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RAFAEL GONCALVES

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COLORING SKIN Copyright 2012 by Rafael Goncalves All rights reserved. No part of the material herein may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For further information, please write: Rafael Goncalves 12148 Garden Grove Circle #204 Fairfax, Virginia, USA 22030

To the Captain, who steered me away safely from the storms and thaught me to choose the path of my journey. To the Mermaids, who led me away from shallow waters and carried my anchor when it seemed inevitable to stop and give up. To the precious Ruby I found beneath the rocks, where I had crashed because of the sirens. To the Wind, who showed me that no one can sail alone.

C M Ja M m ul bo a en or

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B T F O D TA O N TS N C N A A L IT IN B G A R H VI IN A
2 FI E TH A R ST E TH S F ER O Z L I A ON IV L R O R C

F O S T L E EN
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na ge ha el d In rm e Ve gr u B a ca nc an ra Br B a or eg cla C o G al C ab

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4 M O ST FR A S P R E A TH SC

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PREFACE
Do human races exist? According to Pena et al (2003), there is a wide agreement among anthropologists and human geneticists that, from a biological standpoint, human races do not exist. Yet, races do exist as social constructs that are mutable over time and across social contexts and are sustained by a racial ideology. The physical traits of an individual, especially skin pigmentation, hair color, hair texture, and the shape of the lips and nose, are constantly used for racial categorization and thus play an extremely influential role in human social relationships. However, these traits are believed to have emerged as adaptations to geographical selective factors such as solar radiation and heat and their utilization as markers of race is erroneous. Still, regardless of its biological meaning, the same authors (Pena et al, 2003) affirm that skin color matters a great deal. It is appalling to realize the capacity of skin color differences to produce some of the most barbarous pages of human history such as the apatheid regime and several others atrocities against human beings. In a 2001 essay, then President William J. Clinton initially agreed with W. E. B. Dubois in that the problem of the 20th century is the problem of the color line. He then went on to condemn racial profiling and to hope that in the 21st century color differences could be transformed from a problem into a promise for America. Of course, the social importance of skin color is not by any means an exclusively American phenomenon; racial discrimination and conflict occur worldwide. Pena et al (2003) also assure that in Brazil, not withstanding relatively large levels of genetic admixture and a myth of racial democracy, there exists a widespread social prejudice that seems to be particularly connected to the physical appearance of the individual. Color (in Portuguese, cor) denotes the Brazilian equivalent of the English term race (raa) and is based on a complex evaluation that takes into account, besides skin pigmentation, also hair type, nose shape, and lip shape. The reason the word Color (capitalized by the authors [Pena et al, 2003] to call attention to this particular meaning) is preferred to race in Brazil is probably because it captures the continuous aspects of phenotypes. Several studies on race and ethnicity bring interesting pieces of information about Brazilian population and its main characteristics. Surprising as that may seem, a survey conducted by Pertucelli (2007), which was the source of inspiration to this work, shows that Brazilians from different parts of the country reported over twenty different skin colors to describe themselves. The main objective of my work is to translate into images Brazilian peoples vision of their own skin color. The intention is to go beyond complexion colors descriptions, showing the meanings and cultural implications of skin color in peoples lives. This work also aims at presenting the miscegenation in Brazil from a historical point of view, emphasizing and illustrating the racial differences and presenting facts and data without the intention of issuing biased opinion on the subject. Throughout the pages of this book the reader will find not only beauty and enchantment, but also history, culture and a way of looking at Skin Coloring as a way of building up ones identity. What is your skin color?
R.O.G.
Fairfax VA 2012

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INDGENA
The term indgena (indigenous) has moreethnicmeanings thanracialones, and a Westerner in Brazil can be an acculturatedamerindio but not anindgena, which officially means indigenous in the narrow sense (Telles, 2004). InBrazil, the brown people are thepardos, one of the skin color categories (branco,pardo,preto,amarelo, andindgenabeingPortuguesefor white, (grey) brown, black, yellow, and indigenous, respectively) that have been used by theBrazilian Institute of Geography and Statisticssince 1940.

THE FIRST IMMIGRANTS

Questions about the original settlement the Americashave produced a number of hypotheses and models. The origins of these indigenous peoples are still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. The traditional view, which traces them toSiberianmigration to America at the end of the last ice age, has been increasingly challenged bySouth Americanarchaeologists (Gomes, 2000). According to this author, in Brazil, particularly, most native tribes who were living in the land by 1500 are thought to be descended from the first Siberian wave of migrants, who are believed to have crossed the Bering Land Bridgeat the end of the last Ice Age.

