Hsu 1993). The bulk density and water-holding capacity, and the levels of ash, total N, and 1.0 N HCI insoluble nitrogen increased in the course of composting corncob, while the total C and C:N ratio decreased (Chung et al. 1993). The bulk density of soil amendments and composts was 20 g/100 g dry matter (Owa 1994).
2.
Nitrate content
In the earlier stages of composting, ammonium is produced by the decomposition of nitrogenous compounds such as protein. As the compost matures,
56
the ammonium is oxidized into nitrate by the action of ammonium-oxidizing bacteria and nitrate-oxidizing bacteria. Consequently, nitrate accumulates in the mature compost. The presence of nitrate can be detected with diphenylamine. A diphenylamine solution dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid is added to water extracted from the compost. If nitrate is contained in the extract, the solution turns blue. This method can be used to test the maturity of cattle manure compost but not of swine manure compost and poultry manure compost, which produce only a very small quantity of nitrate even when they are mature.
Wt = Wo (1 - Ao%/At%) where Wt = weight of substrate at time t Wo = weight of substrate at time zero At = ash content of substrate at time t Ao = ash content of substrate at time zero (1 - Ao%/At%) = the degree of maturity
6.
3.
During composting, the organic matter content decreases, while the ash content increases. The organic matter content remains constant when the compost is mature and stable. Swine manure and cattle manure take three to four weeks to become stable, while stabilization of chicken manure takes two weeks. The decomposition of organic matter during the composting process is characterized by the changes in residual rate (i.e., the percentage of organic matter which remains compared with the original amount). Poultry wastes are more easily decomposed than those of cattle and pig. The decomposition rate of cattle wastes is similar to that of pig wastes.
The negatively charged CEC of organic matter increases as compost matures. Conventional CEC tests used for soil are not suitable for compost samples. Harada (1995) had developed a suitable and simple method to determine the CEC of compost. The CEC of composted cattle manure increased to 110 cmol(+)/kg over 4-5 weeks, and thereafter remained constant. A highly significant correlation was observed between the CEC and the C:N ratio (r = -0.992), total carbon (r = -0.968), total nitrogen (r = 0.995), and ash content (r = 0.992) in composted cattle wastes. Thus, since the CEC reflects the changes in the constituents during maturation, it is a useful parameter for estimating the degree of maturity of the compost. The CEC of organic amendments and composts was <50 cmol(+)/kg dry matter (Owa 1994).
7.
4. Polysaccharides
When composting begins, the simple polysaccharide content of urban refuse is high (20% of the total organic material). However, this falls to only 410% after 240 days. Water-soluble polysaccharides undergo a similar change. Simple polysaccharide components, therefore, are progressively decomposed by microflora during the different stages of thermogenesis and maturation. Water-soluble sugars, consisting mainly of mono- or di-saccharides, disappear much faster than hydrolysable sugars. Genuine polysaccharides, however, take far longer to decompose because of their structure. At the end of the composting period, the quantity of polysaccharides extractable in acid is relatively high. This seems to correspond with newly synthesized stabilized microbial components rather than fractions, which are not yet decomposed.
Acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid generated with decomposition of organic matter were measured. The concentration of acetic acid in soil solution was increased by the addition of biological soil amendments and composts.
8.
pH
Changes in pH have been noted to occur during the composting period and, therefore, have been considered as a possible indicator of biological activity. Generally, the pH drops during the very early stages of composting and then increases to a range of 6.5-7.5. Acid pH values indicate a lack of maturity due to short composting time or occurrence of anaerobic conditions.
9.
5.
Ash content
The ash content of the substrate is a constant value during composting. Organic matter decomposition leads to a relative increase in the ash content. Therefore, the ash content of the substrate in relation to the total weight of the substrate can be used as a parameter of the maturity of the compost. Compost maturity based on ash content is calculated as follows:
Cellulose content yields a good index of the degree of maturity of the compost. Cellulose decreased with duration of composting. Inoko et al. (1979) reported that hemicellulose and cellulose (reducing sugars) decreased from about 36% of the total dry weight to about 20% after 60 days. Amino acids and low fatty acids greatly decreased during the composting of refuse and garbage. Zhang et al. (1992) suggested that reactive carbon decreased from 33 mg/ 100 mg sample to about 11 mg/100 mg for 160 days of composting.
