FIELD RESEARCH

What is Field Research? Field Research - sometimes regarded as synonymous with the more comprehensive term of Ethnography, sometimes with its essential constituent part of Participant Observation - may be described as -

"the process in which an investigator establishes a many sided and relatively long term relationship with a human association in its natural setting for the purpose of developing a scientific understanding of that association." (Lofland & Lofland, 1984)

Characteristic Orientations of Field Research Qualitative > (ie rather than) Quantitative in approach Less Standardised in Procedure > Well-established Standard Procedures Experience & Process > Structures Naturalistic (natural setting) > Positivistic (controlled setting) Open-minded approach > Pre-conceived Theory Discovery/Generation of Theory > Testing of Theory Inductive (theory from the data - "Grounded Theory") > Deductive (theory developed by logic and reason) Understanding of Behaviour > Explanation Immersion, Empathy, & Introspection > Academic Detachment Data Analysis runs alongside Data Collection > Analysis after Collection Research "Team" preferable > Individual Researcher

Origins of Field Research 19th C Social Anthropology Mead, Radcliffe-Brown, Malinowski New Guinea, Africa, Western Pacific Bushmen, Nomads, Eskimos

Chicago School (of Sociology) Robert Park (" go get the seat of your pants dirty .." (N p272; "stroll") 20s and 30s Crime, Deviance, Race Relations, Urbanism

eg. W.F. Whyte "Street Corner Society" ( Boston's North End)

Main Methods of Data Collection Participant Observation Interviewing Key Informant

Participant Observation (Gold's 4 Roles of Field Research) Full Participation Observer engages fully in activities of the group which is studied Covert role

Participant as Observer - Overt role - seeking to build relationships without acting as a member of the group - eg researching criminal behaviour Observer as Participant - Overt role - eg One-visit interviews - Observation without taking any part in the activity of the group observed - not really participant observation Observation Only - eg. Lab experiments - not participant observation - no interaction between observer and research subjects

Interviewing Long / In Depth Semi / Unstructured Individual / (Focus) Group Informal / Formal

Key Informant May serve as "Gatekeeper" Informant > Respondent (eg "Doc" in Whytes Street Corner Society)

Issues involved in Field Research Ethical Covert Research means Deception - is this justifiable? Full Participant mode entails the possibility of immoral / illegal activities

Methodological Gaining Access - likely to be more difficult - especially with powerful or secretive groups Identify and cultivate "Gatekeeper" Establish credibility via social networks - "letter of introduction" Getting access may have to be constantly negotiated and renegotiated at different levels Viability "passing" in covert research if researcher is uncovered it may terminate the entire research or undermine the quality of the research what if observer is unaware he has been identified as a false participant "fitting in" in overt research do one's homework - find out as much as possible about informants establish rapport

Selectivity - what to observe from the vast range of possibility Reactivity - ie do people behave differently knowing they are being researched? to the presence of an additional participant to the Observer in Overt research to the Observer in Covert research where he/she fails to "pass"

Role Conflict - "Going Native" - adopting the outlook of those being researched and losing objectivity Validity & Reliability concerns - more difficult for the methodology of the research to be checked - more reliance on the professionalism of the researcher

What is Studied Way of Life - "Culture", Meanings, Norms, World Views Language (non-verbal as well as verbal) Behaviour & Practices - Rituals Interactions - Roles, Encounters, Relationships "Episodes" - what actually happens within a specific time frame fight, a marriage ceremony Individuals, Groups, Organisations, "Settlements" eg a gang

What are the Research Tools Used? Field Notes Mental - importance especially in Full Participant / Covert Research Jotted - key ideas, phrases etc - may include other matters recalled that had been previously forgotten - purpose to jog memory when writing up Full Field Notes - copious and kept up to date before new developments intrude

Personal Journal - impressions, feelings, reflections; ideas for analysis / further data collection Tape Recorders, Cameras, Video Recorders - issue of when to ask for permission to record

How are Field Notes Used (traditional approach) Written up Regularly / Tapes Transcribed Multiple Copies / Cut and Paste / Cross Referencing (Memos)

What Background Files are Kept - may be from Primary & Secondary Sources Histories Biographies Bibliographies

Computer Aided Qualitative Data Analysis - Technology to the Rescue! Word processors - Search and Retrieve text; Tag text Specialist Software for Qualitative Data Analysis the Ethnograph - earliest NUDIST - market leader (Non-numeric Unstructured Data Indexing Searching Theorising) also HyperResearch HyperQual Winmax Atlas-ti

Technical Solutions for Transcription Tape recorder with foot pedal control Voice recognition software?

CAQDAS - at University of Surrey (Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Service) - a useful starting point for assistance with computer aided qualitative research

Role of Sampling in Qualitative / Field Research Not probability Purposive quota perhaps - trying to cover all relevant constituent strata in the population of interest snowball - building up a sample by getting referred from one informant to another within the target group marginal / deviant cases may be the target rather than a representative sample

Perspectives on Data Analysis

Analytic Induction Robson (p201) outlines the process of analytic induction as Formulate a rough definition of phenomenon of interest Pose initial hypothetical explanation Study a case/instance/situation in light of the hypothesis - does the hypothesis fit? If hypothesis does not fit- either reformulate the hypothesis or redefine phenomenon to be explained so that case is excluded. Repeat with a second case/instance/ situation Confidence in your hypothesis increases with the number of cases fitting the hypothesis

Grounded Theory - an approach to the analysis of qualitative data introduced by Glaser & Strauss - is described by Nachmias & Nachmias (p284) The goal of field research is to develop a theory that is grounded, that is, closely & directly relevant to the particular setting under study. Using the grounded theory approach. the researcher first develops conceptual categories from the data and then makes new observations to clarify and elaborate these categories.

Advantages of Field Research Opening up new areas of research - flexibility Where the Setting is important Collection of non-verbal data Social Processes / trends over time

Disadvantages Time Consuming Difficult to learn without doing Concerns re subjectivity & hence validity & reliability - role of research team to moderate problems in this area

References Robson, C : Real World Research, Chap 8 Smith, H W : Strategies of Social Research, Chap 10 May, T : Social Research - Issues, Methods and Process, Chap 7 Nachmias C & Nachmias D, Research Methods in the Social Sciences, Chapter 12