VERMELHA
The term Vermelho came from the reddish skin color of some Native Americans, as in the terms red Indian and red man. Multiple theories fight for prominence as to the true historical origin of the word red to designate a skin color. One theory is that the term was meant as merely a physical indicator for indigenous people, similar to the words white and black for Caucasians and Africans, respectively. Another theory holds that it was first used by Native Americans during the 1800s as a way of distinguishing themselves from the evergrowing white population. A second migrant wave would have taken some time after initial entry to reach present-day Brazil, probably entering the Amazon Riverbasin from the Northwest. This traditional view has recently been challenged by findings of human remains in South America, which are claimed to be too old to fit the scenario described above - perhaps even 20,000 years old. Some recent finds of human skeletons in Brazil are claimed to be morphologically distinct from the Asian phenotypeand are more similar toAustralian Aborigines populations. Neves and Hubbe (2005) conclude that the earliest South Americans tend to be more similar to present Australians, Melanesians, and Sub-Saharan Africans.

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BUGRE
Thebuggy race designates an indigenous people. They areknown for being very tough,courageousand brave. They are indigenous who are recognized by theirbeliefsand achievements. Others peoples searched their help looking for cure of diseases and other blessings. They are a very suspicious and do not relate to other peoples, whichmay have contributed toits nearor totalextinction.
Sou bugre mesmo me explica mesmo me ensina modos de gente me ensina a acompanhar um enterro de cabea baixa me explica por que que um olhar de piedade cravado na condio humana no brilha mais que anncio luminoso? Qual, sou bugre mesmo

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BRANCO
White people(also theCaucasian race) is a term usually referring tohuman beingscharacterized by the lightpigmentation of their skin. Rather than being a straightforward description of skin color, the termwhitedenotes a specific set of ethnic groups and functions as acolor metaphor for race. The most commonly-used definition of white person is a person with a visible degree ofEuropeanancestry.

THE FIRST COLONIZERS

When the Portuguese reached what is now called Brazil in 1500, its native population was probably composed of about 2.5 million Amerindians. Up to 1532, the Portuguese made no real effort to colonize the land, limiting to the establishment of feitorias (Portuguese trade posts) to organize the trade of brazilwood (tree of bright red wood). When it became clear that this policy would result in the land being taken by other European powers namely the Frenchand the Dutch the Portuguese Crown decided to effectively occupy the territory by fostering agricultural activities especially sugarcane crops in Brazil.This resulted not only in the growth of the population of Portuguese origin, but also in the introduction of African slaveryin Brazil (Levy, 2003).

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COR BRANCA
Light complexion, not necessarily with fine feature or fair and straight hair.

O amor me acalma como a cor branca da paz Quando o sinto toda vez me traz uma imensa sede de viver para meu bem querer

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GALEGO
The Galicians are an ethnic group and nationality, whose historical homeland is Galicia in north-western Spain. People describing themselves as galegos are white, most with light hair and foreign features for Brazilian standards.

Pai Nosso Galego Junto ao mar eu hoje ouvi, Senhor, Tua voz que me chamou e me pediu que me entregasse a meus irmos. Essa voz me transformou, a minha vida ela mudou

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CABLOCA
Individuals that fit the specific case of havingPortugueseand Native American parents are commonly known ascabocloIndividuals that fit the specific case of havingPortugueseand Native American parents are commonly known ascabocloor, more commonly in the past,mameluco. Individuals of European and African ancestry are described asmulato.Cafuzos(known aszamboin the English language) are the production of Native American and African ancestors.

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Caboclo guerreiro O meu rosto foi pintado com terra, estou em guerra... A morte no me assusta, e o preldio de sua chegada, s me d mais fora para lutar, guerrear pela minha gente, pela minha prole, e pelo que acho justo.

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NEGRO
A person with dark skin who comes from Africa (or whose ancestors came from Africa). Relating to or characteristic of or being a member of the traditional racial division of mankind having brown to black pigmentation and tightly curled hair.

THE FORCED IMMIGRATION

Brazil had the largest slave population in the world, substantially larger than the United States. The Portuguese who settled Brazil needed labor to work in the large estates and mines in their new Brazilian colony. They turned to slavery which became central to the colonial economy. It was particularly important in the mining and sugar cane sectors. Estimates suggest that more than 3 million Africans reached Brazil. The country began to turn to slavery in the 16th century as explorers began moving along the coast of Africa. With the discovery of the Americas, the Portuguese attempted to enslave the Native American population as well, but many

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died because of mistreatment, and the lack of resistance to European diseases. The Portuguese began transporting Africans to their new colony. The importation of such a large number of Africans into a colony with such a small number of Portuguese, profoundly affected the ethnical balance and had a significant impact on Brazilian culture (food, m u s i c , dance and religious practices). The population, however, only boosted in the 18th century, as a result of the discovery of gold and