57
58
Fig. 1. Change in gel chromatograms for urban waste. U-1: Inlet of composting chamber; raw materials were bark and garbage in 1:5 ratio (volume); U-2: Outlet of the composting chamber after one week in the chamber; U-3: Second stage fermentation after about 2 months under windrow conditions; and U-4: Second stage fermentation at about 3 months (Kubota and Nakasaki 1994).
Fig. 2. Absorption spectra of the extract of compost at wavelength 280 nm: a) Pig waste and 10% sewage sludge; b) Pig wastes, 5% sewage sludge and 5% water; c) Pig wastes and 10% water (Sheen and Wang 1994).
59
Although the accuracy of the estimation was not high, at least severely inhibitory activity could be detected by near infrared spectroscopy (Harada 1995).
process, the salinity of compost made from wood shavings, and composted urban wastes and grape marc (skins and seeds left after pressing grapes for wine) compost was very high. Levels diminished progressively as composting proceeded. The level of electrical conductivity remained stable at a very low level in sewage sludge and bark compost. Changes in the conductivity do not always follow the same pattern in different piles, but in cases of excessive salinity at the beginning of composting, it defines the point after which the compost may be used. This parameter, which is easy to calculate, seems therefore worth taking into account during the preparation of compost. The electrical conductivity and cation exchange capacity of sewage sludge compost increased and the pH gradually decreased during incubation (Chung et al. 1992).
7.10 Conclusions
It can be seen that there are many methods available for assessing compost maturity. Some of these, such as the measurements of biomass activity, require complex laboratory equipment and are not suitable for small compost plants or farms. Others, such as the seed germination tests, are easily carried out with simple equipment and a minimum of scientific training. A major problem in the quality control of composts is the range of variability in the raw materials. Many of the testing methods available are suited to some materials, but not to others. Very few, if any, of the testing techniques described can be applied with equal success to the whole range of materials used in modern commercial compost production.
7.11 References
Becker, H. 1995. Good earth. Agriculture Research 42(6): 16. Chang, C. H., C.Y. Hsieh, and S.S. Yang. 2001. Effect of cultural media on the phosphate-solubilizing activity of thermo-tolerant bacteria. Journal of the Biomass Energy Society of China 20: 79-90. Chang, F. P. and C.C. Young. 1992. Effects of VA mycorrhizal fungi and phosphprus-solubilizing bacteria inoculated on growth of tea cuttings in plastic bag. Taiwan Tea Research Bulletin 11: 7989. Chen, I. C., C.H. Chang and S.S. Yang. 2003. Greenhouse gases emissions and microbial populations during the composting. pp. 157-178. In: Yang, S. S. (ed.). Flux and Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases Emissions (IV). Global Change Research Center and Department of Agricultural Chemistry of National Taiwan University, and Institute of Biotechnology of National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Chien, S. Y.. 2001. Using microorganisms to promote compost quality. In: Proceedings of the
7.9.13 Conductivity
The level of electrical conductivity shows the overall salinity of the substrate. Early in the composting
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International Workshop on Recent Technologies of Composting and Their Application. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences of National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan. pp. 11-111-22. Chung, R. S., M.Y. Yap, H.C. Lin and T.C. Chang. 1993. Effect of composting of corncob on the availability of rock phosphate and the physicochemical properties of the composts. Journal of the Chinese Agricultural Chemical Society 31: 220-228. Chung, R. S., S.Y. Yuan, Y.S. Wang and H.C. Lin. 1992. Fertilizer characteristics of cabbage and city refuse compost. Journal of the Biomass Energy of China 11: 21-30. Colacicco, D.. 1982. Economic aspects of composting. BioCycle 23(5): 26-30. Daudin, D. and Michelot, P. 1985. Experimental use of organic by-products as culture substrates. In: Gasser, J.K.R. (ed.). Composting of Agricultural and Other Wastes. