AES MDSG Abstracts

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Abstracts from the 34th Annual Winter Meeting of the Geological Societys Mineral Deposit Studies Group and the Applied Mineralology Group of the Mineralogical Society and the 14th CERCAMS Workshop on Ore Giants of Asia was held on 5th7th January 2011 at the Natural History Museum, London. The meeting was dedicated to Nick Badham (12th May 194719th June 2010). In June 2010, MDSG lost one of its greatest supporters. For those who knew him, they will always remember his enthusiasm for Mineral Deposits science and his contagious humour. What is the difference between Roast Beef and Pea Soup? Anyone can roast beef Nick Badham
Asias golden architecture: tectonic foundations for East Asian orogenic gold Craig J. R. Hart1, Richard J. Goldfarb2 1 Mineral Deposit Research Unit, Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, The University of British Columbia, 6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada (chart@eos.ubc.ca) 2 US Geological Survey, PO Box 25046, Mail Stop 973, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225-0046, USA Orogenic gold systems comprise the largest number of gold deposits and greatest gold endowment of eastern Asia. Despite this enrichment and considerable prospectivity for new discoveries, there is a poor overall understanding of the controls that localise the ores, the most appropriate genetic model, and the geological settings of the deposits at their time of formation. Much of this uncertainty is related to two factors, poor age constraints, and geological settings that do not t current models for orogenic gold deposits. These uncertainties conspire to cause a re-evaluation of the geological settings and uid sources regarded to be integral to the orogenic gold deposit model. The vast landmass of Eastern Asia (China, Mongolia & eastern Russia) is an assembly of Precambrian cratonic nuclei, variably rimmed with Neoproterozoic to Early Palaeozoic pericratonic passive margin assemblages that were assembled through collision and accretion from Permian to Cretaceous time. The amalgamated blocks were subsequently modied by reverse and strike-slip dominated structural activity and overprinted by episodic magmatism. Gold deposits and districts formed preferentially in the margins or marginal assemblages of the cratonic blocks, but despite the abundance of Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic rocks that comprise the cratons, signicant Precambrian greenstone-gold deposits have not been, and are unlikely to be, discovered. The oldest gold ores are the orogenic gold deposits on the margins of the Siberian craton, specically those in the Yenisei Ridge gold province (e.g. Olimpiada, Sovetskoe) which likely formed between 700 and 450 Ma. These, and probably the deposits of the East Sayan region (e.g. Zun Holba, Sora, Aksug), are part of the broader late Neoproterozoic-Early Palaeozoic orogenic belt that formed along the southwestern margin of Siberian craton. This apparent Cordilleran-style belt is characterised by arc accretion with deposits forming in metasedimentary assemblages that were either ysch basins, or more likely, inverted, off-shelf pericratonic passive margin assemblages. The geological setting was similar along the eastern Siberian cratonic margin where the Sukhoi Log deposit formed, potentially at a similar time, but this region is dominated by deformation and plutonism associated with Carboniferous terrane accretion, the earliest assembly of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). Permian collision of the North (NCC) and South China (SCC) cratonic blocks, and amalgamation of the CAOB with rifted cratonic fragments, resulted in some middle Palaeozoic orogenic gold deposits such as those on the northern margin of the NCC (e.g. Wulashan). Permian strike-slip faulting along terrane sutures and cratonic margins formed a continental-scale gold episode (e.g. Muruntau, Kumtor, Bakyrchik, Saidu, Olon Ovoot). Permo-Triassic amalgamation of the NCC and SCC formed orogenic gold deposits (e.g. Yangshan, Baguaniao) in the sutured terranes of the western Qinling fold belt. Although their tectonic evolution is still very poorly understood, the reactivated marginal regions of the SCC contain Permo-Triassic(?) orogenic deposits (e.g. Boka) and mid-Mesozoic(?) Carlin-like deposits (e.g. Jinfeng). The orogenic gold deposits likely correlate with subduction/accretion episodes along the trailing margins of the SCC, whereas the Carlin-like deposits indicate hydrothermal events during extension in SCC carbonate/basin sequences. Asian gold systems related to Palaeo-Pacic Ocean events may be as old as Jurassic with the nal midMesozoic closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean. Deformation of turbidites was associated with formation of Middle to Late Jurassic orogenic gold ores in northern Mongolia (e.g. Boroo) and central to eastern Transbaikal (e.g. Darasun, Tokur). Arc collision and subsequent extension, also during the Jura-Cretaceous, but along the Siberian continental margin farther to the north, was associated with orogenic (e.g. Natalka), as well as epithermal gold deposits (e.g. Dukat, Julietta) throughout northeastern Russia. Signicant Early Cretaceous gold provinces formed in the northern and eastern margins of the NCC (e.g. Jiaodong, Qinling), the eastern SCC (e.g. Jiagnan) to the south, and eastern, southern Siberia to the north. These Phanerozoic orogenic gold districts are globally unique
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd and the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
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as they are mostly hosted in high-grade Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic metamorphic rocks. Reorganisation of Pacic oceanic plates at y125 Ma re-initiated Pacic plate subduction which led to the reactivation of major fault systems and the formation and uplift of the highgrade metamorphic core complexes which host many of the gold districts. The initiation of Pacic plate subduction also resulted in the subsequent loss of more than 150 km of cratonic lithosphere for .2000 km along the eastern Asian Pacic margin. This region of lithosphere loss has a remarkable association with the orogenic gold provinces that developed at this time. The occurrence of orogenic gold deposits in high-grade metamorphic rocks requires an exotic reservoir for the hydrothermal systems since the Precambrian host rocks were devolatilised billions of years prior to ore formation. The Kupol epithermal gold deposit Chukotka Region, NE Russia H. C. Golden 11/13 Proletarskaya Street, Magadan, 685000 Russia (howard.golden@kinross.com) The Kupol deposit is located in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in the Far East of the Russian Federation. The deposit is located in the 3000 km long NE trending Cretaceous Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanogenic belt. This belt is interpreted to be an Andean volcanic back-arc type tectonic setting, intersected normally by the Mesozoic Anui sedimentary fold belt in which sits the Kupol epithermal gold deposit. Kupol hosts measured and indicated resources of 22?6 thousand tonnes of gold ore grading 15?48 g t21 yielding 12 thousand ounces. The deposit is owned 75% by Kinross Gold Corporation and 25% by the government of Chukotka. The Kupol deposit area is centred within a 10-km wide caldera, along the western margins of the 100-km wide Mechkerevskaya Upper Cretaceous bimodal nested volcanic complex. The 1300 m thick volcanic succession is comprised of a lower sequence of felsic tuffs and ignimbrites, a middle sequence of andesitic to basalticandesitic ows and fragmentals, and is capped by felsic tuffs and ows. These sequences are cut and discordantly overlain by basalts of reported Palaeogenic age. The volcanic rocks unconformably overlie and intrude folded Jurassic sediments. The deposit is associated with a north-south trending splay off a regional fault of similar orientation. The magnitude of displacement along the Kupol structure is unknown but the direction is inferred to be normal-right lateral due to fault geometry. Gold and silver mineralisation at Kupol is hosted by colloform to crustiform-banded quartz-adularia veins and polyphase breccias. The mineralised veins include massive to sugary, very ne to ne-grained quartz with sulphosalt rich colloform banded veins; banded colloform and crustiform veins; brecciated quartz veins; quartz breccia with a dark sulphide-rich matrix; stockwork veins; and stringer veining with sheeted, noncrosscutting veinlets. The predominant gold and silver minerals are electrum, native gold, silver-rich tetrahedrite (freibergite), acanthite, and a variety of sulphosalts. Arsenic and antimony-rich end members of a variety of mineral groups are present reecting different solution chemistry in the evolution of the deposit and/or zonation in the
deposit. Mineral associations occur in ve phases of quartz-adularia veins and breccias. The Ag/Au ratio in the deposit is 10 : 1. Evolution of the Sukhoi Log and Kumtor gold ore giants V. V. Maslennikov1, R. R. Large2, A. Shevkunov3, V. A. Simonov1 1 Institute of Mineralogy, Urals Branch RAS, Miass, Russia 2 CODES, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia (maslennikov@ mineralogy.ru) 3 Kumtor Mining Company, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan The evolution of gold concentration in orogenic gold deposits is poorly understood, with recent genetic models challenging the conventional view (Large et al., 2007; 2009). Textural, mineral and chemical evolution of sulphide mineralisation has been studied in the Sukhoi Log (Lena province in southern margin of Siberia craton, Siberia) and Kumtor (northern ank of the Tarim craton, Kyrgyzstan) black shale-hosted gold deposits. Both deposits have been metamorphosed to lower greenschist facies. The sulphide mineral evolution in black shales which host the Sukhoi Log group of gold deposits has the following stages: (1) banded or nodular early-diagenetic sooty or framboidal pyrite (py1) with moderate invisible gold (0?1 to 12 ppm); (2) recrystallised framboidal py1 to ne-grained anhedral and subhedral py2,3 with rare micronuggets of native gold; (3) subhedral arsenopyrite and/or pyrrhotite pseudomorphs after py1,2,3, and/or subhedral arsenopyrite with inclusions of py1,2,3; (4) syntectonic euhedral py4 with inclusions of pyrrhotite, native gold, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and folded sedimentary matrix; (5) clear inclusion-free py5 overgrowing py3,4 within bedding parallel folded quartz veinlets carrying inclusions of gold, tellurides, galena and fahlores in the py3,4 cores; (6) latest postmetamorphic pseudocolloform marcasite-pyrite intergrowth, formed by replacement of pyrrhotite (Large et al., 2007; 2009). Detailed petrography has revealed a similar goldbearing mineral paragenesis in the black shale-hosted Kumtor gold deposits: (1) ne-grained disseminated, banded or nodular diagenetic framboidal pyrite (py1); (2) recrystallised of framboidal py1 to ne grained anhedral py2 overgrown by nodular radial py3 (after marcasite); (3) pyrrhotite veinlets parallel to cleavage and banded disseminated pyrrhotite pseudomorphs after framboidal and granular pyrite in association with quartz, rutile, chalcopyrite and rare arsenopyrite; (4) syntectonic euhedral to subhedral pyrite with inclusions of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite; (5) subhedral, corroded and/or euhedral py5 with inclusions of rutile, gold tellurides, native gold, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, fahlores and galena in association with quartz, carbonate, scheelite and feldspar veins; (6) ne intergrowth of py6 and marcasite generated after pyrrhotite and other mineral assemblages. Laser ablation ICP-MS analyses of trace elements in the various pyrite types from both Sukhoi Log and Kumtor have revealed two distinct episodes of gold enrichment: an early synsedimentary stage and later epigenetic metamorphic or hydrothermal stage. In the rst stage, invisible gold was concentrated in arsenian early diagenetic mostly, framboidal, sooty, nodular or ne grained pyrite along with other trace elements, in
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particular, As, Ni, Pb, Ag, Zn, Mo, Te, V and Se. During late diagenesis and early metamorphism the diagenetic arsenian pyrite was recrystallised to form coarser grained pyrite generations, and the organic matter was cooked to bitumen. Under higher grade metamorphism (lower greenschist facies and above) arsenian pyrite in carbonaceous shales was converted to pyrrhotite. These processes were critical in the release of gold, tellurium and arsenic from the black shales to become concentrated by hydrothermal processes, locally to ore grades, in structural sites such as fold and shear zones (Sukhoi Log) or breccia zones (Kumtor) within or above the black shale sequence. This research was achieved with support from the mining companies at Sukhoi Log and Kumtor.