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diamonds in the region known as Minas Gerais, which prompted massive populational movements from Portugal as well as increased slave trafficking to Brazil. During the colonial period, discriminatory laws were commonplace. NonWhites were banned from the goldsmith craft (1621). In So Paulo, a state in Brazil, non-Whites were forbidden, under the penalty of prison, from using guns (1713). Descendants of Jews, Moors, Blacks, as well as those married to women of such extractions, were banned from public

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offices. Blacks and mulattos were forbidden from dressing as Whites (1745). The arrival of the Royal family didnt change this: when a provincial militia was formed in Rio Grande do Sul, another Brazilian estate, it was established that the members should be White, this being defined as those whose grand-grandparents were not Black, and whose parents were free-born (1809). Nor did this change with independence: a complementary law to the 1824 Constitution forbade Blacks and lepers from being instructed in schools. Brazilian troops were segregated until the fall of the Empire.

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PRETA
The termblack people is used in some socially-basedsystems of racial classificationfor humans of adark-skinnedphenotype, relative to other racial groups represented in a particular social context. Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified as black, and often social variables such as class and socio-economic status also play a role, so that relatively dark-skinned people can be classified aswhiteif they fulfill other social criteria of whiteness.

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Preta, Preta, Pretinha! Enquanto eu corria Assim eu a Lhe chamar! Enquanto corria a barca Lhe chamar! Por minha cabea no passava S! Somente S! Assim vou lhe chamar Assim voc vai ser

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CABOVERDE
Cape Verde is as island country, spanning an archipelago of 10 islands located in the central Atlantic Ocean, 570 kilometres off the coast of Western Africa.It is a mestizosociety. Seventy-eight percent of the population is Creole, people of mixed African and European blood. Of the remainder, 28 percent is black African, and 1 percent is white.
Quero Um canto diferente Para cabo verde j no somos Os flagelados do vento leste Dominamos os ventos J no somos contratados Como animais de carga para o sul Conquistamos a dignidade de ser gente

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A histria de amor que no tem mais fim a histria do crioulo viva paixo Um sonho pela rdea o cavalo enfim Do peo e do patro!

CRIOULO
Person of African slave ancestry born in the South American countries. In popular speech it refers to a person of dark skin.

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MARMELUCO
The word Mameluco is believed to be of Arabic origin. The word in Arabic is Mamluk (masculine) or Mamluka (feminine). The word Mameluco is a term of Portuguese origin describing the first generation offspring of a European and an Amerindian.

Eu sou Marmeluco,sou de Casa Forte. Sou de Pernambuco eu sou o leo do Norte. Salve terra dos altos coqueiros,de beleza soberba estrendal. Nova Roma de bravos guereiros.

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Eu hoje tive um pesadelo E levantei atento, a tempo Eu acordei com medo E procurei no escuro Algum com o seu carinho E lembrei de um tempo

ESCURA
A black person who describes himself as dark.

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SCARS FROM THE PAST

The pervasiveness of slavery, the lateness of its abolition, and the fact that nothing was done to turn former slaves into citizens all combined to have a profound impact on Brazilian society. They are reasons for the extreme socioeconomic inequality that still scars the country today. In the 2010 census some 51% of Brazilians defined themselves as black or brown. On average, the income of whites is slightly more than double that of black or brown Brazilians, according to IPEA, a government-linked think-tank. It finds that blacks are relatively disadvantaged in their level of education and in their access to health and other services. For example, more than half the people in Rio de Janeirosfavelas(slums) are black. The comparable figure in the citys richer districts is just 7%. Brazilians have long argued that blacks are poor only because they are at the bottom of the social pyramid - in other words, that society is stratified by class, not race. But a growing number disagree. These clamorous differences can only be explained by racism, according to the federal governments

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CHOCOLATE
The colorchocolateis a tone of darkbrownthat resemblesmilk chocolate, the most common type of chocolate. Some Brazilians use chocolate to describe their skin color. secretariat for racial equality. In a passionate and sometimes angry debate, black Brazilian activists insist that slaverys legacy of injustice and inequality can only be reversed by affirmative-action policies, of the kind found in the United States. Their opponents argue that the history of race relations in Brazil is very different, and that such policies risk creating new racial problems. Unlike in the United States, slavery in Brazil never meant segregation. Mixing was the norm, and Brazil had many more free blacks. The result is a spectrum of skin colour rather than a dichotomy. Few these days still call Brazil a racial democracy. As Antonio Riserio, a sociologist from Bahia, put it in a recent book: Its clear that racism exists in the US. Its clear that racism exists in Brazil. But they are different kinds of racism. In Brazil, he argues, racism is veiled and shamefaced, not open or institutional. Brazil has never had anything like the Ku Klux Klan, or the ban on interracial marriage imposed in 17 American states until 1967. Importing American-style affirmative action risks forcing Brazilians to place themselves in strict racial categories rather than somewhere along a spectrum, says Peter Fry, a British-born, naturalised-Brazilian anthropologist. Having worked in southern Africa, he says that Brazils avoidance of the crystallising of race as a marker of identity is a big advantage in creating a democratic society.