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London, pp. 216-226. dela Cruz, R. E.. 1994. Status of microbial fertilizers in the Philippines. In: International Seminar on the Use of Micro Organic Fertilizers for Agricultural Production. Rural Development Administration of Korea and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Suwon, Korea. pp. 279-306. E & A Environmental Consultants, Inc. 1990. Results of a growth trial examining the pytotoxicity of eucalyptus-swedge sludge compost and sawdustsewage sludge. Report to Las Virgenes Municipal WaterDistrict. Las Virgenes, CA. E & A Environmental Consultants, Inc. 1994. In-house data. Espiritu, B. M. and dela Torre, J. C. 2001. Combination of microbial inoculants and compost in rice production. pp. 12-112-16. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Recent Technologies of Composting and Their Application. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences of National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan. Evangelista, P. 2001. Organic-based fertilization for rice production in the Philippines. pp. 9-19-21. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Recent Technologies of Composting and Their Application. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences of National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan. Fu, C. M. and Chen, S. Y. 1990. Characteristic and utilization of excess sludge compost on the pig farm. Journal of the Biomass Energy Society of China 9: 137-143. Hara, M. 2001. Improvement of physical and chemical properties of composts and its application. pp. 1519-13. In: Proceedings of the International
Workshop on Recent Technologies of Composting and Their Application. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences of National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan. Harada, Y. 1995. The Composting of Animal Wastes. Extension Bulletin No. 408, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Taipei, Taiwan. Hsieh, C. F. and K.N. Hsu. 1993. A survey on the mineral nutrient content of the different kinds of organic material in Taiwan. In: Research Report No. 302. Taichung District Agricultural Improvement Station, Changhua, Taiwan. Huang, C. M., W.C. Chen, H.K. Sheen, S.J. Chang, S.W. Lee and L.H. Wang. 1994. Mass production of bagasse compost in an economic way. pp. 122130. In: Proceedings of Symposium on Technology and Utilization of Composting. The Biomass Energy Society of China. Taipei, Taiwan. Huang, C. M., Lee, S. W. and Chen, W. C. 1991. New method for hog waste composting. pp. 77-90. In: Proceedings of Symposium on Pig Waste Treatment and Composting. II. The Biomass Energy Society of China. Taipei, Taiwan. Huang, S. N. and Lin, C. C. 2001. Current status of organic materials recycling in southern Taiwan. pp. 14-19-25. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Recent Technologies of Composting and Their Application. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences of National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan. Husted, S. 1994. Seasonal variation in methane emission from stored slurry and solid wastes. Journal of Environmental Quality 23: 585-592. Inbar, Y. 1979. Formation of humic substances during the composting of agricultural wastes and characterization of their physicochemical properties. Ph. D. Dissertation. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Isreal. Inoko, A., K. Miyamatsu, K. Sugahara and Y. Harada. 1979. On some organic constituents of city refuse composts produced in Japan. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 25: 225-234. Iswandi, A.. 1994a. Biofertilizers and their application in Indonesia. pp. 85-116. In: International Seminar on the Use of Micro Organic Fertilizers for Agricultural Production. Rural Development Administration of Korea and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Suwon, Korea. Iswandi, A.. 1994b. Potential of municipal solid waste compost for agriculture in Indonesia. pp. 117-126. In: International Seminar on the Use of Micro Organic Fertilizers for Agricultural Production. Rural Development Administration of Korea and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Suwon, Korea.
