Biology 20IB

The Unity and Diversity of Life Chapters 44 (44.1, 44.2) 45

Unit III Reproduction & Development

The Reproductive System - unlike asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction involving the fusion of gametes creates new gene combinations leading to genetic diversity - genetic diversity provides the basis for the evolution of species and natural selection varied offspring, some better suited to survive - an incredible amount of diversity exists between species many females produce thousands to millions of eggs each mating season, yet human females have only 400 000 egg cells, of which, only 400 or so ever mature to become fertilizable eggs. primary reproductive organs gonads (testes in male, ovaries in female) responsible for production of reproductive cells sperm or ova secretion of sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone) puberty is defined as the point where reproduction is possible (in females, menstruation generally does not include ovulation for the first year) pubertys onset controlled by 1. Hypothalamus + - GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) 2. Anterior Pituitary - FSH - LH + - stimulates sperm prd. - stimulates testosterone prd. - stimulates follicle in ovary - stimulates follicle release in ovary - stimulates formation of corpus luteum presence of testosterone, Sertoli cell inhibin negatively feeds back to hypothalamus in males in females, at the beginning of a menstrual cycle, estrogen stimulates LH secretion, whereas, after ovulation, estrogen and progesterone inhibit the pituitary and hypothalamus secondary sex characteristics - development of hair (males & females) (thanks to estrogen & - maturation of internal and external genitalia (males & females) testosterone) - increase in shoulder width and muscle mass (fem: wider hips) - voice larynx enlarges, vocal cords thicken and lengthen (males) - skin sebaceous gland secretion thickens and increases (acne?) - mental increased aggression, sex drive (males) - distribution of fat in breasts and buttocks (females)

The Male Reproductive System (see diagram Male Reproductive System) - erection is produced by the trapping of blood in the corpus cavernosa in response to stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system dilating the arterial supply, constricting the venous blood flow out - prepuce (foreskin) serves a protective function (sometimes removed in circumcision) - glans expanded tip of the penis - corpus cavernosa erectile tissue, fills with blood producing an erection - corpus spongiosa soft erectile tissue urethra carries sperm and urine (never at the same time a sphincter controls urine excretion) prostate gland produces most of seminal fluid buffer to protect sperm, motility aid & helps in ejaculation with contractions - vas deferens tube that carries sperm from testes to the urethra
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penis

corpus spongiosa corpus cavernosa Biology 30 Unit III

(bladder stores urine) (ureter transports urine from kidney to bladder) seminal vesicle sacs under the bladder that secrete fructose (food for sperm) and prostaglandins (stimulates uterine contractions which help sperm move up the uterus to the fallopian tubes), make up 60% of total semen volume ejaculatory duct connects vas deferens to the urethra bulbourethral gland (Cowpers gland) secrete mucous for lubrication before ejaculation may contain enough sperm for impregnation epididymis coiled tube attached to the outer edge of the testis, where sperm complete development testis production of sperm & testosterone, each contains 250m of twisting seminiferous tubules site of testis sperm production scrotum sac that contains testis, made of elastic skin allowing for temperature regulation by raising or lowering relative to the body (sperm develop best at 2C lower than regular body temperature)

FYI a vasectomy involves the snipping or tying of the vas deferens preventing sperm from entering the ejaculate if testicles dont descend, then viable sperm will not develop (fairly rare in humans, more common in dogs) only a thin membrane separates the testes from the small intestine if a rupture occurs, small intestine may slip through, impairing blood supply for either testis or small intestine testicular cancer is found primarily in young males easily treated with the removal of one of the testicles prostate problems generally found in older males enlargement leads to urinary problems (cancer of the prostate is treated primarily with excision) Spermatogenesis (see diagram sperm development Nelson p. 409) - spermatogenesis (the production of sperm) begins at puberty and continues til death 1 - spermatogonium (46 chr.) 2 - 1 spermatocytes (46 chr.) 4 - 2 spermatocytes (23 chr.) 4 spermatids (23 chr.) 4 mature sperm (23 chr.) epididymis

seminiferous tubules

occurs in the seminiferous tubules as maturation continues, sperm cells move to lumen, then to epididymis for final maturation Sertoli (Nurse) cells in the seminiferous tubules nourish the sperm as they mature Sperm production is stimulated by FSH and testosterone interstitial cells of Leydig in the testes produce testosterone (stimulated by LH)