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MORENO ESCURO
Literally meaning dark swarthy, frommouro, a moreno is a person with a Moorish phenotype. The addition of the adjective escuro (dark) means that the skin color is of a dark brown color.

Em verdadade temos medo Nascemos no escuro Meu companheiro moreno. De nos, de vs, e de tudo. Estou com medo da honra. Assim nos criam burgueses. Nosso caminho: traado. Por que morrer em conjunto? E se todos ns vivssemos?

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MARROM
Brown is a color that varies between red and yellow, similar to the color of wood or soil. The term is fromOld Englishbrn, in origin for any dusky or dark shade of color. Brown peopleorbrown raceis apolitical, racial, ethnic, social, andculturalclassification, similar toblack people andwhite people. Like these, it is ametaphor for racebased onhuman skin color, reflecting the fact that there are shades of skin color intermediate between Caucasian and equatorial. Consequently, the term includes groups that have no connection other than their intermediate skin tone, especially but not limited tomixed raceindividuals.

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Na areia nosso amor No rdio o nosso som Tem magia nossa cor Nossa cor marrom Marrom bombom...

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CAFUSO
Cafusos, known as zambo, are the children of Native American and African ancestors.

Tambor Cafuso Tambor tocou pelos ares Que nem se fosse Vudu. No sei se foi de Palmares, No sei se foi do Xingu. Bateu pelos sete mares Dobrando em seu couro cru. Tocou por tantos lugares Sons de Tup e de Exu.

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CANELA

THE WHITE WORKFORCE ARRIVAL

The crisis of the slave-based production in Brazil prompted the Brazilian elites to find new solutions for the work force needed for the expansion of Brazilian agriculture especially the growing sector of coffee culture in So Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Thats when European immigration took place in larger scale. Brazilian demographics were strongly modified, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, by the European immigration. Brazilian immigration policywas closely connected to the so-called workforce issue, and farmers

Cinnamon-brown or flame colored people(theAmericanorred race) andbrown people(theMalayorbrownrace).

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MULATO

Mulatodenotes a person with onewhiteparent and oneblackparent, or more broadly, a person of mixed black and whiteancestry. Contemporary usage of the term varies greatly, and the broader meaning of the word makes its application rather subjective, as not all people of mixed white and black ancestry identify themselves as mulatto.Some reject the term because of its association with slavery and colonial and racial oppression, preferring terms such as mixed and biracial.

concerns about how to replace the slave workforce; the reasons why the slaves were not simply transformed into free workers were a point of contention and as a result, the Brazilian government sought to attract European immigrants. At the same period Brazil needed to reinforce its labor force, Europe was in crisis. This resulted in the immigration of about 5 million people, mostly European peasants, in the last quarter of the 19th century and first half of the 20th. The majority of these immigrants were either Portuguese or Italian, though significant numbers of Spaniards, Germans and Eastern Europeans (mostly Poles and Ukrainians arriving on Russian passports) immigrated to Brazil.

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JAMBO
Literally jambo is a red-brown fruit, which came from India and some islands of Malaysia to Brazil. The jambeiros are beautiful trees. Although not originating in America, they adapted so well to the climate conditions of the American tropics that they seem native fruit of the land. In general, people consider it as a compliment being called moreno jambo since this seems to be as beautiful as the color of the fruit.

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Moreninha cor de jambo Da cintura fina Fases cor de rosa Encosta seu rosto no meu Quero um beijo do seu No seja vergonhosa Venha matar meu desejo Meu bem s um beijo

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MORENO
InLatin, the wordmaurus means coming fromMauretania, a Roman province on the northwestern fringe of Africa, a region now corresponding to northern Algeria and Morocco. The word may also derivate from the ancient Greekmauros, meaning dark. Moreno, from the Latin root, can mean tanned in Spain and Portugal, as well as in Brazil. InCubaand otherSpanish-speaking countries, it can mean black person or mulatto. The name Maurus in the Middle Ages was a synonym for Negro; later used indiscriminately for Muslims (Persians, Arabs, etc.) but especially those in India.

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Mulher morena, morena, manjar delicado, sorriso da gua, teu peito no sabe de mgoas, teus olhos no sabem de lgrimas.

