Systems Analysis and Design Methods - Instructors Guide

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SADM

MODULE A PROJECT AND PROCESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Overview
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odule A introduces project and process management guidelines, tools, and techniques. Project Management refers to the planning, staffing, scheduling, directing, and controlling of an individual project. The unit covers Gantt and PERT charts, as well as expectations management techniques. Process Management, new to this edition, refers to the management of the system development process and technology across multiple projects. The latter is usually driven by the chosen methodology of an organization.

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Answers to Review Questions

1. What are the characteristics that define a project? A project is a sequence of unique, complex, and connected activities having one goal or purpose and that must be completed by specific time, within budget, and according to specification. 2. What is project management? Project management is the process of defining, planning, directing, monitoring, and controlling the development of an acceptable system at a minimum cost within a specified time frame. 3. What is process management? Process management is the planning, selection, deployment, and consistent application of standard system development methods, tools, techniques, and technologies to all information system projects. 4. Compare and contrast Gantt and PERT charts. A Gantt Chart is a simple horizontal bar chart that depicts project tasks against a calendar. Each bar represents a named project task. The tasks are listed vertically in the lefthand column. On a Gantt Chart, the horizontal axis is a calendar timeline. PERT charts are organized in terms of tasks and milestones using a variety of symbols. Primitive tasks only are connected by arrows that indicate predecessors and successors. This information, if recorded on the Gantt Chart is carried over to the PERT Chart 5. What is the critical path through a project? What is the slack resource in a critical task? A critical path is a sequence of dependent project tasks that have the largest sum of estimated durations. The slack resources are the individuals, materials, tools, etc. that would be used during the slack time of a particular task. They are necessary in that if the task falls behind schedule by less than the amount of slack time the slack resources may be reallocated. 6. Differentiate between forward and reverse scheduling. Forward Scheduling established a project start-date and then schedules forward from that date. Based on the planned duration of required tasks, and the allocation of resources to complete those tasks, a projected project completion date is calculated. Reverse scheduling establishes a project deadline and then schedules backward from that date. Essentially, tasks, their duration, and resources must be chosen to ensure that the project can be completed by the deadline. 7. What is a work breakdown structure? What purpose does it server? A work breakdown structure is a hierarchical decomposition of the project into phases, activities, and tasks. The work breakdown structure allows for an overview of the project as it relates to its phases and activities. Once those work units are broken down into more detailed work units they are called summary tasks. 1. Differentiate between summary and primitive tasks.

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Summary tasks are those tasks which have been broken down into more detailed work units. Primitive tasks are those tasks that will not be broken down into more granular work units. 2. What is a resource? Resources are people, material, and tools that you assign to the completion of a task. 3. Why dont milestones have durations? Milestones are events that signify major accomplishments or event during a project. They do not require work; therefore, a duration time is not needed. 4. What is resource driven scheduling? Resource driven scheduling is when a specific person, material, etc. is only available a specified amount of time to that particular task then the duration of that task may increase due to the availability of that resource.
5.

What is a management expectations matrix? An expectations management matrix is a rule-driven tool for helping management appreciate the dynamics of changing project parameters. The parameters include cost, schedule, scope and quality.

Systems Analysis and Design Methods - Instructors Guide Answers to Problems and Exercises

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1. Using a project (school or work) that you have mismanaged (It happens to all of us!), what are some causes of mismanaged projects that results in missed requirements and needs, cost overruns, and late delivery? Explain how these problems that result from mismanaged projects are related. Student answers will vary. 1. Give some examples that differentiate between scope and feature creep. Scope creep is the unexpected growth of user expectations and business requirements for an information system as the project progresses. Student examples will vary. Feature creep is the uncontrolled addition of technical features to a system under development without regard to schedule and budget. Student examples will vary. 2. Write a job advertisement for a professional project manager. Prepare a set of interview questions for the applicants. Student answers will vary. 3. Systems analysts tend to assign additional people to a project that is running behind schedule. What are some potential problems with such an action? There is no linear relationship between time and number of personnel. The addition of personnel creates more communications and political interfaces. The result? The project gets even further behind. 4. For a programming course or other IT project in a past or current course, write a complete project definition. Student answers will vary. 5. Differentiate between project and process management. Project management is the process of defining, planning, directing, monitoring, and controlling the development of an acceptable system at a minimum cost within a specified time frame. Process management is the planning, selection, deployment, and consistent application of standard system development methods, tools, techniques, and technologies to all information system projects. 6. Your financial aid office must respond annually to changing regulations. Financial aid applications must be sent out annually by February 15 in order to allow for sufficient processing time for application. Therefore, each year the information systems must be ready to process applications by March 1. What type of project scheduling strategy must be used and why? Student answers will vary due to a number of circumstances; however, the suggestion would be to use reverse scheduling since there is a definite deadline to this process. 7. For a project that will last this entire academic term (at your school), define basic project calendars for faculty and staff. Student answers will vary.