Large, R. R., Danyushevsky, L. V., Hollit, C., Maslennikov, V. V., Meffre, S. C., Bull, S., Scott, R., Emsbo, P., Thomas, H., Singh, B. and Forster J. 2009. Gold and trace element zonation in pyrite using a laser imaging technique: implication for the timing of gold in orogenic and Carlin-style sediment-hosted deposits. Econ. Geol., 104, 635638. Large, R. R., Maslennikov, V. V., Robert, F., Danyushevsky, L. V. and Chang, Z. 2007. Multistage sedimentary and metamorphic origin of pyrite and gold in the giant Sukhoi Log deposits, Lena gold province, Russia. Econ. Geol., 102, 12321267.
1 Major arc systems of Central Eurasia with the location of key deposts highlighted
Multiple sources for mineralising fluids: case studies Muruntau and Charmitan T. Graupner1, U. Kempe2, R. Seltmann3 1 Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Stilleweg 2, 30655 Hannover, Germany (torsten. graupner@bgr.de) 2 Institute of Mineralogy, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Brennhausgasse 14, 09596 Freiberg, Germany 3 Centre for Russian and Central EurAsian Mineral Studies (CERCAMS), Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, Cromwell Road, UK Verication of sources for giant gold deposits is crucial for the development of appropriate exploration models and strategies. There are two aspects to be considered in this respect: (i) verication of the gold source itself and (ii) determination of the driving force for the enrichment of gold up to economically signicant ore grades and recoverable tonnages. The latter means a determination of the nature of the gold-bearing uids in most cases. Whereas it is still difcult to constrain the gold source(s) directly, results of modern analytical methods give a good basis for understanding the formation and evolution of the related ore-forming uids. The latter point is examined in more detail for the world-class gold deposits of Muruntau (Kyzylkum, Western Uzbekistan) and Charmitan (Nuratau, Central Uzbekistan), which are both located within the South Tien Shan orogenic belt (Khamrabaev et al., 1971). Samples from other gold systems located in this belt (Kumtor, Kyrgyzstan; Amantaitau, Uzbekistan) are used for comparative purposes. Investigation of vein mineralisation by modern microscopic and uid inclusion techniques, micro-beam chemical analysis, isotope methods and luminescence spectroscopy strongly suggests that uids from multiple sources took part in the formation of both, Muruntau and Charmitan deposits. Geological position and
geochronology (Seltmann et al., 2010) point to a genesis within the framework of late collisional magmatic activity (ReOs sulphide and UPb zircon SHRIMP ages dene a narrow interval of time about 290 285 Ma). The most intriguing aspect, however, is the involvement of mantle-related sources clearly indicated by noble gas (He, Ar) analysis notwithstanding the felsic style of the magmatism at this time (Graupner et al., 2006; 2010). The consequences for exploration strategies within the orogenic belt under consideration and beyond are discussed.
Graupner, T., Niedermann, S., Kempe, U., Klemd, R. and Bechtel, A. 2006. Origin of ore fluids in the Muruntau gold system: constraints from noble gas, carbon isotope and halogen data. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 70, 53565370. Graupner T., Niedermann, S., Rhede, D., Kempe, U., Seltmann, R., Williams, C. T. and Klemd, R. 2010. Multiple sources for mineralizing fluids in the Charmitan gold (-tungsten) mineralization (Uzbekistan), Mineral. Dep., 45, 667682. Khamrabaev, I. Kh., et al. 1971. Some geologic and mineralogic characteristics of the gold ore deposit of Charmitan, western Uzbekistan, Uzb. Geol. Zhur, 17. Seltmann, R., Konopelko. D., Biske, G., Divaev, F. and Sergeev, S. 2010. Hercynian post-collisional magmatism in the context of Paleozoic magmatic evolution of the Tien Shan orogenic belt. J. Asian Earth Sci., doi:10?1016/j.jseaes.2010?08?016.
The volcanogenic massive sulphide giants of central Eurasia R. J. Herrington1, S. Mills2, C. Halls1 1 The Natural History Museum, London, UK (R.Herrington@nhm.ac.uk) 2 Redback Mining, Vancouver, Canada This presentation will review the major VMS camps of the Uralides, the Rudny Altai, the Khandiza district of Uzbekistan as well as the Kyzyl Tashtyg deposit in Tuva and the giant Ozernoe camp in Buryatia (see Fig. 1). Crustal growth and continental construction an example of the Central Asian Orgenic Belt K. Schulmann1, J. Lehmann2, O. Lexa3
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IPGS, UMR 7516, Universite de Strasbourg, F-67084 Strasbourg, France (schulman@unistra.fr) 2 Czech Geological Survey, Prague 1, Klarov 3, 11000, Czech Republic 3 Charles University, IPSG, Albertov 6, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic We discuss a new concept of continental growth exemplied by the structure of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt in Mongolia, which represents the largest accretionary orogenic belt on the Earth. This work is based on a combination of geological, geochronological and geochemical data which show that the development of this crust was episodic, with one peak (centred at 530 Ma) representing a period of acceleration accretion via the obduction process, another peak corresponding to a period of massive addition of juvenile continental material (420300 Ma). This period is associated with the formation of oceanic crust which was later incorporated into the Euroasian continent. The crustal growth event is responsible for the origin of NS trending magmatic arcs and back arcs and subduction zones parallel to continental ribbons. Finally, during the third distinct event (290 to 270 Ma), the Belt was assembled by the accretion of previously grown crust onto the continental blocks associated with magmatic reworking and crustal reworking. Abundant orogenic granites were intruded at this stage. We argue that the crust was constructed via Permo-Triassic oroclinal bending mechanism pulse during which major part of Asian continent was assembled. The new model is proposed as an alternative to existing tectonic models of accretion of CAOB proposed earlier and provides a mechanistic explanation of oroclinal bending process which is not satisfactorily explained so far. We argue that the CAOB continental crust was constructed in an extremely short period of time during which the deformation was dominated by crustal scale folding. The orientation of the NS trending large-scale anisotropic system (inherited from crustal growth stage) represented by Mongol-Okhotsk subduction zone, Dabzkhan-Baydrag continental ribbon, compressional (Gobi-Altay magmatic arcs) and N-S trending oceanic domain of the Trans-Altay Zone. This complex system was subparallel to the Permo-Mesozoic orientation of plate tectonic stress that enabled the crust to behave as a multilayer system. This conguration allowed the crust to deform by folding at a relatively low stress and precluded the formation of localised subduction zone perpendicular to the original mechanical anisotropy until the folds locked up. The mechanical activity along the subduction zone parallel to the mechanical anisotropy in the core of the fold is considered to be the main accommodating mechanism that facilitates this folding. This model proposes a unied theory of deformation and accretion of oceanic crust using three contrasting mechanisms. (1) The Mongol-Okhotsk oceanic domain in the inner part of the fold is closed due to lateral shortening and gravity driven pull of progressively steepened subduction zone. (2) The Dabzkhan-Baydrag ribbon and steeply folded passive margin reveal classical exural slip/ow folding accompanied by development of steep crustal crenulation cleavage and folds with steep hinges. (3) The westerly oceanic domain accommodates folding of inner arc by reactivation of transform faults
and passive folding mechanism i.e. translation of rigid oceanic blocks parallel to strike slips. The presented model is conserving volume in the oceanic domain of the Trans Altai Zone, Gobi Altai Zone and Dabzkhan continent but is marked by loss of material in the inner part of the fold structure the Mongol Okhotsk Ocean which is the major pre-requisite of oroclinal bending. Uranium potential of CIS and Mongolia: with emphasis on volcanic related deposits M. Cuney G2R, Nancy-Universite, CNRS, CREGU, B.P. 239, 54506 Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France ` (Michel.cuney@g2r.uhp-nancy.fr) The largest uranium resources of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Mongolia are located in the so- called Central Asia Uranium Province (CAUP), distributed around the Altai Mountains. The CAUP represents the second largest U province of the world with nearly 1/4 of the world U resources. The most signicant deposits occur in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Southern Siberia, Mongolia, and extend in northern China. Identied Resources reaches 1?3 Mt U at 130 US$/kg U with 652 000 t U in Kazakhstan, 480 000 t U in Russia, 115 000 t U in Uzbekistan, 50 000 t U in Mongolia (IAEA, 2009). Total production of CAUP has reached one-third of the world production in 2008 and Kazakhstan is now the leading U producing country in the world. Uranium deposit types are dominated by those related to meteoric water inltration systems in continental sandstone: predominantly of roll front subtype (in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia, Inner Mongolia) and of palaeovalley subtype of much lesser importance (Vitim, Russia; NW Mongolia), and to hydrothermal high level postorogenic systems developed in volcanic caldera (Streltsovka, Russia; Dornot and others in Mongolia, and also some in northern Kazakhstan) according to the genetic classication of Cuney (2009). Another major deposit, Elkon in Russia associated with K-metasomatism belongs to a rather unique model, still poorly known. The CAUP has the specicity to be a very young U province compared to most others (e.g. Australia, Canada) which are rooted in Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic domains (Cuney, 2010). The main U source for CAUP deposits is recent intrusive to effusive (as ignimbrites or as volcanic ash deposited in continental sandstones) highly fractionated magmatism, mainly of peralkaline (A1 type) and high-K calc-alkaline (A2 type) nature massively produced within a wide nearly EW extensional domain, exceeding 1000 km from Transbakalia in Russia to Northern China. Nearly all these deposits have been formed from Cretaceous to Cainozoic. The main reducing trap was considered to be detrital continental plants disseminated within the sandstone, but increasing evidences are in favour of the involvement of reducing gas inltration from deep seated oil/gas reservoir Cai et al. 2007. The giant U deposits in the CAUP according to the denition of Laznicka (1983), with a tonnage accumulation index: t.a.i.5quantity of accumulated ore metal (potentially economic)/mean crustal content (Clarke) higher than 1011, are the Inkai and Mynkuduk roll front deposits in Kazakhstan. Other giants U deposits correspond in fact to a series of small deposits belonging to large regional structures extending over a
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few tens to several tens of kilometres such as the Elkon district in Aldan, the Streltsovka and the Dornot caldera systems. Considered as a whole and including prognosticated resources, the roll front district of southern central Kazhakstan (Shu Sarysu and Syrdarya basins) potentially represent a supergiant U accumulation (t.a.i..1012).
Cai, C., Li, H., Qin, M., Luo, X., Wang , F., Ou, G. (2007). Biogenic and petroleum-related ore-forming processes in Dongsheng uranium deposit, NW China. Ore Geol Rev 32, 262274. Cuney, M. (2009) The extreme diversity of uranium deposits. Min. Deposit, 44, 39. Cuney, M. (2010). Evolution of uranium fractionation processes through time: driving the secular variation of uranium deposit types. Econ. Geol., 105(3), 449465. IAEA (2009) Uranium 2009 - Resources, production and demand. NEA/OCDE - International Atomic Energy Agency. 454 p. Laznicka, P. (1983) Giant ore deposits: A quantitative approach: Global Tectonics and Metallurgy. 2, 4163.