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Amarelo refers to people of Asian ancestry, mostly from Japan. A Japanese Brazilian is a Brazilian citizen, national or natural of Japanese descent, or a Japanese immigrant living in Brazil. The first Japanese immigrants arrived in Brazil in 1908. Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside of Japan.

AMARELO

COLORING THE COUNTRY

The degree of miscegenationin Brazil has been very high, as Brazil was colonized by male Portuguese adventurers who tended to procreate with Amerindian and African women (Denison et al, 2004). This made possible a myth of racial democracy that, according to Telles (2009), tends to obscure a widespread discrimination connected to certain aspects of physical appearance: aspects related to the concept ofcor(literally color), used in a way that is roughly equivalent to the English term race but based on a combination of skin color, hair type, and shape of nose and lips. It is possible for siblings to belong to different color categories. So a White Brazilian is a person perceived and socially accepted as White, regardless of ancestry or sometimes even immediate family

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CASTANHA
Chestnut, also known asIndian red, is a mediumbrownishshade ofred, and is named after thenutof thechestnuttree. People who described themselves as castanha have most likely indigenous ancestry. Researchers (Pena et al, 2003) affirm that while miscegenation has been one factor leading to a Brazilian population with features ranging from the stereotypically African to the stereotypically European, a second factor has been assortative mating. The genome of the first generation offspring of European fathers and African mothers was 50% European and 50% African, but the distribution of the genes that affect relevant features (skin color, hair type, lip shape, nose shape) was random. Those of the second generation with features considered closer to a White stereotype would have tended to procreate with others like themselves, while those considered closer to Black would also have tended to procreate among themselves; in the long term producing White and Black groups with surprisingly similar proportions of European and African ancestry. Miscegenation has also been intense between immigrants and their descendants and the previous inhabitants of the country. Besides European immigrants, also many Japanese, Middle Easterns (mostly people from what are now Syria and Lebanon arriving on Turkish passports), also went to Brazil, establishing the huge melting pot it became. The expression melting pot used here as a metaphor for aheterogeneoussociety which becomes moreand more homogeneous, as the various elements of the different peoples melt together into a harmonious whole with a common culture.

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MORENO CLARO
Literally meaning light swarthy, frommouro, a moreno is a person with a Moorish phenotype, which is extremely ambiguous, as it can mean dark-haired people, but is also used as a euphemism forpardo, and even Black. The addition of the adjective claro (light) means that the skin color is slightly tanned. When Brazilians answer to open-ended questions about race, hundreds of different race-color terms are brought. The most common is moreno, a category that refers to a wide spectrum of phenotypes. It can mean dark-haired, tawny, suntanned, but it is also used as a euphemism for pardo and black, according to context.

A morena predileta, mas a clara do poeta: assim se pintam arcanjos. Qualquer, encantos encerra, mas a morena da terra enquanto a clara dos anjos!

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PARDA

GIANT MELT POT BRAZIL

The White propor tion of the population increased rapidly, mainly because of immigration, but also because the growth rate of the Black and parda population, which was very low during slavery, remained below the national average for some time after abolition, which occorred in 1888. According to Domingues (2004), there seems to be no easy explanation of why slaves were not employed as wage workers at the abolition of slavery. One possibility is the influence of racebased ideas from the second half of the 19th

Pardois a color which can be translated from Portuguese as brown (properly calledmarrom), grayish brown, beige (properly calledbege), or the color of themanila (called in Brazilpapel pardo). In Hispanic America,pardois a racialcastefor people with European, Amerindian and Black African ancestries, possibly added with any others, which cannot be calledmestizos,blancos,zambos,mulatosor any other category because of their unique multiracial phenotype created by generations of miscegenation among these three main groups.

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SARAR
InBrazil, aSararis a person of mixed race, being a particular kind ofMulatto, withNegroidfacial features, light complexion and fair but extremely curly hair. century and early 20th century, which were based in the pseudo-scientific belief of the superiority of the White race. On the other hand, Brazilian latifundiaries had been using slave manpower for centuries, with no complaints about the quality of this workforce, and there were not important changes in Brazilian economy or work processes that could justify such sudden preoccupation with the race of the labourers. As the Brazilian elites perceived the abolition of slavery as a problem, various alternatives were discussed. While very few remained stuck with the idea of preserving slavery, some political leadersproposed the reintegration of national workers into a free-labour system; some other influencial peopleproposed Chinese immigration. It was against these positions, not against any imaginary African immigration, that racial arguments were made. So, besides a dispute immigrantists and anti-immigrantists, there was also a debate between pro-Chinese and pro-European immigrantists. In Brazil, the dominant idea was that national workers were unable to develop the country, and that only foreign workers would be able to work in a regime of free labor. The goal was to whiten Brazil through new immigrants and through future miscegenation in which former slaves would disappear by becoming whiter (Vainfas, 2002:152).