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Juste, C. and B. Pommel. 1977. La Valorisation Agricole de Dechets: 1. Le Compost Urbain. Misistre de la Culture et de lEnvironnement, Ministre de lAgricole, France. pp. 75. Kang, U. G. and Ha, H. S. 1994. Selection and use of effective strains of Rhizobium in Korea. pp. 127145. In: International Seminar on the Use of Micro Organic Fertilizers for Agricultural Production. Rural Development Administration of Korea and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Suwon, Korea. Kloepper, J. W., Lifshitz, R. and Zablotowicz, R. M. 1989. Free-living bacterial inocula for enhancing crop productivity. Trends in Biotechnology 7: 3944. Knoll, K. H. (1961). Public health and refuse disposal. Compost Science 2: 35-40. Kubota, H. and Nakasaki, K. 1994. Our composting research since 1975: Composting reaction and product evalution. pp. 1-34. In: Proceedings of Symposium on Technology and Utilization of Composting. The Biomass Energy Society of China. Taipei, Taiwan. Lai, C. M., Feng, C. F. and Yang, S. S. 2003. Flux and mitigation of nitrous oxide from composting of livestock wastes. pp. 179-198. In: Yang, S. S. (ed.) Flux and Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases Emissions (IV). Global Change Research Center and Department of Agricultural Chemistry of National Taiwan University, and Institute of Biotechnology of National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Lian, S. and Lee, Y. C. 1994. Metal contents of organic manures in Taiwan and the current criteria of regulation. pp. 158-173. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Soil and Fertilizer Pollution. Chinese Soil and Fertilizer Society, Taichung, Taiwan. Lin, J. K. 1994. Effect of hog waste compost on the soil microflora and activity in different environmental conditions. In: Final Report of Soil and Fertilizer Research 1993. Department of Agriculture and Forest, Taiwan Provincial Government, Nan-tou, Taiwan. Morel, J. L., Jacquin, F., Guckert, A. and Barthel, C. 1979. Contribution a la determination de tests de la maturite des compost urbains. Compte-rendu de fin de contrat no 75 124. Ministere de lEnvironnement et du Cadre de Vie. ENSAIA. Nancy, France. pp. 32. Nitta, T. 1994. Roles of organic fertilizers in promoting soil microbiological fertility. pp. 69-84. In: International Seminar on the Use of Micro Organic Fertilizers for Agricultural Production. Rural Development Administration of Korea and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Suwon, Korea. Osada, T. 2001. Gas emission from composting animal waste. pp. 4-14-15. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Recent Technologies of Composting and Their Application. Food and
Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences of National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan. Osada, T., Kuroda, K. and Yonada, M. 2000. Nitrous oxide, methane and ammonia emissions from composting process of swine waste. The Japanese Society of Wate Management Experts 2: 51-56. Owa, N. 1994. Microbial material and soil amendment in Japan. pp. 167-174. In: International Seminar on the Use of Micro Organic Fertilizers for Agricultural Production. Rural Development Administration of Korea and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Suwon, Korea. Parr, J. F. and Hornick, S. B. 1992. Utilization of municipal wastes. In: Metting, F. B. (ed.) Soil Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental Management. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. pp. 545-559. Parr, J. F., Hornick, S. B. and Kaufman, D. D. 1994. Use of microbial inoculants and organic fertilizers in agricultural production. pp. 1-40. In: International Seminar on the Use of Micro Organic Fertilizers for Agricultural Production. Rural Development Administration of Korea and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Suwon, Korea. Prihatini, T. and Kurnia, U. 2001. Organic waste management by means of environment friendly technology. pp. 6-16-13. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Recent Technologies of Composting and Their Application. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences of National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan. Shamsuddin, Z. H. 1994. Application of microbial inoculants for crop production. pp. 219-231. In: International Seminar on the Use of Micro Organic Fertilizers for Agricultural Production. Rural Development Administration of Korea and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Suwon, Korea. Sheen, S. Y. and Wang, H. H. 1994. Study on stabilization parameters of hog waste compost. pp. 1-34. In: Proceedings of Symposium on Technology and Utilization of Composting. TheBiomass Energy Society of China. Taipei, Taiwan. Sinaga, M. S. 1992. Evaluation of compost to control crop diseases. Agricultural Potential of Citywaste Compost. Research Collaboration between Bogor Agricultural University with Center for Policy and Implementation Studies, Jakarta. Sommer, S. G., Sibbesen, E., Nielsen, T., Schjoerring, J. K. and Olsen, J. E. 1996. A passive flux samplers for ammonia volatilization from manure storage facilities. Journal of Environmental Quality 25: 241-247. Tang, C. C. and Wang, Y. P. 2000. Methane emission and mitigation from the composting and
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application of livestock wastes. pp. 95-109. In: Yang, S. S. (ed.) Flux and Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases Emissions (II). Global Change Research Center, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Agricultural Exhibition Hall of National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. Tsai, H. S. and S.S. Yang. 2004. Microbial conversion of food waste for biofertilizer preparation with thermophilic and lipolytic microbes. Renewable Energy (in press). Tseng, C. N., J.J. Hua and C.C. Young. 1993. Studies on gentic relationships among isolates of Rhizopus from Taiwan by Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis. Journal of Chinese Agricultural Chemical Society 31: 120-129. Um, M. H. and Lee, Y. 2001. Evaluation of organic wastes for composting and quality control of commercial composts in Korea. pp. 8-18-18. In: Proceeding of the International Workshop on Recent Technologies of Composting and Their Application. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences of National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan. Wang, L. F., S.W. Lee, C.M. Huang, Y.D. Chung, S.J. Chang and W.C. Chen. 1992. Secondary treatment of hog waste and manufacture of rapid stabilization compost. pp. 119-127. In: Experiment Report of Taiwan Sugar Company 1991-1992. Research Institute of Taiwan Sugar Company, Tainan, Taiwan. Yang, S. S. 1994. Composts and agricultural production in Taiwan. Soils and Fertilizers in Taiwan, 1994: 29-62.