The Norilsk model and its application in the Emeishan and Tarim basin areas of China A. J. Naldrett1, X.-Y. Song2, H. Zhong2 1 University of Toronto, Canada, CERCAMS NHM London, UK (ajnaldrett@yahoo.com) 2 SKLODG, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, Guizhou, China The objective of this paper is to discuss key aspects of the Siberian Permo-Triassic (250 Ma) Large Igneous Province (SLIP) relating to the development of the Norilsk-Talnakh NiCuPGE ores and evaluate two other Asian LIPs of similar age, the Emeishan (ELIP) (5257263 Ma) and Tarim (TLIP) (5285292 Ma). The SLIP originally covered an area of 4?56106 km2, whereas the other two are an order of magnitude less extensive (ELIP>6105 km2; TLIP52?56105 km2). In the Norilsk region of the SLIP the basalts stand up as mesas above the underlying sediments. A 500 m basal succession of Ti-rich (Ti/Y.440), high Gd/Yb (523) olivine-normative basalts (some of which are alkalic) are succeeded by 3000 m of low Ti (Ti/Y 250440), low Gd/ Yb (,2), low La/Sm (,2?8), low 87/86Sri (50?7053 0?7062), variable eNd (524?6 to z7?3) largely olivine normative basalts, some of which have high La/Sm (2?6 4?7), low eNd (27 to 28?5) and high 87/86Sri (50?7075 0?7090) that is attributed to contamination by a crustal partial melt. Picritic basalts occur in two units of the Norilsk succession. Average Mg#s for the different basaltic units range from 53 to 62. The ELIP is well exposed in upfolds and faulting caused by the Himalayan event impacting the Yangtse craton. The central part of the ELIP is characterised by two units of Ti-poor (Ti/Y5285426), olivine- and quartz-normative basalts with Gd/Yb52?12?7, variable La/Sm51?44?1, and relatively low 87/86Sri (50?7053 0?7067) that are capped by Ti-rich (Ti/Y5449773), Gd/Yb52?53?5, 87/86Sri50?70390?7069. A sequence of alkalic, nepheline-normative basalts forms the base of the ELIP succession in places, and much of the outer zone to the east comprises Ti-rich basalt. Picritic rocks occur in the central part of the ELIP, some of which have a ferropicritic composition. Mg#s for the basalts are mostly ,50, except for the lower of the two Ti-poor units. Much of the TLIP is covered by younger rocks and information is restricted to the peripheries of the region underlain by basalt. Ti/Y ratios tend to be high (.500),
Gd/Yb.2 and La/Sm ratios vary from 3 to 5. Isotopic work is limited, but one group has been identied with 87/86 Sri50?7050?708, eNd522 to 25 and another with 87/86 Sri50?7030?706, eNd5z3 to z5. Mg#s are mostly between 35 and 45. Some associated ultramac dykes have been observed. At Norilsk the basalts overly a sequence of Silurian shales, Devonian shales and anhydrite beds, Lower Carboniferous limestones and Upper Carboniferous coal measures. The ores occur within intrusions in the underlying shales, anhydrite beds and coal measures that have been interpreted as feeders to the overlying volcanics. The intrusions are exposed, or brought to accessible depths as a result of anticlinal structures that have resulted in the lavas being removed by erosion. A 500 m sequence within the overlying volcanics is remarkably depleted in Ni, Cu and PGE, as is demonstrated by plots of Ni/MgO versus MgO, Cu/Zr versus MgO and Cu/Pd versus Pd, and the missing metals are regarded as the source of those forming the ores. The current model for Norilsk is that fertile magma generated from a plume became ponded in a midcrustal magma chamber, interacted with a partial crustal melt, became sulphide saturated, deposited pools of sulphide, and reached the surface, depleted in chalcophile metals and bearing the traces of crustal contamination. The interaction of a continuing ow of undepleted, sulphide-unsaturated magma through the conduit with the early formed sulphide, resulted in FeS being removed from and Ni, Cu and PGE added to the sulphide. Subsequent magmas equilibrating and dissolving these enriched sulphides became highly enriched themselves in these metals. These continued closer to surface where they interacted with the anhydrite beds and became sulphide-saturated, depositing the rich ores. Turning to the ELIP, the bulk of the mineralisation occurs in the central region where faulting associated with the Himalayan event has brought the underlying basement to surface. Three principal types of mineralisation are found, world-class FeTiV deposits, small NiCu sulphide deposits and low-sulphide PGE-rich deposits. In one case (Xinjie) the intrusion, that is thought to have been derived from a ferropicritic magma, hosts both Fe TiV and PGENiCu deposits. Jinbaoshan is typical of the sulphide-poor, PGE-rich type; mineralisation occurs in wherlite that occupies a magma conduit, and its PGErich character is attributed to upgrading of sulphides by successive waves of magma owing through the conduit. The Limahe deposit is typical of the NiCu type, where sulphides are concentrated towards the base of a multiphase intrusion in rocks thought to have been derived from picritic magma that had gained sulphur through reaction with country rocks. Several deposits occur in the region of the TLIP including Kalatongke, the largest, but their structural setting and/or geochemistry of associated rocks rule out any direct genetic connection. Most of them are thought to be associated with the emplacement of mac/ultramac rocks in a post-collisional tectonic environment. The basalts of the ELIP and TLIP have been evaluated in terms of the chalcophile depletion criteria that are so prominent at Norilsk. Relatively few of the analysed samples of basalt from the central ELIP show up as depleted on the Ni/MgO versus MgO plot,
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whereas more than half show up as depleted on the Cu/ Zr and Cu/Pd plots. In the Tarim area, data are sparse and more scattered, with no PGE results available at present. Basalts and mac dykes from the western to northwestern part of the TLIP appear depleted on a Ni/ MgO versus MgO plot, and all rocks appear depleted on a Cu/Zr plot. The latter may be due to assuming that the undepleted Cu/Zr ratios that are characteristic of the basalts at Norilsk are the same for rocks of the Tarim LIP. In general, the massive chalcophile depletion that characterises a 500 m succession of basalts at Norilsk has not been conrmed in the ELIP and TLIP. Depletion is present in the latter two provinces, but it is more localised and less extreme. Further investigation, particularly of the TLIP, may change this conclusion. Almalyk district and its porphyry epithermal deposits R. Seltmann1, R. Creaser2, R. Koneev3, V. Shatov4, D. Konopelko5 1 Centre for Russian and Central EurAsian Mineral Studies (CERCAMS), Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, London, UK (R.Seltmann@nhm.ac.uk) 2 University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 3 National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan 4 VSEGEI, St. Petersburg, Russia 5 St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia The Almalyk porphyry CuAu system of eastern Uzbekistan encompasses the giant ore deposits at Kalmakyr (2?5 Gt at 0?38% Cu, 0?5 g t1 Au) and Dalnee (2?8 Gt at 0?36% Cu, 0?35 g t1 Au). The Sarycheku orebody (200 Mt at 0?5% Cu, 0?1 g t1 Au) is part of the Saukbulak porphyry CuAu system, some 18 km to the south. Both systems are associated with the second, Middle- to Late-Carboniferous, pulse of magmatic activity within the Devonian-Carboniferous ValerianovBeltau-Kurama volcano-plutonic belt that is the main element of the Middle Tien Shan terrane in Central Asia. Previous KAr dating of the ore-related porphyry intrusive and the mineralisation has returned ages in the range of 310 to 290 Ma, whereas recent U-Pb zircon dating reported for the intrusive sequence in the Almalyk district partially overlaps in the range of 320 to 305 Ma, with orerelated porphyries 315 to 319 Ma. ReOs molybdenite dating resulted in ages at about 314 to 316 Ma. Mineralisation at both Kalmakyr and Dalnee is predominantly in the form of stockworks with lesser disseminations, and is associated with Late Carboniferous quartz monzonite porphyry plugs intruding earlier dioritic and monzonitic intrusive rocks of the same magmatic complex. The orebodies take the form of a cap-like shell developed above and draped over the anks of the related quartz monzonite porphyry stock. The dominant hosts to ore are the monzonite and diorite wall rocks, with the quartz monzonite porphyry only containing ore in its outer margins, surrounding and/or overlying a barren core. The focus of stockwork development is fracturing related to both the intrusive contact of the porphyry stock and to crosscutting faulting. Alteration comprises an early K-silicate phase followed by albite-actinolite and peripheral epidotechlorite-carbonate-pyrite propylites, overprinted by an abundant phyllic episode which is closely related to the
nal distribution of the ore. Associated mineralisation commenced with barren quartz-hematite veining, followed by quartz-magnetite, quartz-pyrite-molybdenite-chalcopyrite with the bulk of the contained gold, quartz-carbonate-polysulphide with lesser gold, then by zeolite-anhydrite, and nally carbonate and barite veining. Subsequent oxidation and uplift developed a layer of oxide ore, a limited leached cap and supergene sulphide enrichment, largely in zones of fault related fracturing.
Golovanov, I. M., Seltmann, R. and Kremenetsky, A. A. 2005. The Porphyry Cu-Au/Mo Deposits of Central Eurasia: 2. The Almalyk (Kalmakyr-Dalnee) and Saukbulak Cu-Au Porphyry Systems, Uzbekistan, in Super porphyry copper & gold deposits: a global perspective, (ed. T. M. Porter), Vol. 2, 513523; Adelaide, PGC Publishing.
Oyu Tolgoi and porphyries of South Mongolia R. N. Armstrong1, R. Seltmann1, D. Crane2 the Cercams Team 1 CERCAMS, Department of Mineralogy, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK (R.Armstrong@nhm.ac.uk) 2 Ivanhoe Mines Mongolia Inc., Mongolia The South Gobi Region of Mongolia is composed of a series of Island Arc terranes including the extensive Gurvansayhan terrane (Badarch et al., 2002). The region contains 82 known porphyry style deposits and occurrences including the deposits of the Oyu Tolgoi district (Gerel et al., 2010). The majority of these occurrences and deposits are coincidental with a strong SWNE striking magnetic high anomaly at eastern margin of the Gurvansayhan terrane. The East Mongolian Fault, a major tectonic feature of the region, delineates the eastern boundary of this terrane. Regional sampling completed during the Altaids Project has demonstrated through the application of whole rock Nd/Sm and Lu/Hf measurements from zircons that the melt sources for the granitoids of the region is primitive with no contribution from cratonic crystalline basement. Existing and new chronological data demonstrate two clear periods of porphyry mineralisation, the Famennian which includes Oyu Tolgoi and Tsagaan Suvarga, and the Serpukhovian-Visean which includes the Shuuten and Kharmagtai CuMoAu prospects. Whole rock chemistry from the granitoids region shows that the intrusions from the Upper Devonian to the Upper Carboniferious have strong Itype and primitive volcanic arc afnities. Furthermore, the REE chemistry from the intrusions suggests that hornblende crystallisation was a signicant control in the evolution of these magmas. Intrusions of lower Permian age in the region possess A-type like signatures and are signicantly more fractionated suggesting that these magmas are related to post-subduction magmatic processes. The Oyu Tolgoi mineral district strikes NNE for over 22 km and includes the named mineralised centres from north to south of Heruga, South Oyu Tolgoi, SW Oyu Tolgoi, Hugo Dummett South, Hugo Dummett North to the Ulan Kud. The current measured and indicated resource for the camp is 1390 Mt at 1?33% Cu, 0?47 g t1 Au, and an inferred resource of 2200 Mt at 0?83% Cu, 0?37 g t1 Au (at 0?6% Cu equiv. cut-off) (Khashgerel
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et al., 2009). Within the Oyu Tolgoi deposits the most signicant porphyry style mineralisation is spatially and temporally associated with quart-monzodiorites dykes. At Central Oyu Tolgoi and the Hugo Dummett deposits Cu and Au-rich high sulphidation style mineralisation has partially telescoped on to underlying CuAu Porphyries. These mineralising intrusions are cross-cut by later biotite-granodiorites.
Badarch, G., Cunningham, W. D. and Windley, B. F. 2002. A new terrane subdivision for Mongolia; implications for the Phanerozoic crustal growth of Central Asia, J. Asian Earth Sci., 21, (1), 87110. Gerel, O., Amar-Amgalan, S., Oyungerel, S., Myagmarsuren, S., Kirwin, D., Armstrong, R., Herrington, R. and Seltmann, R. 2010. GIS of the Granitoid petrology, tectonics and mineral deposits of Mongolia in Mineral Deposit Research: Meeting the Global Challenge (ed. J. Mao and F. P. Bierlein), The Natural History Museum London. Khashgerel, B.-E., Rye, R. O., Kavalieris, I. and Hayashi, K.-I. 2009. The sericitic to advanced argillic transition: stable isotope and mineralogical characteristics from the Hugo Dummett porphyry Cu-Au deposit, Oyu Tolgoi District, Mongolia, Econ. Geol., 104, 10871110.