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MESTIA
Mestiois a term traditionally used in Latin America and Spain for people of mixed heritage or descent. In Brazil, the wordmestiois used to describe individuals born from any mixture of different ethnicities. Mestizoderives from theLatinwordmixticius which means mixed.

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Mestio! Quando amo a branca sou branco Quando amo a negra sou negro. Pois

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LOIRA
Fair hair and usually fair skin and light eyes as an evidence of European ancestry.

WHITENING THEORY
Before the time of slavery abolition in Brazil in 1888, a significant part of the Brazilan elite was convinced that Europeans were racially and culturally superior to other races. Although many of the discussions on this topic were situated in a theoretical field, immigrants arrived and colonies were founded from 1850 on, particularly in the Southeast Region, Brazil Southeastand Southern Brazil. As a result of those discussions and policies, Brazil experienced immigration mostly from countries such as

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CLARA
Usually light brown or blond hair, fair skin and fine features. Italy, Germany, Spain, PortugalandPolandduring the end of the empire and the beginning of the republic period (late 19th and early 20th century). Later immigration, from 1908 on, was not so much influenced by that race discussions and Brazil attracted, besides Europeans, more immigrants fromLebanon, SyriaandJapan. The Brazilian government, as was commonplace at that time, endorsed positions expressed by Brazilian intellectuals. An example of that is a text, written by Oliveira Vianna, that was issued as introductory material to 1920 Census results. Many pages of Viannas work were dedicated to the discussion of a pure race of white Brazilians. According to the text mentioned, the first Portuguese colonists who came to Brazil were part of the blond Germanicnobility that ruled Portugal, while the dark-haired poor Portuguese only came to Brazil later, in the 17th and especially the 18th century (Rodrigues, 2004). Rodrigues (2004) affirms that according to the text written by the sociologist Oliveira Vianna for the Census 1920, the blond Portuguese of Germanic origin were restless and migratory, and thats why they emigrated to Brazil. On the other hand, the Portuguese of darker complexions were of Celticor Iberianorigin and came when the Portuguese settlement in Brazil was already well established, because, according to him, The peninsular brachyoids, of Celticrace, or the dolicoides, of Iberianrace, of sedentary habits and peaceful nature, did not have, of course, that mobility nor that bellicosity nor that spirit of adventure and conquest which was necessary.

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SURVEYING THE SKIN

Two IBGE (Brazilian Institute ofGeography and Statistics) surveys have sought to understand the way Brazilians think of themselves in racial terms, with the explicit aim of adjusting the census classification (neither, however, resulted in actual changes in the census). Besides that, Data Folha, a well-known Brazilian research institute, has also conducted research on this subject. The results of these surveys are somewhat varied, but seem to coincide in some fundamental aspects. First, there is an enormous variety of racial terms in use in Brazil; when Brazilians are inquired in an open ended question, from 135 to 500 different race-color terms may be brought. The 1976 PNAD (Pesquisa Nacional por Amostras de Domiclios - National SampleSurveyof Households) found 136 different answers to the question about race;the July 1998 inquiry found 143.However, most of these terms are used by very small minorities. Telles (2004) remarks that 95% of the population chose only six different terms (branco, moreno, pardo moreno-claro, pretoandnegro). Petrucelli (2000:18) shows that the 7 most common responses (the above plusamarela) sum up 97%, and the 10 more common (the previous plusmulata,clara, andmorena-escura) make 99%. Petrucelli (2000) finds that 77 denominations were mentioned by only one person in the sample of his inquiry. Other 12 are misunderstandings, referring to national or regional origin (francesa, italiana, baiana, cearense). Many of the racial terms are (or could be) remarks about the relation between skin colour and exposure to sun (amorenada, bem morena, branca-morena, branca-queimada, corada, bronzeada, meio morena, morena-bronzeada, morena-trigueira, morenada, moreno, moreninha, pouco morena, queimada, queimada de sol, tostada, rosa queimada, tostada). Others are clearly variations of the same idea (preto, negro, escuro, crioulo, retinto, for Black,alva, clara, cor-de-leite, galega, rosa, rosada, plida, for White,parda, mulata, mestia, mista, for parda), or precisions of the same concept (branca morena, branca clara), and can actually grouped together with one of the main racial terms without falsifying the interpretation (Petrucelli, 2000:19).Some seem to express an outright refusal of classification:azulmarinho(navy blue),azul(blue),verde(green),cor-de-burroquando-foge(literally, the color of a donkey when it runs away, a Portuguesehumorous term for an undefined color). Petrucelli grouped 136 terms into 28 wider categories, which constitute some of the denominations Brazilians give themselves and are presented whithin the pages of this work.