Yang, S. S. 1997a. Preparation and characterization of compost. Journal of the Biomass Energy of China, 16: 47-62. Yang, S. S. 1997b. Preparation of compost and evaluating its maturity. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center Extension Bulletin 445: 1-23. Yang, S. S., C.B. Wei, K. Koo and S.S. Tsai. 1991. Food and agricultural wastes produced in Taiwan area. Journal of the Biomass Energy Society of China 10: 70-87. Yang, S. S., H.T. Yang, W.R. Chen and C.B. Wei. 2001. Properties of livestock and poultry wastes during composting in the farms of northern Taiwan. Journal of the Chinese Environmental Society 24: 8-25. Young, C. C. 1994. Selection and application of biofertilizers in Taiwan Agriculture. pp. 147-165. In: International Seminar on the Use of Micro Organic Fertilizers for Agricultural Production. Rural Development Administration of Korea and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Suwon, Korea. Zhang, L., F. Chung and M.A. Cole. 1992. A simple chemical assay for estimating compost maturity. ASA Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, MN. Zucconi, F., A. Monaco and M. Forte. 1985. Phytotoxins during the stabilization of organic matter. pp. 73-86. In: Gasser, J. K. R. (ed.) Composting of Agricultural and Other Wastes. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London.
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8
8.1 Introduction
Sustainability of agriculture has become a major global concern since the 1980s. Soil organic matter is very important in the functions of soil inasmuch as it is a good indicator of soil quality because it mediates many of the chemical, physical, and biological processes controlling the capacity of a soil to perform successfully. A comparison of cultivated and uncultivated soils has demonstrated a reduction in soil organic matter with cultivation (Mann 1986). Soil organic matter properties (e.g., C:N ratio and macroorganic matter) have been proposed as diagnostic criteria for soil health and performance. However, the importance of organic matter to crop production receives less emphasis, and its proper use in soil management is sometimes neglected or even forgotten. Moreover, understanding nutrient supply or agricultural systems is essential for maintaining longterm productivity. Yields of crops grown in organic and conventional production systems can be the same (Drinkwater et al. 1995; Stamatoados et al. 1999). However, agriculture or agroindustries produce high quantities of organic wastes that are typically rich in nutrients, which can well be used in agriculture to conserve nutrients as well as reduce waste discharge and the use of chemical fertilizers.
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Fig. 1.
Vigorous growth of Brassica campertris L. ssp. rapifera var. laciniifolia (Kitam.) under appropriate application of compost.
Fig. 2. Vigorous growth of Lactuca sativa var. cispa L. under appropriate application of compost.
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Fig. 3.
Vigorous growth of Oryza sativa var. taikeng No. 5 under appropriate application of compost Left: With chemical fertilizer; right: with compost on the basis of two-fold of N as chemical fertilizer.
Fig. 4.
Growth of tea plant (Camellia sinensis L. var. TTES No. 12) in an Oxisol with chemical and organic fertilizers.
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Fig. 5.