The Koshrabad massif as host of intrusion-related gold mineralisation at Charmitan and Guzumsay: an example of post-collisional A-type granites from Southern Tien Shan, Uzbekistan D. Konopelko1, K. Kullerud2, R. Seltmann3, F. Divaev4 1 St. Petersburg State University, 7/9 University Embankment, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia (konopel ko@inbox.ru) 2 University of Tromsoe, Norway 3 CERCAMS, Natural History Museum, London, UK 4 Geological Production Association, Tashkent, Uzbekistan The Koshrabad massif (y200 km2) is situated in Northern Nurata range, Uzbekistan. It is emplaced in the Southern Tien Shan fold and thrust belt formed as a result of the Late Paleozoic collision between the Karakum-Tarim and Palaeo-Kazakhstan continents. The Koshrabad massif and other intrusions of Northern Nurata range were recently dated at y285 Ma and dened as Hercynian post-collisional intrusions (Seltmann et al., 2010). Peculiar features of the Koshrabad rocks include their elevated alkalinity and presence of rapakivi-textured varieties. Besides, the massif hosts two large intrusion-related gold deposits containing y100 tons of gold each (Abzalov, 2007). In this paper we present new geochemical data and use existing analytical data sets to discuss the evolution and possible sources of the Koshrabad magmas and the origin of the gold deposits. The Koshrabad rock assemblage includes pyroxene-amphiboleolivine alkaline gabbro, syenite, monzonite, quartz syenite, granosyenite and amphibole-biotite granite. Amphibole-biotite quartz syenite and granite with rapakivi texture comprise 80% at present day erosion surface. Mac rocks, mapped in the central part of the massif, demonstrate signatures of coeval intrusion of melts with different compositions. All rock-types form dykes which are structurally controlled and form two swarms in the SE part of the massif striking roughly in the east2west direction. The rocks of Koshrabad are rich in FeO, K2O and Na2O, they have extremely high FeO/ (FeOzMgO) ratios and low contents of CaO and MgO. They plot into elds of A-type rocks in the discrimination diagrams. Iron-rich mac minerals and presence of olivine indicate reduced nature of the melts. We think that evolution of alkaline mac melts at midcrustal levels produced main volume of felsic compositions which dominate at present day erosion surface of the massif. This evolution probably included assimilation of quartzo-feldspathic crustal material. The structure of gold deposits shows that the gold veins were emplaced in brittle fractures striking in the same direction as the dyke swarms. Other features of the deposits are their low sulphide character with main ore mineral being pyrite, and lack of signicant alteration associated with the gold veins (Abzalov, 2007). There is a positive correlation of Au contents with SiO2 contents in the late dykes; this may indicate accumulation of gold in the reduced melt at the nal stages of crystallisation and rapid emplacement of Au-rich veins in the same structures which previously controlled emplacement of dykes.
Abzalov, M. 2007. Zarmitan granitoid-hosted gold deposit, Tian Shan belt, Uzbekistan, Econ. Geol., 102, 519532.
Taldybulak AuCuMo deposit: a new .5 Moz Au (11?7 Moz Au eq) ordovician porphyry hosted gold system in Kyrgyzstan, Central Asia A. Yakubchuk1, J. Schloderer2, J. Woodcock3, A. Wurst4 1 Orsu Metals Corporation, London, UK (ayakubchuk@ orsumetals.com) 2 Gold Fields Limited, Perth, Australia 3 Gold Fields Limited, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan 4 Gold Fields Limited, Denver, USA The Taldybulak prospect in the Kyrgyz Ridge in northwestern Kyrgyzstan was originally identied in the late 1970s during regional search for the Cu porphyry systems in Central Asia, but was abandoned due to low copper grade, although gold potential in excess of 0?5 g t1 was recognised. From 2006 until 2010, the 40/60 joint venture between Orsu Metals Corporation and Gold Fields Limited drilled in excess of 30 000 m and delineated a major pitconstrained AuCuMo resource of 11?7 Moz Au eq at the Taldybulak deposit. As of September 2010, the Taldybulak deposit consists of an indicated resource of 127 Mt, comprising 2?6 Moz gold at 0?64 g t21, 477 Mlb copper at 0?17%, and 29?4 Mlb molybdenum at 0?01%, and an inferred resource of 296 Mt, comprised of 3?71 Moz gold at 0?4 g t21, 1098 Mlb copper at 0?17%, and 69?2 Mlb molybdenum at 0?01%. The deposit is currently viewed as a Cu2Au2Mo porphyry system with superimposed Au-only event, which produced a high-grade gold overprint. The isotopic dating suggests that formation of the porphyry system took place at 475455 Ma, and it was then intruded by post-mineral trachyte dykes at 450 Ma. Presence of the Devonian cover was essential in preservation of the Ordovician system. An exploration history and evolution of thoughts on the architecture of the Taldybulak deposit as well as most recent advances in the understanding of the geodynamic evolution of the Kyrgyz Ridge against the setting of the Taldybulak porphyry system will be presented.
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Seltmann, R., Konopelko, D., Biske, G., Divaev, F. and Sergeev, S. 2010. Hercynian post-collisional magmatism in the context of Paleozoic magmatic evolution of the Tien Shan orogenic belt. J. Asian Earth Sci., doi:10?1016/j.jseaes.2010?08?016.
Exploration potential of the Lena gold fields A. Mikhailov1, V. Voitenko2 1 SRK Exploration Services Ltd, 16 Park Grove, Cardiff, CF10 3BN, UK (amikhailov@srk.co.uk) 2 St. Petersburg University, Russia
Unlike most other countries, about 80% of Russian gold was mined from alluvial deposits. The grade and resources of these alluvial gold deposits were so high that it detracted attention from primary gold exploration. But even the limited amount of exploration that targeted primary gold deposits had led to the discovery of a number of world-class deposits: the Lena gold elds is one of the best examples. Accumulative gold production from the Lena gold elds well exceed 30 Moz with less than 1% of gold mined from primary deposits. The same time the Lena gold elds contain the biggest Russian gold deposit Sukhoi Log. Based on comprehensive data compilation and analysis it is possible to come to conclusion that the Lena gold elds is still underexplored and that it is one of the most attractive exploration targets in the world.
Benevolskiy, B. I. 2002. Gold of Russia, Moscow, Geoinformmark. Buryak, V. A. and Khmelevskaya, N. M. 1997. Sukhoy Log, one of the greatest gold deposits in the world: genesis, distribution patterns, prospecting criteria, Vladivostok, Dalnauka. Distler, V. V., Yudovskaya, M. A., Mitrofanov, G. L., Prokofev, V. Y. and Lishnevskiy, E. N. 2004. Geology, composition and genesis of the Sukhoi Log noble metals deposit, Russia, Ore Geol. Rev., 24, 744. Kazakevich, Y. P. 1971. Lena gold-bearing region, stratigraphy, tectonics, magmatism and occurrences of hard rock gold, Moscow, Nedra Press. Kuzmin, M. I., Yarmolyuk, V. V., Spiridonov, A. I., Nemerov, V. K., Ivanov, A. I. and Mitrofanov, G. L. 2006. Geodynamic setting of gold ore deposits of the Neoproterozoic Bodaibo trough, Doklady Earth Sci., 407A, 397400. Smirnov, V. I., 1997. Ore deposits of the USSR. London-San Francisco-Melbourne, Pitman Publishing.
accompanied by the extensive development of sulphide and carbonate phases, suggests that the mineralising uid was similar to that responsible for other Birimian-hosted orogenic gold deposits in Ghana and indeed other orogenic gold deposits globally (Goldfarb et al., 2005). This implies that the Tarkwaian of Ghana is also prospective for gold mineralisation. Limited exposure in a tropical terrain provides specic challenges to a better understanding of the Damang ore genesis. The lack of a major, large-scale structural control on the Damang deposit introduces complications to traditional geophysical exploration methodologies. At Damang however, portable, eldbased infrared reectance spectroscopy has been used in a systematic study and has proven to be a valuable exploration tool (White et al., 2010). Sedimentary and igneous lithological groups are readily distinguished using diagnostic spectral parameters, such as the ferrous-iron response, the AlOH/H2O absorption depth ratio, and automated mineral identication. Vectors to gold mineralisation are provided by systematic variations to these parameters, observable both downhole and in 3D models. The speed of data collection and ease of analysis of spectral data make infrared reectance spectroscopy a useful methodology that can be readily incorporated into both pre-existing and established exploration programs in other tropical terrains.
Goldfarb, R., Baker, T., Dube, B., Groves, D. I., Hart, C. J. R. and Gosselin P. 2005. Distribution, character, and genesis of gold deposits in metamorphic terranes, Econ. Geol. 100th Ann. Vol., 407450. Tunks, A. J., Selley, D., Rogers, J. R. and Brabham, G. 2004. Vein mineralization at the Damang Gold Mine, Ghana: controls on mineralization, J. Struct. Geol., 26, 12571273. White, A., Robb, V. M., Robb, L. J., Waters, D. J. et al. 2010. Portable infrared spectroscopy as a tool for the exploration of gold deposits in tropical terrains: a case study at the Damang deposit, Ghana, Soc. Econ. Geol. Spec. Publ., 15, 6784.
Mineralisation and alteration patterns at the Damang gold mine, Ghana: ore genesis and exploration applications in tropical terrains A. J. White1, L. J. Robb1, D. J. Waters1, V. M. Robb2 1 Oxford Centre for Tectonics and Metallogenic Studies, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3AN, UK (alistair. white@earth.ox.ac.uk) 2 11 The Green, Ascott-under-Wychwood, OX7 6AB, UK Mineralisation at Damang mine is signicantly different to most other known orogenic gold deposits of Ghana, comprising two distinct styles of mineralisation a stratigraphically controlled quartz-pebble conglomerate palaeoplacer deposit overprinted by later orogenic gold mineralisation hosted in at-dipping fault-fracture vein array and surrounding hydrothermal alteration assemblages (Tunks et al., 2004). The host Tarkwaian stratigraphy comprises an upward-ning sequence of clastic sediments intruded by doleritic dykes and sills, all overprinted before mineralisation by amphibolite facies mineral assemblages. A potassic alteration signature during mineralisation,
The role of regolith mapping in gold exploration in deeply weathered terrains of West Africa E. Arhin, G. R. T. Jenkin, D. W. Cunningham Geology Department, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (ea163@le.ac.uk) Gold discovery, particularly in the tropical regions, has declined over the past two decades. In part this is because the conventional geochemical exploration approach is best suited to areas with outcrop and some degree of exposure and less successful in detecting mineralisation under cover. The geochemical expression of mineralisation in areas where tropical weathering processes have developed complex regoliths are commonly variable anomalies or mixed signals consisting of weak, subtle and highly discontinuous anomalies which are difcult to interpret. Gold occurrence in the savanna areas of Ghana was reported in 1937 but subsequent exploration failures may be linked to a lack of regolith studies (e.g. Grifs et al., 2002; Arhin and Nude, 2009). Despite the inadequate knowledge of the regolith environment some gold discoveries have been made (e.g. Ashanti-AGEM Alliance). However, further exploration was discontinued as anticipated deposit sizes were disappointing. Recently, Azumah Resources
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commenced a new geochemical sampling programme and exploration re-assessment. Their work highlighted the importance of understanding and modelling regolith impacts on geochemistry. Regolith terrain maps were produced by remote sensing with no ground truthing. The regolith terrain maps fail to clearly distinguish between transported and residual regoliths but did yield new geochemical targets. The present research seeks to generate a detailed regolith map by processing digital terrain data (e.g. SRTM/DEM models, landsat, ASTER and radiometric) complemented by ground truth mapping. Recent mapping characterised regolith stratigraphy and established genetic and geomorphological models for varying regolith types.