BRASILEIRO
A typical example of the mixture of different skin colors and various biotypes existent in Brazil. People who define themselves as brasileiro are most likely the ones who have the color of their complexion and their physical characteristics inherited from the interracial relationship between their parents, who might have, at their turn, either black, white or indigenous origin.

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Cited Works

^ McPherson, Lionel K; Shelby, Tommie (2004). Blackness and Blood: Interpreting African American Identity. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 179. Race in Brazil Affirming a divide Black Brazilians are much worse off than they should be. But what is the best way to remedy that? Jan 28th 2012 | RIO DE JANEIRO | from the print edition - http://www.economist.com/node/21543494 Gilberto Freyre, 1933. Casa Grande e Senzala ... Cranial morphology of early Americans from Lagoa Santa, Brazil: Implications for the settlement of the New World. 2005 Edited by Richard G. Klein, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, and approved October 28, 2005 (received for review August 18, 2005) - The National Academy of Sciences 1. Walter A. Neves * and 2. Mark Hubbe ^ M. Pereira Gomes, The Indians and Brazil, p.32. 2000 Edward Eric Telles (2004), Racial Classification, Race in Another America: the significance of skin color in Brazil, Princeton University Press, pp. 8184, ISBN 0691118663 Bonnett, Alastair (2000) White Identities. Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-35627-X ^ Gregory Rodriguez, Brazil Separates Into Black and White, LA Times, September 3, 2006. Note that the figures belie the title. IBGE: Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicilio. Tabela 262 - Populao residente, por cor ou raa. Pena et al (Parra, Flavia C.; Amado, Roberto C.; Lambertucci, J. R.; Rocha, J,; Antunes. C. M. and Pena. S; D. J. 2003. Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences U S A (PNAS). http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC140919/?tool=pubmed#B2. Bourdieu, P e Wacquant, L. 1999. On the Cunning of Imperialist . Reason. Theory, Culture & Society 1999 (SAGE, London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi).Vol. 16(1): 4158 1999. Estud. av. vol.18 no.50 So Paulo Jan./Apr. 2004 http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0103-40142004000100004 Pode a gentica definir quem deve se beneficiar das cotas universitrias e demais aes afirmativas? Srgio D.J. Pena; Maria Ctira Bortolini

(Available here [1.21MB PDF file].) 12. ^ Flvia de vila, Entrada de Trabalhadores Estrangeiros no Brasil. (Available here[1.21MB PDF file].), p. 31-32: Ser estrangeiro significava, em viviam no Brasil o faziam mais por razes aventureiras e individuais que coletivas ou resultantes de providncias governamentais para aportarem 13. ^ O DNA dos Pampas 14. ^ [2] Our Y-SNP/STR data globally suggest, however, that the Gacho males have more similarity with the Spaniards than with the Portuguese. Th of the region alternated between the Spanish and Portuguese Empires (Flores 2003). These historical events can be associanted to our findings, but well as between them and their derived Latin American populations, at the Y-chromosome level, was not observed in other investigations. 15. ^ Johannes Menne Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic slave trade, 1600-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990; ISBN 0521365856) ( 16. ^ The Phylogeography of Brazilian Y-Chromosome Lineages 17. ^ Mirian Halpern Pereira. Algumas observaes complementares sobre a poltica de emigrao portuguesa. In Anlise Social, vol. xxv (108-109), 1 clandestina documentada tenha sido superior indocumentada. O que no nada certo que ela fosse inteiramente registada como imigrao po atestada na muito generalizada designao de galego dada aos Portugueses no Rio de Janeiro, principal ponto de desembarque dos Portuguese 18. ^ IBGE Teen. Evoluo da populao/cor 19. ^ Maria Stella Ferreira Levy. O Papel da Migrao Internacional na Evoluo da Populao Brasileira. Table 2, p. 74. 20. ^ Judicael Clevelrio. A participao da imigrao na formao da populao brasileira. p. 68. 21. ^ Petrnio Domingues. Uma histria no contada: negro, racismo e branqueamento em So Paulo. p. 73. 2004 22. ^ Petrnio Domingues. Uma histria no contada: negro, racismo e branqueamento em So Paulo. p. 74. 23. ^ Petrnio Domingues. Uma histria no contada: negro, racismo e branqueamento em So Paulo. p. 76. 24. ^ O Rebate. Cited in Petrnio Domingues. Uma histria no contada: negro, racismo e branqueamento em So Paulo. p. 77. 25. ^ Wilson do Nascimento Barbosa. Preface to Petrnio Domingues, Uma histria no contada: negro, racismo e branqueamento em So Paulo. p. 10 26. ^ VAINFAS, Ronaldo. Dicionrio do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002, p 152 27. ^ SANTOS, Sales Augusto dos. Historical roots of the whitening of Brazil. Translated by Lawrence Hallewell. Latin American Perspectives. Issu 28. ^ LIMA, Slvio C.S. Determinismo biolgico e imigrao chinesa em Nicolau Moreira (1870-1890). 123 p. Dissertation (Master degree in History o 29. ^ Masato Ninomiya O centenrio do Tratado de Amizade, Comrcio e Navegao entre Brasil e Japo. in Revista USP , December 1995/February 1 30. ^ a b c Text from the 1920 Brazilian Census 31. ^ a b http://www.imil.org.br/artigos/a-importancia-de-gilberto-freyre-para-a-construcao-da-nacao-brasileira-parte-ii/ 32. ^ Petrnio Rodrigues. Uma histria no contada: negro, racismo e branqueamento em So Paulo. p. 78. 33. ^ Petrnio Rodrigues. Uma histria no contada: negro, racismo e branqueamento em So Paulo. p. 29-31. 34. ^ Thomas Skidmore. Racial ideas and social policy in Brazil, 1870-1940. In Richard Graham et al. The Idea of race in Latin America, 1870-1940. p 35. ^ Thomas Skidmore. Racial ideas and social policy in Brazil, 1870-1940. In Richard Graham et al. The Idea of race in Latin America, 1870-1940. p 36. ^ Ronald M. Glassman, William H. Swatos, and Barbara J. Denison, Social Problems in Global Perspective (Lanham, Md.: University Press of Am 2004 37. ^ Denise R. Carvalho-Silva et al., The Phylogeography of Brazilian Y-Chromosome Lineages, American Journal of Human Genetics 68