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8. Prepare a work breakdown structure for freshmen in a computer programming course. Student answers will vary. 9. Using system development, give examples of summary and primitive tasks. Student answers will vary. 10. How can expectations mismanagement lead to perceived project failure? It is normal for user and management expectations to grow as a project proceeds. This leaves the analyst in the position of doing more than was originally expected for the same cost and in the same time frame. It is the analyst's responsibility to recognize that creeping growth in project scope and make management and users aware that a change in scope also requires a change in budget and schedule. 11. Why shouldnt estimated project time requirements be stated in terms of person-days? Project time should not be expressed in person-days because there is no such thing. There is no linear relationship between personnel and time. 12. Calculate the expected duration for the following tasks: Task ID Optimistic Time Pessimistic Time A 3 6 B 1 3 C 4 7 D 2 5 E 3 9 F 3 3

Most Likely Time 4 2 6 3 6 4

ED = OT + (4 x MLT) + PT 6 A 3 + (4 x 4) + 6 = 4.16 6 B 1 + (4 x 2) + 3 = 2.00 6 C 4 + (4 x 6) + 7 = 5.83 6 D 2 + (4 x 3) + 5 = 3.16 6 13. Derive the earliest completion time and latest completion time for each of the following: Task Id Event ID Predecessors Successors Duration A 2 1 3 2 B 3 2 4 3 C 4 3 5,6 4 D 4 4 7 5 E 6 4 7 4 F 7 5 8,9 3 G 7 6 8,9 0 H 8 7 10 6 I 9 7 10 5

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The ECT for an event is equal to the largest ECT for the preceding events plus the estimated duration for the task leading to the event. The LCT for an event is equal to the smallest LCT for succeeding events minus the estimated duration for the task leading to the event. TASK EVENT PRECEDING SUCCEEDING DURATION ECT LCT NUMBER EVENT EVENT A 2 1 3 2 2 2 B 3 2 4 3 5 5 C 4 3 5,6 4 9 9 D 5 4 7 5 14 14 E 6 4 7 4 13 14 F 7 5,6 8,9 3 17 17 G 7 5,6 8,9 0 14 17 H 8 7 10 6 23 23 I 9 7 10 5 22 22 J 10 8 None 0 23 23 K 10 9 None 6 28 28 14. Draw a PERT chart described in problem 13. Be sure to include sequencing and identification for all tasks and events along with their time estimates. What is the critical path? What is the total expected duration time represented by the critical path? Students answers will vary on the Chart. The critical path is tasks A-B-C-D-F-I-K. The total expected duration is 28 time units. 15. Make a list of the tasks that you performed on you last programming assignment. Alternatively, list the tasks required to complete your next programming assignment. Develop a PERT chart to depict the tasks and events and the dependency of tasks on one another. What is the critical path? How can the PERT chart aid in planning and scheduling the programming assignment? This exercise will vary from student-to-student. The student should be able to explain that PERT aids in determining the estimated time required to complete the project, deriving actual project dates, and in allocating resources. As a control tool, the PERT chart helps the student identify current and possible future problems through identifying and monitoring those tasks appearing on the critical path. 16. Derive a Gantt chart to graphically depict the project schedule and overlapping of tasks for the programming assignment chosen in problem 16. How can the Gantt chart be used to evaluate the progress that is being or has been made? This exercise will vary from student-to-student. By drawing a vertical line in a Gantt chart to represent the current date, and by shading task bars to reflect progress, the student would be able to use the Gantt chart to evaluate their project's progress as follows: Any unshaded bar to the left of the current date (vertical line) is behind schedule. Completely shaded bars to the left of the current date represent tasks that have been completed on schedule.

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Completely shaded bars to the right of the current data represent tasks that have been completed ahead of schedule. If the shaded portion extends to or past the current date, that task is on or ahead of schedule. Otherwise the task is behind schedule. 17. Draw a PERT chart for the curriculum in which you are enrolled. Be sure to consider the prerequisites for all courses. This exercise will vary from school-to-school and student-to-student. 18. Draw a Gantt chart for your plan of study to get your degree. Annotate the graph to indicate your progress toward your degree or job objectives. This exercise will also vary from student-to-student. 19. At the beginning of a project, management decided that highest priority should be placed on meeting an absolute deadline for a project. Second highest priority is to be placed on living within the allocated project budget. Draw the expectations management matrix for this project. See the table below. Priorities Max or min Cost Schedule X Scope and/or quality Constrain X X Accept

20. During the project initiated in problem 20, things started going wrong. Creeping requirements set in. Both the deadline and budget are in jeopardy. Using the expectations management matrix, identify alternatives for adjusting the project. Who should make the decision? Management must make the decision, but there are several options (not an exhaustive list): 1) Increase budget and still try to make the schedule. 2) Increase budget, reduce scope (quality), and still try to make the schedule (shown below). 3) Reduce scope (quality) and try to make the schedule and budget. Priorities Max or Constrain Accept min Cost X+ Schedule X Scope and/or X quality

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Systems Analysis and Design Methods - Instructors Guide Answers to Projects