Arhin, E. and Nude, P. M. 2009. Significance of regolith mapping and its implication for gold exploration in northern Ghana: a case study at Tinga and Kunche. Geochemistry: exploration, environment and analysis. Geol. Soc. Lond., 9, 6369. Griffis, J., Barning, K., Agezo, F. and Akosah, F. 2002. Gold deposits of Ghana, prepared on behalf of Ghana Mineral Commission, Accra, Ghana.
3?44% V-PDB). However, the most negative values occur in more carbonaceous lithologies, indicating a stratigraphic control on the carbon isotopic signature. The host rock samples have a strontium isotopic composition that lies within or above the range of Neoproterozoic marine carbonates (0?7056,87Sr/86Sr ,0?7087 (Jacobsen and Kaufman, 1999). Radiogenic signatures between 0?7087 and 0?77788 represent impure dolomites. A 87Sr/86Sr87Rb/86Sr diagram indicates a possible stratigraphic control on the strontium isotopic composition. There is no spatial relation between these results and the presence of the ore body. In conclusion, the petrographic observations and the oxygen, carbon and strontium isotopic analyses suggest that the sulphide mineralisation had no widespread inuence on the diagenetic evolution of the dolomite host rocks.
Jacobsen, S. B. and Kaufman, A. J. 1999. The Sr, C and O isotopic evolution of Neoproterozoic seawater. Chem. Geol., 161, 37 57.
Diagenetic study of the host rocks of the Kipushi ore deposit, Democratic Republic of Congo J. van Wilderode1, W. Heijlen2, Ph. Muchez1, D. De Muynck3, J. Schneider1, F. Vanhaecke3 1 Geodynamics and Geofluids Research Group, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, K.U.Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200E, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium (jorik.vanwilderode@ees.kuleuven.be) 2 GF Consult bvba, Antwerpsesteenweg 644, B-9040 Ghent, Belgium 3 Department of Analytical Chemistry, U. Ghent, Krijgslaan 281-S12, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium The vein-type Kipushi Cu2Zn deposit is located in the Central African Copperbelt, Democratic Republic of Congo. The aim of the present study is to investigate the inuence of the mineralisation on the dolomite host rocks using a combination of petrographic techniques and both stable and radiogenic isotope analysis. The petrographic study (transmitted and incident light microscopy, cathodoluminescence and SEM-imaging techniques) quantied the relative abundance of diagenetic carbonate and silicate phases in the host rocks (Nguba Group, Katanga Supergroup). The results show an erratic and lithostratigraphic controlled variation of their distribution, without obvious trends towards the ore body. Most host rock samples have a bulk oxygen isotopic composition between 27?50 and 22?54% V-PDB, which is within or above the range of Neoproterozoic marine dolomites. Given the petrographic observations and the geological context, this suggests that the host rock dolomites formed by reux dolomitisation. A few samples have depleted d18O values (down to 29?9% V-PDB). They could reect the inuence of a uid with a lower d18O composition or recrystallisation at higher temperatures in a more open geochemical system. However, these lower d18O values do not show a clear spatial correlation with the mineralisation. All carbon isotopic signatures lie within the range of Neoproterozoic marine dolomites (21?46,d13C,z
Uranium mineralisation at the Lumwana Cu (Co) deposits: evidence of initial mineralisation subsequently remobilised J. P. Nowecki1, S. Roberts1, M. Richards2, M. McGloin3 1 School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, European Way, Southampton, SO14 3ZH, UK (jpn205@soton.ac.uk) 2 Equinox Minerals PLC, Ground Floor, Scott House, 46 50 Kings Park Road, West Perth, WA, 6005, Australia 3 School of Geosciences, Building 28, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia The Lumwana Cu (Co U) deposits of NW Zambia are large, tabular, disseminated ore bodies, hosted within the Mwombezhi Dome of the Lulian Arc. The host rocks to the Lumwana deposits are typically gneisses, which comprise quartz-feldsparmuscovitebiotite/phlogopitehematite. Sulphide ore horizons are developed within a muscovite-phlogopite-quartz-kyanite ore schist. Contacts between the ore and host rocks are transitional and characterised by a loss of feldspar. Kinematic indicators suggest a top-to-the-north shear sense, with sulphides deformed by an S1 fabric and subsequently enclosed within kyanite or concentrated into low strain zones and pressure shadows around kyanite porphyroblasts, suggesting that the copper mineralisation was introduced either syn or pre-peak metamorphism. Uranium mineralisation within the Lumwana deposits is located on the boundaries between hanging wall and footwall gneiss units and the ore schist in orebodies elongated in a north-south direction consistent with the S1 fabric and stretching lineation. Two types of uranium mineralisation are observed: Uraninite and brannerite grains and aggregates are enclosed and sheared within the S1 fabric, indicating that initial uranium mineralisation predates the main deformational phase. SEM reveals a relationship between this early uranium enrichment and zircon, rutile, ilmenite and apatite formation, with REE-rich carbonates and phosphates. These phases can be
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observed enclosed within kyanite and copper sulphides, indicating initial uranium enrichment occurred before the copper-mineralising event. Brannerite has been remobilised, showing progressively U-depleted edges, leaving Ti as rutile rims. U is remobilised as uraninite and cofnite in mica cleavages, grain boundaries, and within retrogressive chlorite. Fluid inclusions in early quartz boudins and discordant veins (which locally remobilise sulphides) are sheared, necked-down and decrepitated. Decrepitated primary inclusions show a variety of daughter minerals indicating passage of highly saline uid through the shear zone, similar to that reported at the Nchanga and Kansanshi deposits. These veins also show an overprint of a uid contained in later discordant veins, which most likely remobilised the uranium. This uid is moderately saline (y15 wt-% NaCl equiv.) with minor CO2 and rst melting temperatures about 230uC, indicating a uid composition of H2O2NaCl2MgCl22KClFeCl2. Homogenisation temperatures are typically 110270uC. Pressure correction suggests this late uid formed at around 250350uC between 6 and 9 km depth, consistent with a retrogressive, post-peak metamorphic uid likely diluted by interaction with meteoric water. Micro-analysis of early magmatic Fe(Ni,Cu) sulphide inclusions in the Platreef, northern Bushveld Complex, South Africa R. E. Jones1, I. McDonald1, H. M. Prichard1, I. B. Butler2, G. Chunnett3, D. A. Holwell4 1 School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff, Wales, CF10 3AT, UK (JonesRE5@cardiff.ac.uk) 2 School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Grant Institute, The Kings Buildings, West Main Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JW, UK 3 School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa 4 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK The Platreef, located on the northern limb of the Bushveld Complex in South Africa, is one of the largest and most valuable Ni2Cu2PGE orebodies on Earth. The relationship between the Platreef and the main Bushveld stratigraphy is uncertain. The Platreef may represent the northern limb equivalent of the Critical Zone, equating with the Merensky Reef (e.g. Cawthorn et al., 2002; Kruger, 2005; Maier et al., 2008) or may have formed from a combination of magmas unique to the northern limb. The sill-like morphology of the Platreef and the absence of an overlying magma impose a mass balance paradox (Lee, 1996) and a staging chamber model (McDonald and Holwell, 2007) was developed in order to account it. This model can be tested using sulphide inclusions in chromites. These inclusions are proposed to represent the preserved remnants of an early sulphide liquid that was highly enriched in Ni2Cu2PGE and is suggested to have formed in an earlier magma chamber before the Platreef magma was intruded. Using new techniques, the polyphase sulphide inclusions are homogenised and analysed by laser ablation ICP-MS in order to study PGE tenor variations along strike and down-dip across the central Platreef sector
(comprising the farms Zwartfontein, Overysel and Sandsloot).

Cawthorn, R. G., Merkle, R. K. W. and Viljoen, M. J. 2002. Platinumgroup element deposits in the Bushveld Complex, South Africa, in The geology, geochemistry, mineralogy and mineral beneficiation of platinum-group elements, (ed. L. J. Calbri), Vol. CIM Special Volume 54, 582; Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. Kruger, F. J. 2005. Filling the Bushveld Complex magma chamber: lateral expansion, roof and floor interaction, magmatic unconformities, and the formation of giant chromitite, PGE and Ti-Vmagnetitite deposits, Miner. Dep., 40, 451472. Maier, W., Klerk, L., Blaine, J., Manyeruke, T., Barnes, S. J., Stevens, M. and Mavrogenes, J. 2008. Petrogenesis of contact-style PGE mineralization in the northern lobe of the Bushveld Complex: comparison of data from the farms Rooipoort, Townlands, Drenthe and Nonnenwerth, Miner. Dep., 43, 255280. Lee, C. A. 1996. A review of mineralization in the Bushveld Complex and some other layered mafic intrusions, in Layered Intrusions, (ed. R. G. Cawthorn), 103146; Amsterdam, Elsevier Science. McDonald, I. and Holwell, D. A. 2007. Did lower zone magma conduits store PGE-rich sulphides that were later supplied to the Platreef? South Afr. J. Geol., 110, 611616.
Geochronology of granites and gold in the Lupa Goldfield, Southwest Tanzania C. J. M. Lawley1, D. Selby1, D. J. Condon2, M. S. A. Horstwood2, Q. G. Crowley3, J. Imber1, C. MacKenzie4 1 Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Science Labs, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK (c.j.lawley@dur ham.ac.uk) 2 NERC Isotope Geoscience Laboratory, British Geological Survey, Keyworth, NG12 5GG, UK 3 School of Natural Sciences, Department of Geology, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland 4 Helio Resources Corp, Suite 580, 625 Howe Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6C 2T6, Canada The Lupa goldeld in southwest Tanzania displays a clear spatial relationship between granites and shearhosted gold deposits. To evaluate the temporal relationship between magmatism and sulphide (Au) mineralisation we present U2Pb zircon and Re2Os molybdenite geochronology. LA2ICP2MS U2Pb zircon analysis for the sheared granitic host of the Kenge deposit provides a weighted average 207Pb/206Pb age of 27286 Ma (MSWD55?4; n523). All 24 analyses from 15 zircons possess U2Pb isotopic compositions that overlap with Concordia; however, individual 207Pb/206Pb ages range from 2666 to 2753 Ma. This spread of ages may reect re-working of zircon in the magmatic system (i.e. inherited zircons with a range of U-Pb ages), and/or some Pb loss. In contrast, the sulphide and by inference gold mineralisation at Kenge post-dates the granite host by y700 Myr (Re2Os molybdenite dates5y1939 Ma). Three other granitoids from the Lupa goldeld were dated by ID-TIMS U2Pb zircon geochronology. The Ilunga granite and a granodiorite dyke that crosscuts the Archaean granite possess weighted 207Pb/206Pb ages of 19601 Ma (MSWD51?1; n56) and 19601 Ma (MSWD50?4; n52), respectively. The Saza granite possesses a weighted 207Pb/206Pb age of 19351 Ma (MSWD51?7; n55). This latter age is in close agreement with the timing of gold mineralisation as dated by three molybdenite and gold bearing veins from the Kenge deposit, which provide a weighted average
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Re2Os molybdenite model age of 19394 Ma (MSWD 50?50; n56). This suggests that gold deposition at the Kenge deposit was broadly coeval with emplacement of the nearby Saza granite and that hydrothermal uids related to granites could have played an important role in gold genesis. These results highlight the importance of combining mineralisation (i.e. Re2Os molybdenite) and magmatic (i.e. U2Pb zircon) geochronology towards the understanding of Precambrian shear-hosted gold deposits.
uid signature linked to orogenic gold mineralisation in the West African Birimian terrane.