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1. ^ Bolaffi, Guido, Dictionary of Race, Ethnicity and Culture (London: Sage, 2003; ISBN 0761969004), s.v. Race, p.244. Here at Google Books ( 2. ^ a b c Jansen, Roberta. Um Brasil europeu. O Globo. 18 February 2011. p. 36. Cites the 2011 work of Prof. Srgio Danilo Pena. 3. ^ Zaluar, Alba. Integrao perversa: pobreza e trfico de drogas. FGV Editora, 2004. p.39 4. ^ Gilberto Freyre. Masters and Slaves (translation of Casa Grande e Senzala). pp. 304-318. 5. ^ Gilberto Freyre. Masters and Slaves. (Translation of Casa Grande e Senzala). p.92: As for domestic animals to be found among either of the two p 6. ^ Marlia D. Klaumann Cnovas. A GRANDE IMIGRAO EUROPIA PARA O BRASIL E O IMIGRANTE ESPANHOL NO CENRIO DA 7. ^ a b c Maria Stella Ferreira Levy. O papel da migrao internacional na evoluo da populao brasileira (1872 to 1972). inRevista de Sade Pblic 8. ^ Srgio Pena et alli. DNA tests probe the genomic ancestry of Brazilians. Introduction, first paragraph.: Little is known about the number of indige although a figure often cited is that of 2.5 million individuals. 9. ^ http://www.scribd.com/doc/7388705/Eduardo-Bueno-Naufragos-Traficantes-e-Degredados 10. ^ a b [1] Maria Stella Ferreira Levy. O papel da migrao internacional na evoluo da populao brasileira (1872 a 1972) p. 50. 11. ^ Flvia de vila, Entrada de Trabalhadores Estrangeiros no Brasil: Evoluo Legislativa e Polticas Subjacentes nos Sculos XIX e XX. PhD thes

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This single volume was designed and hand bound by Rafael de Oliveira Goncalves. The text is set in ITC Franklin Gothic Std. The typeface used in pantone book is Helvetica Nue. Chapter openers and titles are set in Gotham HTF. Printed on a digital press in the spring of 2012. Designed and bound at George Mason University, Fairfax,Virginia.

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Brazil is one of the most racially diverse countries in the world. A product of different ways of miscegenation, Brazil is truly a complete palette of skin colors. The physical traits of an individual, especially skin pigmentation, hair color, hair texture, and the shape of the lips and nose, are constantly used for racial categorization and thus play an extremely influential role in human social relationships. However, these traits are believed to have emerged merely as adaptations to geographical selective factors such as solar radiation and heat. Their utilization as markers of race is erroneous. Most people have felt the influence of a racial classification; most people have suffered or strived due to racial parameters. This work focuses on questioning the truth behind racial classification and prejudice by exposing the most prominent basis for such classification: color. By looking at skin color the way the Brazilian population does, as simply a palette of colors, we can then move away from our prejudices as the linking factors to race dissolve within reason.

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