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1. Research project management software in your local library. Present a report to management that identifies important selection criteria for selecting aproject management software package. A good project management package should do both PERT and Gantt charts. It should also be flexible enough to allow the user to adjust dependencies, change resource allocations, modify schedules and provide some type of person, task, and project time accounting. An interface to a popular CASE tool would also be a nice feature. 1. Complete the tutorial for Microsoft Project (or its equivalent). Evaluate the package and analyze its strengths and weaknesses. Student answers will vary. 2. Make an appointment to visit an information systems project manager (or systems analyst with project management experience). What techniques does he or she use to plan and control projects? Why? Is project management software used? If so, what does the project manager like and dislike about that software? No specific answer is possible, but notice whether they use both PERT and Gantt. Also, find out whether (and how) they manage growing user expectations. 3. If your systems course requires you to complete a real or simulated development project, prepare a management expectations matrix with your client (or your instructor acting as your client). Over the course of the semester, review the matrix with your client (or instructor) and make appropriate adjustments. At the end of the project, be prepared to defend your management of expectations as well as your progress. (Note: your instructor may assign a subjective grade to your management of expectations. That may not seem fair; however, it is realistic. Project success is as much perceived as it is real). Again, no specific answer is possible. But as is suggested in the next section, student should have some experience dealing with two differnt situations of managing user expectations: 1) no change in the priorities of the project, but the budget, schedule or quality is in jepordy, so some things must be increased and/or some must be decreased and, 2) the actual priorties have changes and must be migrated

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1. Fun & Games, Inc. is a successful developer and manufacturer of board, electronic, and computer games. The company is headquartered in Cleveland, Ohio. Jan Lampert, Applications Development Manager, has requested a meeting with Steven Beltman, Systems Analyst and Project Manager for a new distribution project recently placed into production. Steven, I want to discuss the distribution project your team completed last month. Now that the system has been operational for a few weeks, we need to evaluate the performance of you and your team. Frankly, Steven, I'm a little disappointed. Me too! I don't know what happened! We used the standard methodology and tools, but we still had problems. You still have some Steven. The production system isn't exactly getting rave reviews from either users or managers. Steven replies, I know. Jan continues, Well, I've talked to several of the analysts, programmers, and endusers on the project, and I've drawn a few conclusions. Obviously, the end-users are less than satisfied with the system. You took some shortcuts in the methodology, didn't you? We had to, Jan! We got behind schedule. We didn't have time to follow the methodology to the letter. Jan explains, But now we have to do major parts of the system over. If you didn't have time to do it right, where will you find time to do it over? You see, Steven, systems development is more than tools, techniques, and methodologies. It's also a management process. In addition to your missing the boat on end-user requirements, I note two other problems. And both of them are management problems. The system was over budget and late. The projected budget of $35,000 was exceeded by 42 percent. The project was delivered 13 weeks behind schedule. Most of the delays and cost overruns occurred during programming. The programmers tell me that the delays were caused by rework of analysis and design specifications. Is this true? Steven answers, Yes, for the most part. Jan continues, Once again, those delays were probably caused by the shortcuts taken earlier. The shortcuts you took during analysis and design were intended to get you back on schedule. Instead, they got you further behind schedule when you got into the programming phase. Not all the problems were due to shortcuts, says Steven. The users' expectations of the system changed over the course of the project. What do you mean? asks Jan. Steven answers, The initial list of general requirements was one page long. Many of those requirements were expanded and supplemented by the users during the analysis and design phases. Jan interrupts, The old creeping requirements syndrome.How did you manage that problem? Steven replies, Manage it? Aren't we supposed to simply give in? If they want it, you give it to them. Yes, answers Jan, but were the implications of the creeping requirements discussed with project's management sponsor? Steven answers, Not really! I don't recall any schedule or budget adjustments. We

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should explain that to them now. An excuse? inquires Jan. Steven replies, I guess that's not such a good idea. But the project grew. How would you have dealt with the schedule slippage during analysis? Jan answers, If I were you, I would have reevaluated the scope of the project when I first saw it changing. In this case, either project scope should have been reduced or project resources -- schedule and budget -- should have been increased. [pause] Don't be so glum! We all make mistakes. I had this very conversation with my boss seven years ago. You're going to be a good project manager. That's why I've decided to send you to this project management course and workshop. a) What did Steven do wrong? How would you have done it differently? b) Should Jan share any fault for the problems encountered in this project? c) Why would it be a mistake to use creeping requirements as an excuse for the project mismanagement? Steve made at least two major mistakes. Because of schedule pressures (which are very common) he took shortcuts through the methodology assuming that he was saving time when in reality he was adding additional required time for rework later in the project. Also, he failed to manage the creeping requirements (increasing scope) of the users and management. Steve bears the full responsibility of this failure. While Jan might have seen it coming (since the same thing had happened to her earlier), it wasn't her responsibility. We suspect that Steve may have learned a very improtant (if painful) lesson about methodology shortcuts and user expectations. Managing user expectations is part of the analysts job. While it is true that expanding user requirements cause many projects to be completed behind schedule and over budget, those changing expectations must be addressed as they occur. Otherwise it only sounds like trying to find someone else to blame. A formal review of the project scope should be performed at the end of almost every phase of the SDLC. The review should explicitly state both what the system will include and what the system won't include. If new requirements are to be added to the project scope, the analyst must make management understand that either the budget or schedule (or both) must be adjusted.