Growth of Lactuca sativa var. cispa L. in an Oxisol (pH 4.39) with different kinds of compost on the basis of the same amount of N. From left to right: Hog dung compost; sawdust-cattle dung compost; sugarcane residue-cattle dung compost; liming with calcium carbonate to pH 6.5 and applied with chemical N, P, and K fertilizer; pea seedling residue-rice hull compost; and control (with only chemical fertilizer).
Fig. 6. Growth of Lactuca sativa L. cv. tsueyhwa in an Oxisol with different rates of compost and lime Top: from left to right: B) control only with chemical N, P, and K fertilizers (final soil pH 3.85); SI, SII, and SIII) rates of compsot applied were 5, 10, and 20 g/kg and with the final soil pH 3.99, 4.32, and 4.44, respectively. Bottom: from left to right: B) control only with chemical N, P, and K fertilizers; LCI, LII, and LIII) rates of calcium carbonate applied were 1, 2, and 4 cmolg/kg with final soil pH (1:1) 4.34, 4.99, and 6.24, respectively.
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It has been shown that microbial activity and biomass are higher in fields with organic amendments than fields with conventional fertilizers (Drinkwater et al. 1995). Soils with compost application have higher propagule densities of Trichoderma species than soils amended with synthetic fertilizers regardless of their production system history (Bulluck et al. 2002). The supply of organic manure allows the direct uptake by plants of specific chemicals needed for the development of their immune system. Therefore, the application of organic manure also makes a direct contribution to the anti-phytopathogenic potential of soils (Fig. 7). This is particularly important in the case of the fungal damping-off diseases such as Rhizotinin, Fusarium, and Pythium (Lampkin 1990). The most important mechanism is the antagonism of soil microorganisms toward each other, which may take the form of producing toxins and antibiotics, competing for nutrients and energy, and/or parasitism (Lampkin 1990). The buildup of soil organic matter and maintenance of a protective surface cover under organic and minimum tillage systems favor a reduction in soil loss and its associated problems.
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organic matter that can be used to restore and preserve the environment (Stentiford 1987). The finished compost was rated as stable with minimum impact on soil C and N dynamics. A good compost should be tolerated readily by growing crops and should not interfere with root growth and development in the way which fresh manure can do. Composted organic materials, therefore, can act as slow-release sources of plant-available N. Therefore, mature compost is the first choice (Fig. 8). Nutrient contents can vary widely according to manure type (Titiloye et al. 1985) or compost materials (Tables 1-4). Organic matters added to soils contain a wide range of C compounds that vary in rates of decomposition. The biological breakdown of the added organic matter depends on the rate of degradation on each of the C-containing materials present in the sample (Reddy et al. 1980). Ajwa and Tabataba (1994) showed that the amount of CO2-C releases increased rapidly initially, but the pattern differed among the organic materials used. Gilbertson et al. (1979) showed that the annual mineralization rate of organic N in animal manure was positively correlated with the N content of waste. Variation in environmental factors, however, may cause a change in the decomposition rates of organic materials in soils. Of these factors, moisture content, temperature, soil pH, aeration and soil structure and texture, agricultural practices (e.g., cultivation), substrate specificity, and available minerals have been reported to be most important (Broadbent et al. 1964; Kowalenko et al. 1978; Clark and Gilmour 1983). Most of the N found in a composting mixture is organic, principally as part of the structure of proteins and simple peptides. The proportion of added organic matter that is mineralized after compost application ranks from several up to a hundred percent, depending on experimental conditions and compost types. Hadas and Pornoy (1994) reported that the mineralization constant for composted manure was commonly 5% to 10% per year. Bitzer and Sims (1988) found that an average of 66% of the organic N in poultry manure was mineralized in the first year. Cabrera et al. (1994) confirmed this rapid mineralization from poultry manure, estimating that 35% to 50% of organic N could be mineralized within 14 days of incorporation into soil. Griffin et al. (2000) reported that the amount of N in manure mineralized in a cropping season varied with the different manures: cattle manure, 25%; dairy manure, 35%; poultry manure, 60%; and swine manure, 50%. Traditionally, manure has been applied to farmlands to increase soil fertility on the basis of crop N requirement. Organic matter applied, therefore, should be calculated based on its mineralization rate. For example, the application of cattle manure is 20,000 kg/ha at a rate of 100 kg N/ha. Compost is a source of fertilizer N in varying degrees. Thus, understanding the factors that control mineralization will make compost more valuable for agricultural and horticultural uses (Sikora and Szmide 2001).