Hammond, N. Q. and Robb, L. 2009. Controls on mineralisation at the Morila mine, Mali5petrographic, mineral-chemical, isotopic and fluid aspects. Abstract for Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits meeting 2009. Treloar, P. J., Lawrence, D., Rankin, A. H., Harbidge, P. 2009. Hypersaline metalliferous fluids associated with orogenic gold deposits in the Loulo mining district, West Mali: significance to ore genetic model: Goldschmidt 20009 Abstract, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 73, (13), 1 A1345.
Structural, fluid and geochemical controls of the Tongon gold deposit, northern Cote dIvoire C. French1, P. Treloar1, A. Rankin1, D. Lawrence1, Sarah Herbert2, Paul Harbidge2 1 Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2HX, UK (k0849561@kingston.ac. uk) 2 Randgold Resources (UK) Ltd, 1st Floor, 2 Savoy Court, Strand, London, WC2R 0EZ, UK The Birimian of West Africa currently hosts a number of world class orogenic gold deposits, and is one of the fastest growing gold producing regions in the world. The Tongon mine is located within the Nielle mining district northern Cote dIvoire, with current indicated resources of 3?61 Moz gold. Tongon lies within the NNE-trending Birimian-aged, Senofou volcanic belt which formed at the margin of the Archaean Sao Luis Craton at ca 2?352?30 Ga. Belt evolution included emplacement of tonalitic and granodioritic plutons into volcano-sedimentary basins. The Senofou belt is dominated by a series of ENE (060080) and NE (035045) trending D1 thrust faults. During D2 (2?101?98 Ga), the ENEtrending thrusts were dextrally reactivated due to a reorientation of the principal shortening direction to WNWESE. Hydrothermal activity related to mineralisation was linked to the D2 deformation event. Tongon hosts two main ore bodies, North Zone (NZ) and South Zone (SZ). These are mineralogically and structurally distinct. Gold in the NZ is predominately occluded within arsenopyrite or occurs as free gold within quartz veins. In the SZ gold is dominantly present as free gold within quartz or occluded within pyrrhotite and to a lesser extent arsenopyrite. The NZ ore body is located within a steeply dipping simple shear zone with carbonaceous shale (CS) units on both its hanging wall and footwall. The carbonaceous shale likely represents a reduced buffering system that encouraged gold precipitation. The SZ ore body has a ramp at geometry within which mineralisation was encouraged bvdilation that was the result of D2 re-activation. A well constrained and highly conductive arsenic anomaly extends from the south of the permit and lies directly to the SE of both NZ and SZ, marking a potential uid pathway. Preliminary uid inclusion studies show a dominance of H2ONaCl inclusions of low to moderate salinity (1218 wt-% NaCl equiv.), but with no obvious CO2 present. This is atypical of most orogenic gold deposits which are sourced by metamorphic uids. These data need to be considered in the context of data from Treloar et al. (2009) from the Loulo permit of western Mali and Hammond and Robb (2009) from the Morila deposit of southern Mali each of whom provide compelling evidence to support a signicant magmatic
Mineralogical footprints and insights from Garnet Chemistry from the Red Lake Gold Mines, Northwestern Ontario, Canada E. D. Stock, G. M. Dipple, F. Bouzari, R. M. Tosdal Mineral Deposit Research Unit, Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia, 6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, BC, Canada (estock@eos.ubc.ca) The Archaean Red Lake Gold Mines (40 Mt at 20 g t21) in the Superior Province, Canada, is a lodegold deposit hosted in metamorphosed Mesoarchaean submarine tholeiitic and less-common komatiitic basalt (Sanborn-Barrie et al., 2001). Overprinting relationships indicate polyphase hydrothermal alteration and metamorphism. All rocks are metamorphosed; hence hydrothermal alteration reects pre-metamorphic events (Penczak and Mason, 1997). Despite the complex history, variations in hydrothermal mineral assemblages and mineral compositions form a regular zonal pattern (Penczak and Mason, 1997; Bouzari et al., 2009). Distal assemblages include albite, pervasive biotite and carbonate, and pervasive chloritezamphiboleepidote. Proximal to ore are carbonate-quartz veins, garnetzchloritemagnetite, carbonate-magnetite veins, aluminosilicate bleaching and silicication. Abundant garnet occurs proximal to the deposit in a concentrated halo approximately 500 m from the ore, thus garnet provides a possible indicator mineral. Garnet ranges from 0?5 to 3 mm in diameter with poikiloblastic cores. Garnet growth predates ore deposition, and is associated with magnetite, grey birefringent chloritebiotite. Ti-magnetite, blue birefringent chlorite, biotite, quartz, carbonate and feldspar are inclusions, whereas quartz-carbonate veins and sulphides overgrow or cut the garnet. Garnet unusually has Mn-rich cores and Fe-enriched rims (Mathieson, 1982) compared to normal metamorphic garnet in mac volcanic rocks (Harte and Graham, 1975). Mn is known to preferentially concentrate into garnet (Makanjuola and Howie, 1972). The chemical changes indicate metamorphic growth following Fe and Mn-enrichment during a pre-ore hydrothermal event. Subsequent hydrothermal activity formed abundant carbonate-quartz veins, which were subsequently silicied and overprinted by sulphide-gold mineralisation. Recognition of the early-stage Fe- and Mn-enrichment in garnet halos to the ore bodies may provide a regional vectoring tool.
Bouzari, F. Tosdal, R. M., Hart, C. J. R., Penczak, R. S., Crick, D., Stock, E. and Dipple, G. et al. 2009. Alteration and geochemical footprints of gold mineralization at Red Lake Mine, Ontario. Portland GSAAnnual Meeting Abstracts with Programs, 41, 682.
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Mathieson, N. A. 1982. Geology and Mineralization in the area of the East South C ore zone, Dickenson Mine, Red Lake, Northwestern Ontario. Unpublished MSc thesis, Queens University. Harte, B. and Graham, C. M. 1975. The graphical analysis of greenschist to amphibolite facies mineral assemblages in metabasites, J. Petrol., 16, 347370. Makanjuola, A. A. and Howie, R. A. 1972. The mineralogy of the galucophane schists and associated rocks from Ile de Groix, Brittany, France, Contrib. Miner. Petr., 35, 83118. Penczak, R. S. and Mason, R., 1997. Metamorphosed Archean Epithermal Au-As-Sb-Zn-(Hg) vein mineralization at the Campbell Mine, Northwestern Ontario, Econ. Geol., 92, 696719. Sanborn-Barrie, M., Skulski, T. and Parker, J. 2001. Three hundred million years of tectonic history recorded by the Red Lake greenstone belt Ontario, GSC Open File 4594, Current Research, 2001C19, 130.
2 The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK 3 The British Geological Survey, Kingsley Dunham Centre, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UK
Reinterpreting the most historically prolific chromite deposit A. Jones1, D. C. Cliff2, L. Hoxha3 1 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (aj112@le.ac.uk) 2 Empire Mining Corporation 307475 Howe St, Vancouver, BC, Canada 3 Empire Mining Albania, Rruga Rerxhepi, Pallati Unikon Lati 6-te Ap. 28 Tirana, Albania Despite the collapse of the communist regime in Albania some 20 years ago, Albania is struggling to regain its strong hold in the production of high grade chromite. Albania was the third largest producer of chromite in the world though it produced much lower volumes but much higher grades than South Africa. Most of this chromite production came from the Bulqiza ophiolitehosted orebody, one of the largest of its type in the world. The deterioration of the state owned mines, little state support for national companies and the country being closed to western companies left only one signicant chromite producer in Albania in the 1990s. With the rise in demand from China, and other emerging economies, and the welcoming mining laws of the Albanian government the Bulqiza chromite deposit has become a style well worth exploring for western companies. The deposit is largely mined by artisanal miners who carry out no geological exploration. The long-held view is that the Bulqiza-Batra orebody forms an anticline with thickening and improved grade at its crest. However, the cusp of the fold was missing over part of the structure and the eastern limb proved impossible to follow despite intensive efforts over the years to locate it through underground development and drilling. Following the acquisition of 64?5 km2 of license area in 2009 Empire has devoted much of its time to digitising analogue data into a digital format so that it can be reinterpreted. The data review allowed Empire geologists to go back to the basic informational building blocks and re-draw the sections. This showed that thrusting tectonics play a dominant role in ore distribution with important implications for exploration. Targeting lower environmental impact secondary copper deposits in the Troodos Ophiolite, Cyprus D. B. Parvaz1, B. J. Williamson1, R. J. Herrington2, J. Naden3 1 The Camborne School of Mines, Tremough Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9EZ, UK (dbp201@exeter.ac.uk)
Volcanogenic massive sulphides (VMS) within the Troodos Ophiolite have been exploited for thousands of years, but may only represent a portion of the mineral potential for Cyprus. Secondary Cu deposits provide an attractive alternative to VMS. They form as a result of weathering of VMS due to oxidation and hydrolysis of sulphide minerals, either on the seaoor or, following uplift, in the terrestrial environment. The benets of exploiting secondary copper deposits are: (1) their oxides and sulphides are more amenable to heap leaching than pyrometallurgy for chalcopyrite in VMS, reducing SO2 emissions; (2) acid waters produced during leaching can be recycled, reducing cost; (3) leaching technologies allow the processing of much lower grade ores than VMS, permitting the mining of strategically important European deposits; (4) production of high purity electrical grade Cu, with no further processing. Seaoor or terrestrial weathering of primary VMS deposits results in the oxidation of pyrite, generating sulphuric acid which leaches metals from the host rock (basaltic/dacitic-andesites). The metals enter the aqueous phase, being stripped from the rocks and leaving behind a brightly coloured oxidised sulphide deposit known as a gossan. The resultant metal rich uids can then migrate to a new location according under gravity/groundwater ow regimens, often being precipitated at deeper levels as oxides and carbonates (e.g. tenorite, cuprite and malachite) above the water table, or sulphides (e.g. chalcocite, covellite and bornite) in the reducing environment below the water table. A secondary deposit is produced, which may or may not be sufciently enriched in copper to warrant a mining operation. The most obvious exploration indicator for the presence of VMS is surface gossans. Many gossans in Cyprus, and in other VMS provinces, overlie mineralisation dominated by pyrite, with very little or no potential for Cu. At the moment, the science does not exist to determine the potential for secondary copper deposits presence beneath a gossan. Low cost, reliable exploration tools are therefore required to discriminate gossans overlying Cu-rich VMS. The presence or absence of secondary copper deposits is likely to relate to both the initial composition of the VMS (Cu-rich/ poor) and whether the conditions were right for leaching, transport and enrichment of Cu in suitable zones. This project aims to develop gossan science into an exploration tool, by attempting to mineralogically and chemically classify gossans overlying Cu rich deposits, and Cu poor deposits. A multi-disciplinary approach to volcanogenic massive sulphide exploration in ancient collision zones: the IrelandNewfoundland connection S. P. Hollis1, S. Roberts1, G. Earls2, R. Herrington3, S. M. Archibald4, M. R. Cooper5, S. J. Piercey6 1 School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK (steven.hollis@ noc.soton.ac.uk) 2 Dalradian Gold, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
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3 Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, London, UK 4 Aurum Exploration Services, Kells Business Park, County Meath, Ireland 5 Geological Survey of Northern Ireland, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK 6 Department of Earth Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada
British Geological Survey, Kingsley Dunham Centre, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UK 3 National and Kapodistrian University Athens, Zographou, GR-15784 Athens, Greece 4 European Goldfields (Services) LTD, London, W1J 8DS, UK The Kassandra mining district (KMD) in N Greece hosts various styles of economically important magmatic-hydrothermal mineralisation located in the Serbo-Macedonian Rhodope metallogenic province of SE Europe (Heinrich and Neubauer, 2002). Base and precious metal deposits are spatially related to Neogene magmatism on the southern limb of a contemporaneously exhumed metamorphic core complex. Available data are insufcient to develop an overarching metallogenetic district model linking hydrothermal mineralisation to magmatism and metamorphic core complex formation. In addition the role of ophiolites in constraining the metallogenic signature is unclear. Olympias and Mavres Petres are PbZn (AuAg) carbonate-hosted massive sulphide replacement deposits (Olympias: 11?5 Mt at 9?0 g t21 Au and 137?5 g t21 Ag, 0?53 Mt at 4?6% Pb, 0?70 Mt at 6?1% Zn; Mavres Petres: 1?76 Mt at 177 g t21 Ag, 0?11 Mt at 6?3% Pb, 0?15 Mt at 9?3% Zn). Skouries is a nearby CuAu porphyry resource (146?20 Mt at 0?83 g t21 Au, 0?79 Mt at 0?54% Cu (European Goldelds, 2010). Both deposit types are linked to Neogene I-type, calc-alkaline plutons emplaced into a tectonic stack of Palaeozoic to Precambrian (amphibolite facies) gneisses, marbles and an ophiolitic melange unit containing peridotite and dunite. These are supra-subduction zone systems likely linked to high heat ows that result from crustal thinning related to slab-rollback located in a local transtensional stress eld along the detachment of a metamorphic core complex. Unusual PGE concentrations of PtzPd (max. 80 ppm) in ore concentrates from the CuAu porphyry at Skouries as well as FeNiCoV sulphides and Cuenriched rims in magnetite in a porphyry-style alteration system in vicinity to Skouries suggests that metamorphic uids derived from the ophiolitic units provide an unusual chemical bias to the mineralisation (Eliopoulos and Economou-Eliopoulos, 1991). Preliminary results of a multidisciplinary analytical program are presented in order to establish an integrated ore genetic model for the Kassandra mining district. These include LA-ICP-MS single grain U2Pb geochronology; Lu2Hf isotope, REE and melt inclusion geochemistry of zircon; and magnetite mineral and whole-rock geochemistry.