Sperm structure (see diagram human sperm cell - Nelson p.408) - over 300 000 000 produced every day! - designed for travel - acrosome head contains enzymes to penetrate the egg - nucleus containing DNA - tail containing centriole for structure of flagellum, mitochondria to provide the energy for whip motion - semen includes sperm & secretions from supportive fluids for nourishment & protection against acidic vagina Female Reproductive System (see diagram Female Reproductive Anatomy Nelson p.413 & frontal view, too) - in the female, the urinary and reproductive duct systems are completely separate - clitoris, labia major & minor, mons pubis external genitalia (vulva) - clitoris homologous to male penis - uterus (womb) pear shaped, where fertilized ovum embeds in endometrium, lining is shed during menstruation - ovary store and produce ova, generally one ovum is produced monthly (alternating ovaries) each egg is ~1mm large (largest cell produced by the human body) - oviduct (fallopian tube) tube carrying mature ova to the uterus, usually the site of fertilization. Ova are swept in by fimbria at open ends. Usually the site of fertilization
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cervix (cervical canal) a muscular band that prevents the fetus from delivering prematurely will dilate during birth vagina connects the uterus with the outside world site of deposition of sperm, birth canal, protects the rest of the female reproductive system from bacterial invasion (highly acidic)

FYI a female baby houses all of the reproductive potential of an adult about 2 000 000 eggs. About 300 000 of these survive to puberty, about 450 of them will develop (the rest provide support for the 450) a tubal ligation (tying or cutting of the fallopian tubes) is one method of permanent birth control an egg can live for 2-3 days, a sperm up to 3 days. An eggs voyage to the uterus takes 3-5 days cervical cancer is tested with a PAP smear, sampling cells, looking for signs of irregular cells Oogenesis and ovulation (see diagram Process of Ovulation Nelson p. 414) - the development of the ova shares many similarities with sperm production initial development occurs in the ovary (seminiferous tubule) final development occurs in the fallopian tube (epididymis) - there are also startling differences women are born with all of the ova-producing cells they will ever have every spermatogonia will produce 4 sperm, whereas 1 oogonia produces one ova (the rest of the potential ova become polar bodies, sacrificing themselves to provide more cytoplasm for the one ovum produced) before birth! 1 - oogonium (46 chr.) 1 - 1 oocyte (46 chr.) monthly 1 - 2 oocyte (23 chr.) 1 polar body 1 - mature ovum (23 chr.) 3 polar bodies

ovary

oviduct

in the development of a mature ova, one (usually) primary oocyte and the surrounding granulosa cells will develop monthly in response to FSH - one of the 2 cells produced dies (polar body), fluid-filled cavity forms around oocyte - mature follicle ruptures (ovulation) - oocyte completes maturation in oviduct (producing 3 polar bodies and one ovum total) - after ovulation, the follicular cells in the ovary collapse forming the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone, necessary for pregnancy. - If implantation doesnt occur, the corpus luteum breaks down forming a scar termed the corpus albicans The Menstrual Cycle (see diagram The Menstrual Cycle B-84) Menstruation periodic discharge of blood and fluid from the uterus, caused by low levels of estrogen and progesterone at the end of the monthly cycle (hormone withdrawal) Menstrual cycle repetitive sequence of shedding the uterine lining (endometrium), development and release of the egg (ovulation), and replacement of the endometrium. This cycle continues from puberty to menopause Can be divided into four phases 1. Flow (menstrual) phase (day 1-5) - Lasts an average of five days - Marked by the shedding of the endometrial lining - Triggered by a decrease in ovarian hormones (particularly progesterone) stimulates FSH and LH from pituitary

