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6.

5Nerves, hormones and homeostasis


6 hours

Nerves and Nervous System


6.5.1

State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that can carry rapid electrical impulses. Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron.

No other structural or functional divisions of the nervous system are required.

6.5.2

Include dendrites, cell body with nucleus, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier and motor end plates.

Draw a labelled diagram showing the structure of a motor neurone.


Award [1] for each of the following clearly drawn and correctly labelled. cell body - complete with nucleus and dendrites; axon - shown longer than the longest dendrite, with the membrane drawn as a continuous line; myelin sheath - surrounding the axon, showing nodes of Ranvier; motor end plates - not covered by myelin sheath and ending in a button / dot;
6.5.3

State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons. Define resting potential and action potential (depolarization and repolarization). Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a nonmyelinated neuron. Explain the principles of synaptic transmission.

6.5.4

6.5.5

Include the movement of Na+ and K+ ions to create a resting potential and an action potential. Include the release, diffusion and binding of the neurotransmitter, initiation of an action potential in the post-synaptic membrane, and subsequent removal of the neurotransmitter. Aim 7: Data logging can be used to measure changes in conductivity in distilled water as Na+ and K+ diffuse out of saltagar cubes or dialysing tubing.

6.5.6

Describe the principles of synaptic transmission in the nervous system. (6)


nerve impulse reaches pre-synaptic knob / membrane; calcium ions / Ca2+ enter pre-synaptic neurone / knob; vesicles with neurotransmitter / acetylcholine release contents; neurotransmitter diffuses across synapse / synaptic cleft; binds to receptors on post-synaptic neurone / membrane; sodium ions / Na+ enter post-synaptic neurone / sodium channels open; depolarization / action potential / nerve impulse (in post synaptic neurone); calcium ions / Ca 2+ pumped back into synaptic cleft / synapse; neurotransmitter broken down; Explain nerve impulse travels to end of presynaptic neuron; triggers influx of Ca2+; causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with membrane; release neurotransmitter molecules into synaptic cleft; (neurotransmitter) crosses / diffuses across channel; (neurotransmitter) binds to receptors on next / postsynaptic neuron; causes ion channels to open on neuron; eg Na+ diffuse into postsynaptic neuron; can inhibit / excite; by hyperpolarizing / depolarizing; neurotransmitter degraded; Ca2+ pumped back into the synaptic cleft; acetylcholine / GABA / dopamine / serotonin / other examples of neurotransmitter;

Homeostasis & Endocrine System


6.5.7

State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood. State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance.

The nature and action of hormones or direct comparisons between nerve and endocrine systems are not required.

6.5.8

The internal environment consists of blood and tissue fluid.

Define the term homeostasis and list four variables under homeostatic control in humans (excluding water balance). Responses must define homeostasis to receive full marks, if not award [4 max]. homeostasis: maintains the internal environment at a constant level / between narrow limits; blood pH; carbon dioxide; blood glucose; body temperature;
6.5.9

Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms.

Explain homeostasis giving two specific examples that show the role of the endocrine or the nervous system. (8)
homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant level of the internal environment; within narrow limits; involves negative feedback; name of variable controlled;; method of detection / monitoring;; response to high / low levels of variable; how variable is brought back to set point;; Example 1 [3 max]: blood glucose level; pancreas cells / islets / beta and alpha cells to monitor level; insulin secreted with high blood glucose / glucagon with low blood glucose levels; named method of raising / lowering level of blood glucose; Example 2 [3 max]: body temperature; hypothalamus monitors temperature; nerve impulses to skin / muscle / liver; named method of raising / lowering level of body temperature;
6.5.10

Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands, skin arterioles and shivering.

Aim 7: Data logging using a surface temperature sensor to investigate the warming by nasal passages could be carried out here.

Describe the control of body temperature in humans. (5)


temperature regulated by negative feedback; thermoreceptors detect temperature change; thermoregulatory centre (hypothalamus) in brain; warming the body actions: [3 max]

shivering to produce waste heat; no release of sweat; behaviours including increased motion / huddling / reduction of exposed surfaces; vasoconstriction of skin arterioles; leading to retention of heat; Describe the response of the human body to low external temperatures thermoreceptors / sensory input hypothalamus acts as a thermostat; metabolic rate increases; shivering / goose bumps / hairs raising / sweat glands inactive; vasoconstriction of skin arterioles; blood flow from extremities is reduced / blood flow to internal organs is increased; increased activity; heat is transferred in blood; cooling the body actions: [3 max] vasodilation of skin arterioles; leading to loss of heat by radiation; sweating accompanied by evaporative cooling; reduction of activity / relaxation of muscles; loss of heat by radiation;
6.5.11

Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and and cells in the pancreatic islets.

The effects of adrenaline are not required here.