However, owing to the limited soil in a pot culture, the recommended application rate of manure is 3-5% of the soil by weight, depending on the N content of the manure. Chicken manure is one of the most economically efficient types of manure. This efficiency is due to its high pH, low organic C, high inorganic N, and low C:N ratio compared with the other types of manure. In practice, in order to increase soil fertility on the basis of crop N requirement, organic materials of low C:N ratio such as green manure, seed cake, or poultry manure are the better choice. In this purpose, the optimum C:N ratio for finished compost is about 15:1. On the other hand, when the significant organic C accumulation is more important, the organic manure of higher C:N ratio such as bark compost, compost with a higher proportion of woody materials, or cattle manure would be better.
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Fig. 7. A stable compost resulted in healthy soil; Cucumis melo L. var. chito was not affected by powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca fusca) (right), as compared with the affected plant (left) (courtesy of Dr. C.H. Liao).
Table 1. Selected chemical composition of some raw plant materials for compost (g/kg).
Source Rice straw Rice husk Rice bran Sorghum straw Corn straw Soybean plant Peanut plant Peanut husk Peanut cake Rape cake Sesame cake Cotton seed cake Cocoa nut cake Soybean cake Sugar cane trash Tea residue Sunflower seed cake Castor seed cake Tea seed cake Saw dust C 540-560 390-520 500 530 550 520 490 530 260-510 480 550 260-540 100 270-510 330-530 460-510 450-460 480-510 400-580 N 6.4-6.9 3.6-7.0 2.04-3.37 7.3 8.1 17.6 17.3 16.0 44.0-75.0 34.0-59.6 50.0-58.0 39.0-58.0 34.0 440-84.6 2.6-10.8 25.2-36.4 46.9-57.9 10.0-17.5 5.6-14.8 C:N ratio 78-88 74-108 22 73 68 30 28 33 5.9-6.8 9 10 6-11 3 4-7 49-126 14-18 52.0 8-10 27-41 27-102 P 0.2-0.5 0.3-2.0 10.7-19.5 1.1 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.5 3.1-12.0 4.2-25.0 9.8-32.0 7.9-11.8 9.9 5.2-7.6 0.3-.09 1.9-2.2 17.0 7.9-8.6 1.1-2.1 1.3-13.4 K 16.6-17.4 2.3-10.8 11.9-20.3 16.7 13.4 10.9 10.5 10.7 7.5-15.4 8.3-14.3 11.1-19.0 9.1-12.9 17.9 16.6-34.9 1.9-4.7 4.1-5.4 14.0 8.3-12.0 7.3-19.0 0.8-10.0 Ca 3.0-8.6 1.1-2.4 1.3-2.5 4.3 2.5 14.1 14.0 4.7 1.7-6.9 3.0-9.8 40.2 3.9-10.0 16.2 1.9-20.7 2.9 3.3-4.4 5.9-15.6 0.1-11.0 3.5-41.3 Mg 1.8-3.1 0.3-2.4 4.5-10.7 3.7 2.9 6.9 4.6 2.0 2.8-4.9 3.5-5.6 6.6 4.6-5.2 2.8 0.2-0.4 0.7 1.6 5.5 1.1-4.0 2.2-5.6
Table 3. Selected chemical compositions of some animal source materials for compost (g/kg).
Source Poultry feather Fish bone powder Fish refuse Leather meal Bone meal C 380-390 N 88.5-136.2 28.2-78.8 47.6-7.0 45.0-90.3 83.5 C:N ratio 86-87 P 1.2-2.0 8.6-9.1 18.8-29.8 0.1-4.5 11.5 K 0.4-0.9 8.0-8.3 1.4-7.9 0.2-4.4 3.9 Ca 2.2-4.7 3.9-55.1 1.0-7.7 50.2 Mg 0.3-1.7 2.8-41.2 0.1-2.8 1.8
Table 4. Selected chemical compositions of compost derived from different materials (g/kg).