Heinrich, C. A. and Neubauer, F. 2002. Miner. Dep., 37, 533540. European Goldfields. 2010. Reserves (P&P) Statement 10th August 2010. www.egoldfields.com Eliopoulos, D. and Economou-Eliopoulos, M. 1991. Econ. Geol., 86, 740749.
The CaledonianAppalachian orogen is one of the best preserved and most intensely studied examples of a longlived collision zone within the geologic record. Early Palaeozoic closure of the Iapetus Ocean resulted in the accretion of a diverse set of arc terranes, ribbon-shaped microcontinents and oceanic tracts to the Laurentian margin during the GrampianTaconic event. Many of these within Newfoundland, Canada, such as the Annieopsquotch Accretionary Tract, are sequentially divisible into a series of ophiolitic, arc and back-arc assemblages that host substantive volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits (e.g. Buchans Camp, 16 Mt of ore at 14?5% Zn, 7?6% Pb, 1?3% Cu, 126 g t21 Ag and 1?4 g t21 Au) (van Staal, 2007). Within the British and Irish Caledonides, peri-Laurentian-hosted VMS deposits remain to be discovered. New mapping across the Tyrone Igneous Complex of Northern Ireland, supported by extensive major-, traceelement and Nd-isotope geochemistry, and nine new U2Pb zircon dates, suggests a correlation to the VMSrich Annieopsquotch Accretionary Tract of Newfoundland. Synthesis of more than 30 years of exploration data in Co. Tyrone, coupled with new lithogeochemistry and high-resolution geophysics, has dened stratigraphic horizons favourable for VMS mineralisation, coincident with: (i) extensive sericitic alteration, (ii) mineralised oat, (iii) bedrock silica-iron exhalites, (iv) strike parallel kmscale deep overburden anomalies and (v) geophysical anomalies (EM, magnetic and IP). For example, talc and chlorite altered felsic tuffs at Greencastle contain bands of pyrite-galena-sphaleritechalcopyrite mineralisation assaying up to 10% Zn, 2?8% Pb and 1?2% Cu coincident with a 3 km strike length Zn deep overburden anomaly and a series of EM anomalies. Silicied and chloritic altered felsic tuffs around Tullybrick and Broughderg are coincident with a series of EM anomalies and a 5 km strike length Zn (with Cu and minor Pb) deep overburden anomaly. This revised and detailed correlation between the two terranes, integrated with encouraging exploration data has dened exploration fairways in Co. Tyrone with potential to host VMS deposits.
van Staal, C. R. 2007. Pre-carboniferous tectonic evolution and metallogeny of the Canadian Appalacians, in Mineral Deposits of Canada, (ed. W. D. Goodfellow), Geological Association of Canada special publication no. 5, 793818.
Magmatic-hydrothermal Cu2Au and Zn2Pb (Ag2Au) deposits in the kassandra mining district, N Greece: first steps towards an integrated metallogenetic model A. Hahn1, P. J. Treloar1, J. Naden2, S. P. Kilias3, A. H. Rankin1, P. Forward4 1 School of Geography, Geology & the Environment, Kingston University, Surrey, KT1 2EE, UK (K0849560@kingtson.ac.uk)
Timing and evolution of Tertiary magmatism and epithermal mineralisation in the southern Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico
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A. R. Rosique1, S. Bryan2, L. Ferrari3, M. Lopez Martinez4, A. Rankin1, A. Camprub5, C. Allen6, T. Uysal7, Y. Feng8, P. Reiners9 1 Centre for Earth and Environmental Research, Kingston University, UK (a.ramos@kingston.ac.uk) 2 Biogeoscience, Queensland University of Technology, Australia 3 Centro de Geociencias, UNAM, Queretaro, Mexico 4 Laboratorio de Geocronologa, CICESE, Baja California, Mexico 5 Departamento de Geoqumica, Instituto de Geologa, UNAM, Mexico 6 Research School of Earth Sciences, ANU, Australia 7 Queensland Geothermal Energy Centre of Excellence, The University of Queensland, Australia 8 Centre for Microscopy & Microanalysis, The University of Queensland, Australia 9 Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, USA The mid-Tertiary Sierra Madre Occidental (SMO) of western Mexico, a young and continuous silicic volcanic province hosts the worlds largest silver province, and the spatial2temporal distribution of Ag2Au epithermal deposits is intimately related to SMO igneous activity. New eld mapping, geochemical, and combined U2 Th/Pb2He, 40Ar/39Ar and Rb2Sr geochronological studies provide insights into the timing and evolution of magmatism and epithermal mineralisation in the central Bolanos graben (southern SMO). The exposed volcanic pile spans at least y10 Myr. The lower part of the succession yielded Oligocene (2928 Ma) U2Pb zircon ages, and is dominated by rhyolitic ignimbrites interbedded with resedimented pyroclastics. The Alacran ignimbrite (23?10?5 Ma, 40Ar/39Ar) was part of a new pulse of bimodal volcanism, with the emplacement of crystal-poor rhyolitic ignimbrites and domes, and basaltic lavas. Domes emplaced between about 2422 Ma are distinctive in being generally Zr undersaturated rhyolites containing high proportions of antecrystic zircons with very high UzHREE contents. At the top of the erupted pile is the non-welded Chimal tuff (18?4 Ma; 40Ar/39Ar), followed by a y200 m sedimentary sequence. The graben faults have been considered as conduits for magmas and mineralising uids, and that mineralisation was closely related to rhyolitic domes. Our eld observations and age data show that mineralisation post-dates dome emplacement. We obtained an Rb/Sr illite age of 20?570?5 Ma from the argillic alteration related to mineralisation. Ore veins are mostly along E2W and NNE trending faults at San Martn de Bolanos and Bolanos, respectively; these faults also partition extensional deformation along the graben. The N2S graben faults have thus exposed mineralisation rather than controlled it: a U2Th/He zircon age of 15?40?9 Ma from a host ignimbrite unit to the Zuloaga vein dated at 26?20?24 Ma (U/Pb zircon) records post-volcanic exhumation of the succession. Our data indicate that Early Miocene rhyolitic magmas spatially related to, and building up to mineralisation, were sourced from crustal igneous rocks signicantly pre-enriched in metals over the lifespan of SMO magmatism. Hydrothermal alteration may also have concentrated metals in the crustal source for the Early Miocene rhyolitic magmas.
Basement vein microthermometry and isotopic composition, Kagusa high-sulphidation deposit, Kagoshima, Japan T. D. Tindell1, A. Imai2, R. Takahashi3, A. J. Boyce4 1 Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan (tindell-tom@mine.kyushu-u.ac.jp) 2 Faculty of Engineering and Resource Science, Akita University, Akita 010-8502, Japan 3 Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan 4 SUERC, East Kilbride, Rankine Avenue, Glasgow G75 0QF, Scotland, UK The Nansatsu ore district is regarded as a type example for high-sulphidation Au/Ag/Cu deposits (Hedenquist et al., 1994). The Nansatsu district is dominated by three deposits; Kasuga, Iwato and Akeshi, ranging in age from 4?3 to 3?7 Ma (Izawa et al., 1984), mirroring the eastward migration of a volcanic front. Kasuga, a disseminated Au deposit exploited since 1908, is hosted in andesite of the Nansatsu Upper Volcanic Sequence, which unconformably overlies the sandstone and sandy mudstone of the ShimantoSupergroup Formation (89?3 to 83?5 Ma) (Teraoka et al., 1986). In 1999, core 11MANU-1 was drilled 1200 m below Kasuga to elucidate feeder veining and structure. Veining was recognised below 300 m, and occurs in 8 discrete batches of veins, distributed every 100150 m. Veins, usually 0?13 cm wide, are commonly barren of ore minerals, but occasionally contain pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite. Gangue minerals are dominated by quartz, calcite and epidote (the latter restricted to below 800 m depth). Veins typically have a comb structure; however, there are a number of occurrences composed of vuggy silica, especially where leaching of host rock and illitic alteration is abundant. Calcite is absent above 400 m depth, largely attributed to the strongly acidic conditions, whereas below 1100 m, quartz is subordinate to calcite. Our preliminary study focuses on the microthermometric and isotopic composition of these veins, with a view to establishing the geochemical anatomy of the feeder system to the overlying deposit. Fluid inclusion microthermometry was conducted on samples of quartz and calcite from veins at each vein group interval. Homogenisation temperature and salinity were measured in two-phase liquid/vapour and polyphase halite/liquid/vapour inclusions. Polyphase inclusions in quartz were observed from 900 to 1054 m depth. Generally, above 600 m depth, temperature is below 250uC, increasing to 310uC at the base of the drill core. d13C isotopic composition from calcite is dominantly magmatic. Calculated uid d18O from quartz and calcite varies signicantly with depth: above 640 m, it ranges from z0?8 to 1?1%, whereas below this, the range is from z4?2 to z8?6%. These data indicate that there was a mixing of magmatic and surface uid, with a greater inuence of magmatic uids generally noted with depth, as might be intuitively anticipated.
Izawa, E., Urashima, Y. and Okubo, Y. 1984. Mining Geol., 34, 343 351. Hedenquist, J. W., Matsuhisa, Y., Izawa, E., White, N. C., Giggenbach, W. F. and Aoki, M. 1994. Econ. Geol., 89, 1 30.
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Teraoka, Y. and Kurimoto, C. 1986. Bull. Geol. Surv. Japan, 37, (8), 417453.