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- Corpus luteum degenerates forming corpus albicans - Low hormone levels thought to be responsible for headaches, cramps, nausea, mood changes 2. Follicular phase (day 6-13) - Lasts until ovulation - Governed by estrogen released by the developing follicle (which is stimulated by FSH) - Endometrial lining thickens (estrogen) - FSH increases then is lowered (negative feedback from estrogen) - LH production increases (stimulated by estrogen) - Follicle matures 3. Ovulation (day 14) - Estrogen & LH levels peak - Follicle erupts, ovum is released into fallopian tube - Females temperature peaks (may be used as a contraceptive method or to help in impregnation) 4. Luteal phase (day 15-28) - corpus luteum develops - Lasts until menstruation - Governed by progesterone released by the corpus luteum (which is stimulated by LH) - Further ovulation & uterine contractions are inhibited (progesterone) - Endometrial lining continues to thicken, preparing for pregnancy (progesterone & estrogen from cl) - Progesterone and estrogen inhibit LH release (-ve feedback) corpus luteum starts to degenerate breakdown of endometrium FYI Endometriosis, a sometimes debilitating disease is caused by endometrial lining that should be forming only in the uterus to form inside the stomach cavity (and is still shed monthly) Birth control pills work by preventing ovulation (progesterone prevents ovulation) Both males and females have both androgens and estrogens the relative quantities determine the degree of secondary sex characteristics displayed Ectopic pregnancies result from implantation in the fallopian tube instead of the uterus. The pregnancy will rupture the fallopian tube if allowed to continue. Sexually Transmitted Diseases and other Reproductive Complications One of the causes of infertility is sexually transmitted diseases Gonorrhea caused by a bacterial infection. Scars can form in the reproductive tracts of males and females causing infertility. May be easily treated with antibiotics. Symptoms for the male include frequent urination and burning at the tip of the penis. Females may experience these symptoms or none at all. To prevent blindness in newborns (infected as they travel the birth canal) all babies are treated with silver nitrate or penicillin eye drops. Syphilis also caused by bacteria, may be fatal if untreated. Early symptoms include swollen lymph glands, rashes and sores in the genital area, followed by hair loss, fever, headaches, and later (up to 30 yrs.) spreads to the nervous system leading to insanity. Chlamydia most common of the STDs, may cause itching and burning in both males and females (females may experience no symptoms). If not treated, the disease may move up the fallopian tubes causing PID and infect newborns reinfection is likely unless both partners are treated. Male infertility, defined as the inability to impregnate a female may be due to a number of reasons. Low sperm count may be caused by insufficient hormone (ISCH or testosterone) or a blockage in the reproductive tract (as in a vasectomy) Poor sperm motility An absence or malformation of part of the reproductive system Hormone imbalance *** infertility is NOT the same as impotence the inability to obtain or maintain an erection Female infertility, as in male infertility may be caused by a number of reasons Failure to ovulate may be stress, diet, weight related, or hormone imbalance Blockage of the reproductive tract due to infection, scarring, cervical mucous at the cervix
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Biology 30 Unit III

Repeated miscarriages weak cervix, hormone imbalance Absence or malformation of part of the reproductive system Hormone imbalance Menopause (see diagrams hormonal changes throughout life) In females, menopause is defined as the cessation of menstruation, but is really the result of continued diminishing estrogen from the ovaries (pituitary stimulating factors LH & FSH increase dramatically due to the lack of negative feedback from the ovaries) The side effects of lack of estrogen are widespread and include emotional changes, temperature fluctuations, atrophy of breasts and genital organs, thinning of skin and bones, and increased susceptibility to some forms of cancer These side-effects may be alleviated with continued hormone treatments (an altered form of the birth control pill) Males also experience a decrease in testosterone, however not as marked as that in the female Contraceptive Technologies (assignment on mechanisms) Contraception is based on one of three mechanisms: Barrier methods prevent the sperm from reaching the egg (includes condoms, diaphragms), sterilization Hormonal methods in one form or another, prevent sperm and egg from producing a viable embryo based on changing hormones responsible the pill, the morning after pill, the male pill, which either prevent ovulation, ejaculation of mature sperm or change the conditions of the cervix and uterus which inhibit implantation Implantation inhibitors most notably the IUD, prevent the implantation of the embryo (even once fertilized) Spermicides used to decrease the viability of sperm Timing using temperatures or the calendar or withdrawal (or a combination), sperm are not deposited into the vagina during fertile periods