Compost Cattle dung compost (1) Cattle dung compost (2) Swine dung-saw dust Chicken dung-sawdust Chicken dung Cattle dung-tea residue Molasses compost Pea residue-rice hull Sugar cane residue Sugar cane residue C 104-370 150-290 360-385 280-310 170-500 377-387 224 360 240-348 120-480 N C:N ratio P K Ca Mg
10.2-31.9 10.0-20.0 3.5-10.6 9.9-143 12.0-39.0 4-24 3.5-28.8 3.3-5.0 20.9-70.5 10-16 4.7-7.6 4.9-181 22.5-24.6 11-14 17.4-18.9 2.3-28.8 4.0-57.0 6-94 0.9-91.7 2.5-54.8 32.0-34.2 11-12 4.7-11.9 10.1-16.6 17.5 13 2.6 35.1 280-30.0 12 1.6-4.6 10.1-14.9 16.2-29.0 8-21 2.3-7.0 10.4-35.8 8.5-35.4 9-38 0.8-11.5 3.5-41.0
1.6-2.3 5.3-8.9 13.6-164.3 4.2-22.8 26.1-39.7 4.5-6.1 62.1-68.8 0.9-1.1 13.6-235.7 1.8-30. 17.9 4.9 24.5 3.2 55.1 6.9 14.2-16.0 6.5-8.2
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an adequate level of soil organic matter, a critical component of soil fertility and productivity. Organic manure is considered as slow-release N fertilizer because it releases or mineralizes only a fraction of its total N content during the application season. High initial applications to build up the organic pool and cut back in subsequent years would be appropriate. In supplying the nutrient requirements, the amount of manure applied can be calculated based on the rate of N applied and the rate of organic N mineralization in the application season.
8.11 References
Allison, __. 1978. Soil organic matter and its role in crop production. Elsevier. Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Ajwa, H. A. and M. A. Tabataba. 1994. Decomposition of different organic materials in soils. Biol. Fertil., Soils, 18: 175-183. Bitzer, C. C. and J. T. Sims. 1988. Estimating the availability of N in poultry manure through laboratory and field studies. J. Environ. Qual., 17:47-54. Broadbent, E. F., R. H. Jackman, and J. McNicoll. 1964. Mineralization of carbon and N in some New Zealand allophonic soils. Soil Sci., 98:118-128. Bulluck, L. R., M. Brosius, G. K. Evanylo and J. B. Ristaino. 2002. Organic and synthetic fertility amendments influence soil microbial, physical and chemical properties on organic and conventional farms. Appl. Soil Ecol., 19: 147-160. Cabrera, M.L., S. C. Tyson, T. R. Kelley, O. C. Pancarbo, W. C. Merka, and S. A. Thompson. 1994. Nitrogen mineralization and ammonia volatilization from fractionated poultry letter. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 58:367-372. Chao, W. L., H. J. Tu, and C. C. Chao. 1996. Nitrogen transformations in tropical soils under conventional and sustainable farming systems. Biol. Fertil. Soils, 21: 252-256. Clark, M. D. and J. T. Gilmour. 1983. The effect of temperature on decomposition at optimum and saturated soil water contents. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 47: 927-927. Conacher, J. and A. Conacher. 1998. Organic farming and the environment, with particular reference to Australia: A review. Biol. Agric. Horti., 16: 145-171. Darwish, O. H., N. Persaud, and D. C. Martens. 1995. Effect of long-term application of animal manure on physical properties of three soils. Plant Soil, 176: 289-295. Dormar, J. F. and C. Chang. 1995. Effect of 20 annual application of excess feedlot manure on labile soil phosphorus. Can. J. Soil Sci., 75: 507-512. Drinkwater, L. E., D. K. Letourneau, F. Workneh, A. C. H.van Bruggen, and C. Shennan. 1995. Fundamental differences between conventional and organic tomato agroecosystems in California. Ecol. Appl., 5: 1098-1112.
8.10 Conclusion
The use of organic manure to fertilize agricultural lands is positive from the perspective of a recycling economy. Application of organic matter to soils directly maintains
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