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A Cognitive perspective
Cognition: How we gain knowledge These includes:
Understanding Remembering Reasoning Attending Being Aware Acquiring Skills Creating New Ideas
Human Processor Model provides a means of characterizing the various cognitive processes that are assumed to underlie the performance of a task.
Humans Memory
There are three types of memory function: Sensory Memory Short-term / Working Memory Long-term Memory Selection of stimuli governed by level of arousal
Sensory Memory
Buffers for stimuli received through senses
Iconic memory: visual stimuli Echoic memory: aural stimuli Haptic memory: tactile stimuli
Continuously overwritten
Example
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Two types
Episodic serial memory of events Semantic Structured memory of facts, concepts, skills
Vision
Two stages in vision
Physical reception of stimulus Processing and interpretation of stimulus
Visual Perception
Perception is an active process Two perception theories:
Constructivist approach: has been used to inform the design of information displays to make information stand out and be readily perceivable. Ecological approach: has been used to inform the design of interface objects in terms of how they afford the actions that are intended to be performed on them.
Optical Illusions
Graphical Coding
Color Coding (not color pollution) Effectiveness of color coding in cognitive tasks: searching and Identifying targets (Davidoff, 1987):
Segmentation (region division). Amount of color (more color, more search time). Task demand (best for search task, not categorization and memorization of objects). Experience of user (color is more useful for inexperienced than for experienced users.
Hearing
Provides information about environment: distances, directions, objects, etc. Physical apparatus: Outer ear protects inner and amplifies sound Middle ear transmits sound waves as vibrations to inner ear Inner ear chemical transmitters are released and cause impulses in auditory nerve Sound Pitch sound frequency Loudness amplitude Timbre type of quality
Hearing (cont.)
Humans can hear frequencies from 20 Hz to 15 kHz
Less accurate distinguishing high frequencies than low
Focusing Attention
Our ability to attend to one event from what amounts to a mass of competing stimuli in the environment has been termed as focused attention. For example: Cocktail Party phenomenon (Cherry, 1953).
Divided Attention
When we attempt to attend to more than one thing at a time. For example:
being able to drive while holding a conversation with a passenger. Being distracted from working when we can hear music or voices in the next room.
Automatic Processing
Automatic Cognitive Processes are identified as:
Fast. Demanding Minimal Attention and hence not interfering with other activities. Unavailable to consciousness.
Example:
Reading, Writing, Speaking in Native Language, Riding a bike.
Emotion
Various theories of how emotion works
James-Lange: emotion is our interpretation of a physiological response to a stimuli Cannon: emotion is a psychological response to a stimuli Schacter-Singer: emotion is the result of our evaluation of our physiological responses, in the light of the whole situation we are in
Emotion (cont.)
The biological response to physical stimuli is called affect Affect influences how we respond to situations
Positive: Creative problem solving Negative: Narrow thinking
Negative affect can make it harder to do even easy tasks; positive affect can make it easier to do difficult tasks (Donald Norman)
Emotion (cont.)
Implications for interface design
Stress will increase the difficulty of problem solving Relaxed users will be more forgiving of shortcomings in design Aesthetically pleasing and rewarding interfaces will increase positive affect
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