Fertilization and Pregnancy 1. Fertilization, implantation & placentation (first week) - The first sperm reach the fallopian tubes within 30 minutes of ejaculation thanks to a combination of their motility, ejaculatory force & uterine and oviduct contractions - 150-300 million sperm are ejaculated, ~400 reach the fallopian tubes, but only one will fertilize the egg - when the first sperm manages to dig through the outside of the egg, the cell membrane changes so no other sperm are able to enter - the fused egg and sperm is now a fertilized egg and is called a zygote (with 46 chromosomes) - if two eggs are fertilized by two different sperm fraternal twins - if one egg is fertilized by one sperm, but during development splits into two identical twins - if there is incomplete separation, siamese twins develop - gender is determined by the sex chromosome carried by the sperm - by this point, the zygote has reached the blastula stage, where the cells have divided a number of times and differentiated to form four distinct layers and will implant in the endometrium by the 6th or so day (20th day of the menstrual cycle) - the outer layer, which implants into the endometrium (the chorion), the inner membrane (the allantois), the fluid filled cavity (the amnion), and the yolk sac, which attaches to the alimentary canal of the developing embryo - the chorion secretes human chorionic gonadotropic hormone (HCG) which maintains the corpus luteums production of estrogen and progesterone (otherwise it would degrade and menstruation would occur) (pituitary also secretes HCG) - the allantois provides blood vessels in the placenta - the amnion forms the amniotic sac which will protect the developing embryo/fetus from impact, temperature changes, infection and dehydration - during the gastrula stage, the embryo (the innermost layer) itself differentiates into 3 layers (called the germ layers) the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, each developing into different organ systems (table 17.3 p.422)
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Biology 30 Unit III