Explain the control of blood glucose levels in a human. (9)


homeostasis maintains the internal blood glucose levels between narrow limits (70110 mg glucose 100 cm3); blood glucose level / homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback; glucose levels monitored in Islet of Langerhans in pancreas; after meal blood glucose level increases / goes up; high blood glucose stimulates release of insulin; insulin produced in -cells; insulin is secreted; causes muscles / liver / adipose tissue to store glucose; glucose stored in the form of glycogen / lipid; storage lowers blood glucose levels; return blood glucose levels to normal; blood glucose goes down between meals; if blood glucose levels drops glucagon secreted; glucagon produced in -cells; causes breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver; glycogen breakdown causes blood glucose level increase; blood glucose levels return to normal;
6.5.12

Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes.

Aim 8: Diabetes is having an increasing effect on human societies around the world, including personal suffering due to ill health from the diabetes directly but also from side-effects such as kidney failure. There are economic consequences relating to the health-care costs of treating diabetics. TOK: The causes of the variation in rates of type II diabetes in different human populations could be analysed. Rates can be particularly high when individuals consume a diet very different to the traditional one of their ancestors, for example, when having migrated to a new country. There are genetic differences in our capacity to cope with high levels of refined sugar and fat in the diet. Humans also vary considerably in how prone they are to become obese

11.2Muscles and movement


4 hours

Joints
11.2.1

State the roles of bones, ligaments, muscles, tendons and nerves in human movement. Label a diagram of the human elbow joint, including cartilage, synovial fluid, joint capsule, named bones and antagonistic muscles (biceps and triceps).

11.2.2

Draw a labelled diagram of the human elbow joint (4) humerus; radius; ulna; cartilage (on ends of bones); ligaments (connecting humerus with radius / ulna); capsule (sealing joint); synovial fluid; biceps (attached to radius); triceps (attached to ulna); tendons (connecting muscle to bone correctly);
11.2.3

Outline the functions of the structures in the human elbow joint named in 11.2.2. Compare the movements of the hip joint and the knee joint.

11.2.4

Aim 7: Video analysis of motion is possible here.

Muscle Action
11.2.5

Describe the structure of striated muscle fibres, including the myofibrils with light and dark bands, mitochondria, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, nuclei and the sarcolemma. Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of a sarcomere, including Z lines, actin filaments, myosin filaments with heads, and the resultant light and dark bands. Explain how skeletal muscle contracts, including the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the formation of cross-bridges, the sliding of actin and myosin filaments, and the use of ATP to break cross-bridges and re-set myosin heads.

11.2.6

No other terms for parts of the sarcomere are expected.

11.2.7

Details of the roles of troponin and tropomyosin are not expected. Aim 7: Data logging could be carried out using a grip sensor to study muscle fatigue and muscle strength.

Explain how skeletal muscle contracts (8)


muscles / fibres / myofibrils contain (repeating) units called sarcomeres; muscle / sarcomeres contain actin filaments and myosin filaments; actin fibres are thin and myosin fibres are thick; arriving action potential causes release of Ca2+; from sarcoplasmic / endoplasmic reticulum; Ca2+ binds to troponin; causing troponin and tropomyosin to move (on actin); exposing binding sites on actin / for myosin; ATP binds to myosin heads releasing them / breaking cross bridges; ATP hydrolysed / split into ADP + Pi; ATP / energy causes myosin heads to change shape / swivel / become cocked; myosin heads bind / form cross-bridges to (exposed) actin binding sites; myosin heads swivel / move actin (releasing ADP + Pi); myosin filaments move actin filaments towards centre of sarcomere; sliding of filaments / actin and myosin shortens the sarcomere;
11.2.8

Analyse electron micrographs to find the state of contraction of muscle fibres.

Muscle fibres can be fully relaxed, slightly contracted, moderately contracted and fully contracted.

Describe the roles of nerves, muscles & bones in producing movement. (6) motor neurones carry impulses / messages to muscle; nerves / neurones stimulate muscles to contract; neurones control the timing of muscle contraction; muscles provide the force for / cause movement; muscles are attached to bone by tendons; bones act as levers; joints between bones control the range of movement; antagonistic muscles cause opposite movements; Describe the roles of structures at the elbow joint, including nerves, muscles and bones, in movements of the human forearm. (8) labelled diagram showing, biceps, humerus, radius and ulna; cartilage reduces friction; synovial fluid lubricates the joint; synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid; capsule / capsular ligament seals the joint; ligaments prevent dislocation / restrict the range of movement / attach

bones to one another; motor neurones stimulate muscles to contract; bones provide a firm anchorage for muscles; bones act as levers / change the torque / size / direction of forces; tendons attach muscle to bone; biceps and triceps are antagonistic; biceps is the flexor / bends the elbow joint and triceps is the extensor / straightens the elbow joint; biceps is attached to the radius and triceps is attached to the ulna;

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