- ectoderm outer stuff, nervous system, teeth, mouth - mesoderm muscles, bood vessels & blood, kidneys & reproductive organs - endoderm digestive and respiratory systems, bladder, thyroid glad - the mucous of the cervix will thicken and block the cervix with a plug (preventing the fetus from being expelled) 2. Embryonic stage (up to the end of the second month) - Placenta develops - umbilical arteries and veins develop, establishing nutrition for the fetus this system must function as kidney, digestive system and lungs - *** there is NO intermingling of the blood between mother and fetus until birth just wastes and nutrients pass between the two circulatory systems - fetal heart begins to beat and pump blood (day 18) - HCG levels peak - All internal organs and appendages are developed by the end of this period fetus 3. Remainder of first trimester - Placenta becomes fully developed, secreting progesterone & estrogen (to maintain the endometrium) - Bones begin to ossify (turn from cartilage to bone) - Brain activity can be detected - Muscle development begins (kicking) - Fetal breathing begins - Fetus ingests amniotic fluid to help develop the digestive system 4. Second trimester (months 4-6) - Increased movement - Development of hair, eyelashes, eyebrows - Spinal cord becomes myelinated - Potential for survival at the end of this trimester 5. Third trimester (months 7-9) - Rapid growth - Lung development - Skin thickens, fat deposits build up - Testes descend 6. Labour & Birth (approx. day 266, 40 weeks) (see graph on hormones p.424 Nelson Biology) - Signaled by uterine contractions, thinning and dilation of the cervix, expulsion of cervical plug - Amniotic sac is pushed into the birth canal (vagina) and often ruptures (water breaking), followed by the baby - The baby and placenta (afterbirth) are delivered, and the uterus returns to its original size within about an hour - A number of hormones are involved in parturition - Estrogen & Progesterone decrease dramatically (considered essential for labour since progesterone inhibits uterine contractions) - Relaxin (placenta & corpus luteum) causes pelvic ligaments to loosen (stimulated by progesterone) - Oxytocin (pituitary) stimulates strong uterine contractions (artificial form = pitocin) - Prostaglandins (uterus) stimulates contractions - The hormones and the autonomic nervous systems act together in complex feedback loops to cause labour and birth 7. Lactation - hormonaldevelopment during puberty is stimulated by estrogen and progesterone breast feedback - nervous feedback increased levels of estrogen and progesteroneoxytocin the breasts for milk production during pregnancy, prepare + - prolactin (from the pituitary), believed to be inhibited by estrogen and progesterone, stimulates the glands in the breasts to begin milk production + + - as estrogen and progesterone fall during birth, prolactin rises dramatically - infant sucking sends nervous system signals to the brain leading to oxytocin release which forces milk into uterine contractions cervical + the ducts and helps the uterus return to its stretching & pre-pregnancy shape. progesterone pressure - During the first day or two after childbirth, colostrum (not milk) is produced the clear yellowish-white fluid + provides important first immunity to the newborn - If a woman chooses to breast-feed, she must ensure to replace the lost calcium (which is taken from the + bones) fats and sugars + Relaxin (helping to dilate cervix) prostaglandins
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FYI Pregnancy tests work based on indicating the presence of HCG in urine If ovaries are removed in the last 6 months of pregnancy, there is no effect (the placenta secretes the hormones necessary to maintain the pregnancy), but if the ovaries are removed during the first two months, a spontaneous abortion occurs (the ovaries produces the estrogen and progesterone required, stimulated by HCG from the chorion) When a woman breastfeeds, she loses calcium to the milk the calcium is removed from the bones, and in an effort to maintain calcium levels, the parathyroid, the organ responsible for calcium regulation will enlarge attempting to recover additional calcium Breastfeeding, along with providing a nutritious balanced diet for a newborn, transfers antibodies to the newborn, helping to protect them from infections (but other diffusable compounds - drugs and alcohol will also pass into the milk) Most primates and nonprimates are fertile for at most several months of the year, whereas humans (in theory) are fertile all year why? For ferile animals, having a concentrated time period for coitus and birth allows the species to concentrate on certain activities during certain times of the year. During spring/summer, there is a greater chance for survival of infants (less harsh climate). Since behaviour may change radically during mating season, these behaviours might not be suitable for the entire year. In nonprimate mammals, although they have a cyclical development of the endometrium, if fertilization doesnt occur, the endometrium regresses rather than being destroyed and eliminated. In rabbits, intercourse causes mature eggs to be released from the ovaries Identical twins are formed by the embryo splitting into two separate entities during VERY early development Fraternal twins are formed by two separate eggs being fertilized by two separate sperm Issues Surrounding Pregnancy & Birth Since the mother and developing infant share blood-borne chemicals that are able to pass through the umbilical cord, whatever a mother consumes may also affect her child. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) believed to be the third most common cause of mental retardation in babies in North America includes nervous system and heart disorders. Caused by large consumption of alcohol during pregnancy Crack babies born addicted to cocaine, these babies go through immediate withdrawal and experience a number of debilities related to the drug or the general poor health of mothers addicted to cocaine. HIV since HIV is passed by blood-blood contact, babies are only at risk during delivery. To avoid direct contact between the mothers and childs blood, a cesarean section may be performed. Smoking children of smokers tend to be smaller and weigh less than children of non-smokers Since much of the initial development occurs during the first trimester this period is extremely crucial and highly sensitive to outside influences (drugs, alcohol, toxins) Reproductive Technologies (see statistics from Toronto Centre for Advanced Reproductive Technologies) Current available technologies include: Artificial insemination sperm from either the husband or another male is placed in the uterus, aiding in conception may be used in cases of male infertility, or poor sperm motility In vitro fertilization eggs are harvested from the female (using fertility drugs, many eggs are induced to mature at once), and fertilized with donor sperm in a petri dish containing nutritive media. Once the zygotes have matured to the embryo stage, one will be implanted in the uterus of the female. Donor sperm and/or eggs may be used in this procedure. Additional embryos fertilized may be frozen for future use if the first implantation doesnt go to term. Surrogate motherhood for women with a defective cervix or uterus, in vitro fertilization may be performed, with the fertilized egg placed in a surrogate mother In agriculture: (see p.461) Artificial involution: using high-grade cow ova and high-grade bull sperm, in vitro fertilization is performed, and the fertilized egg is placed in a low-grade surrogate cow, producing a high-grade calf Prenatal Examinations Prenatal examinations are performed to ensure that the fetus is growing normally and has no debilitating defects. Blood & urine tests by sampling the mothers blood and urine, some potential problems can be detected

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Ultrasound is used to determine the age of the fetus and to check for gross abnormalities (may be able to determine the gender) Genetic testing using amniocentesis (withdrawing a sample of amniotic fluid which contains some cells from the fetus at 16+ weeks) or chorionic villus sampling (CVS) (sampling the outer membrane between the two outer membranes at 8+ weeks), the chromosomes of the fetus are analyzed for abnormalities as the human genome project and other genetic research progresses, more and more genetic problems will be identifiable

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