The creation of Au-enriched oceanic crust by the Iceland plume and implications for Au mineralisation in the arc system A. Webber1, S. Roberts1, I. Pitcairn2, Rex Taylor1, C. Dale3 1 School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, SO14 3ZH, UK (a.webber@noc.soton.ac.uk) 2 Department of Geology and Geochemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm 10691, Sweden 3 Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Science Labs, Durham DH1 3LE, UK It has been suggested that the subduction of goldenriched crust, such as oceanic plateaus formed by plume activity, can increase the chances of developing gold mineralisation in the overlying arc (Bierlein et al., 2006; 2008; Kerrich et al., 2000). Such material is assumed to have a higher Au concentration than normal mid-ocean ridge basalt since plumes should carry siderophile elements into the upper mantle. Here we show the Iceland plume is creating subductable enriched oceanic crust with Au concentrations of up to 4?30?2 ppb, which is 6 to 7 times the normal midAtlantic MORB Au concentration. This enrichment extends over 100 s of kilometres and would represent a signicant enrichment to an arc system if it were subducted. However, we do not yet know whether Au carried by the subducting slab is recycled into the arc system. In order to answer this question, we are analysing samples of eclogitised basalt from the Zermatt-Saas ophiolite, Switzerland. These eclogites are thought to have been subducted to y90 km depth before being uplifted and emplaced in the Alpine orogeny. Pt, Pd and Re have been shown to be depleted in this material by up to 80% (Dale et al., 2009), and so are inferred to move into the mantle wedge during subduction. By comparing the Au concentration of these samples with their PGE content, and with global MORB data, we will be able to detect any ux of Au from the slab to the mantle wedge.
Bierlein, F. P., Groves, D. I., Goldfarb, R. J. and Dube, B. 2006. Lithospheric controls on the formation of provinces hosting giant orogenic gold deposits, Miner. Dep., 40, 874886. Bierlein, F. P. and Pisarevsky, S. A. 2008. Plume-related oceanic plateaus as a potential source of gold mineralization, Econ. Geol., 103, 425430. Dale, C. W., Burton, K. W., Pearson, D. G., Gannoun, A., Alard, O., Argles, T. W. and Parkinson, I. J. 2009. Highly siderophile element behaviour accompanying subduction of oceanic crust: Whole rock and mineral-scale insights from a high-pressure terrain, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 73, 13941416. Kerrich, R., Goldfarb, R. J., Groves, D. I. and Garwin, S. 2000. The geodynamics of world-class gold deposits; characteristics, spacetime distribution, and origins, Rev. Econ. Geol., 13, 501555.
Chlorine is the most abundant anion in most hydrothermal solutions and is the dominant metal complexing agent in many ore forming environments. Furthermore, Cl (and Br) have often been regarded geochemically fairly conservative elements in many systems, and, thus, have been used to elucidate the origins of metal bearing brines and other uids. Stable chlorine isotopes (d37Cl) are a relatively new geochemical tool that may also help to constrain the origin of the salinity in mineralising uids and the role that hydrothermal uids play in the global cycle of Cl. Studies have suggested that the crustal reservoir for Cl is dominated by seawater and evaporites and has values of 01% (Eastoe et al., 2007). The composition of the mantle is not well known but recent studies of mid ocean ridge basalts suggest that mantle values may range from 0 to 23% (Bonifacie et al., 2008). It is known that boiling and condensation can fractionate Cl isotopes at low temperatures but there are no experimental data on uid-mineral fractionations at elevated temperatures and pressures although theoretical models suggest that such fractionations will be small (Schauble et al., 2003). The potential for isotopic analyses of small mineral samples by secondary ion mass spectrometry is high (Godon et al., 2004) and as a result fractionation data are likely to become available in the near future. Two case studies utilising a combination of Cl, Br and d37Cl data from uid inclusion leachates will be presented. The rst focuses on the compositions of intermediate density uids from the Butte (Montana) and Bingham Canyon (Utah) porphyry-Cu deposits and suggests that the uids that formed Butte derived Cl from the mantle reservoir, whereas uids at Bingham may in part retain a low temperature d37Cl signature related to a subducting slab. In the second case study, uid inclusions from a series of metamorphic Ag-Zn-Pb veins from the Kokanee district of British Colombia were analysed. These halogen data suggest that the mineralising uids ultimately derived their salinity from the dissolution of evaporites and, therefore, that the presence of evaporite bearing carbonate units in the area was a fundamental control on the ability of these uids to complex Ag and base metals.
Bonifacie, M., Jendrzejewski, N., Agrinier, P., Humler, E., Coleman, M. and Javoy, M. 2008. The chlorine isotope composition of Earths mantle, Science, 319, 15181520. Eastoe, C. J., Peryt, T. M., Petrychenko, O. Y. and Geisler-Cussey, D. 2007. Stable chlorine isotopes in Phanerozoic evaporates, Appl. Geochem., 22, 575588. Godon, A., Webster, J. D., Layne, G. D. and Pineau, F. 2004. SIMS for the determination of d37Cl Part II: intercalibration of SIMS and IRMS for aluminosilicate glasses, Chem. Geol., 207, 291303. Schauble, E. A., Rossman, G. R. and Taylor, H. P. 2003. Theoretical estimates of equilibrium chlorine-isotope fractionations, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 67, 32673281.
Dont pass the salt: stable chlorine isotopes in hydrothermal systems S. A. Gleeson Department of Earth & Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E3, Canada (sgleeson@ualberta.ca)
Evolution of sediment-hosted Cu2Co ore mineralisation in the Central African Copperbelt Ph. Muchez1, H. El Desouky1, A. Boyce2, D. Brems1, A. De Cleyn1, S. Dewaele3, L. Lammens1, J. Cailteux4, O. Sikazwe5 1 Geodynamics and Geofluids Research Group, K.U.Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200E, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium (philippe.muchez@ees.kuleuven.be) 2 SUERC, Scotland
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Royal Museum for Central Africa, Belgium 4 E.G.M.F., Groupe Forrest International, Lubumbashi, D.R.Congo 5 University of Zambia, School of Mines, Zambia The Central African Copperbelt is one of the largest and richest Cu2Co metallogenic provinces in the world. A recent consensus suggests these high-grade stratiform deposits resulted from multiple mineralisation/remobilisation stages (Cailteux et al., 2005; Selley et al., 2005; Dewaele et al., 2006; El Desouky et al., 2009; 2010). During initial rifting, Cu and Co sulphides formed due to convective circulation of brines in the underlying rock pile including the pre-Katangan basement, from which metals were leached. Interaction of these brines with bacteriogenic sulphide resulted in early diagenetic (y820 Ma) stratiform mineralisation (Muchez et al., 2008). This stage occurs in the DRC, but is absent or obscured in Zambia. Ore events then occurred during the Lulian Orogeny (Brems et al., 2009) at approximately 583526 Ma. In Zambia, layer-parallel veins formed at lithostatic pressures during basin inversion. Subsequently, rocks and layer-parallel veins were folded, concentrating minerals in the hinge zones of the folds. Highly irregular veins formed at high pressures during the main phase of the orogenesis. Unfolded massive veins crosscut all preceding stages. In the DRC, ores are remobilised in veins and late stage nodules, and cement tectonic breccias (El Desouky et al., 2009; Cailteux and Kampunzu, 1995). To unravel this complex metallogenesis, mineralogical and geochemical studies must be carried out on individual stages. d34S increases from early diagenetic stratiform sulphides to syn-orogenic sulphides (El Desouky et al., 2010; Muchez et al., 2010), reecting the evolution from early bacteriogenic sulphides to sulphur derived from thermochemical sulphate reduction (Muchez et al., 2010; McGowan et al., 2003). Fluids associated with the rst Cu2Co mineralisation stage had moderate temperature (115u to (220uC) and salinity (11?3 to 20?9 eq. wt-% NaCl). In the DRC (El Desouky et al. 2009), the second Cu2Co stage is related to a hydrothermal uid with a higher temperature (.270uC) and salinity (3545 eq. wt-% NaCl). Although, the barren host-rock carbonates show Sr isotope signatures compatible with Neoproterozoic marine seawater, carbonates associated with all the mineralisation/ remobilisation stages in Zambia and with the early diagenetic mineralisation stage in the DRC are signicantly more radiogenic, reecting the interaction of the uids with basement rocks or basement-derived siliciclastic sediments derived from it (El Desouky et al., 2010; Muchez et al., 2008; Muchez et al., 2010; Roberts et al., 2009).
Brems, D., Muchez, Ph., Sikazwe, O. and Mukumba, W. 2009. Metallogenesis of the Nkana copper-cobalt South Orebody, Zambia, J. Afr. Earth Sci., 55, 185196. Cailteux, J. and Kampunzu, A. B. 1995. Musee Royal de lAfrique Centrale, Tervuren, Belgique, Annales des Sciences Geologiques, 101, 6376. Cailteux, J., Kampunzu, A. and Batumike, M. 2005. J. Afr. Earth Sci., 42, 134158. Dewaele, S., Muchez, Ph., Vets, J., Fernandez-Alonzo, M. and Tack, L. 2006. J. Afr. Earth Sci., 46, 455469. El Desouky, H., Muchez, Ph. and Cailteux, J. 2009. Ore Geol. Rev., 36, 315332.
El Desouky et al. 2010. Miner. Dep., DOI10.1007/s00126-010-0298-3. Roberts et al. 2009. Miner. Dep., 44, 881891. Selley, D., Broughton, D., Scott, R., Hitzman, M., Bull, S., Large, R., McGoldrick, P., Croaker, M., Pollington, N. and Barra, F. 2005. A new look at the geology of the Zambian Copperbelt, in Econ. Geol. 100th Ann. Vol., (ed. J. W. Hedenquist et al.), 965 1000. McGowan, R. R., Roberts, S., Foster, R. P., Boyce, A. J. and Coller, D. 2003. Origin of the copper-cobalt deposits of the Zambian Copperbelt: an epigenetic view from Nchanga, Geology, 31, 497 500. Muchez, P., Vanderhaeghen, P., Desouky, H., Schneider, J., Boyce, A., Dewaele, S. and Cailteux, J. 2008. Anhydrite pseudomorphs and the origin of stratiform Cu-Co ores in the Katangan Copperbelt (Democratic Republic of Congo), Miner. Dep., 43, 575589. Muchez, Ph., Brems, D., Clara, E., De Cleyn, A., Lammens, L., Boyce, A., De Muynck, D., Mukumba, W. and Sikazwe, O. 2010. Evolution of CuCo mineralizing fluids at Nkana Mine, Central African Copperbelt, Zambia, J. Afr. Earth Sci., 58, 457474.
Cu2Co mineralisation and geotectonic evolution of the Zambian Basin S. Roberts School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, SO14 3ZH, UK (sr1@noc.soton.ac.uk) A range in the timing and style of Cu2Co mineralisation is evident in the Cu2Co mineralisation of the Zambian Copperbelt. The Zambian base metal deposits range from disseminated stratabound mineralisation to vein hosted, with mineralisation evidently occurring throughout the evolution of the basin. For example, some of the deposits show geological and isotopic characteristics consistent with low temperature diagenetic mineralisation. Elsewhere, the deposits contain evidence of high temperature thermochemical sulphate reduction and mineralisation during the onset of basin inversion. In addition, base metal deposits are increasingly recognised within the metamorphic basement to the sedimentary basin and in veins which postdate fabrics generated during the closure of the basin. These new data indicate that successful base metal exploration in the Zambian basin involves recognition of the contrasting styles and timing of mineralisation, which in turn signicantly expand the potential exploration targets beyond the traditional exploration paradigm in the region. Secondary zinc deposits an African focus M. Boni Dipartimento Scienze della Terra Universita di Napoli ` Federico II, Via Mezzocannone, 8 80134 Napoli, Italy (boni@unina.it) Until recently, the search for base metal deposits in the African continent has been mainly limited to sulphide ores: nonsulphide zinc concentrations (both hypogene and supergene) have been relatively poorly investigated. Consequently, the genetic understanding, and the ability to explore these mineralogically and geochemically complex deposit types are still incomplete. In the last decades, though, the Skorpion success in Namibia has triggered a renewed interest in the scientic and economic research of nonsulphide ores. We will discuss here some examples of Zn-nonsulphide prospects/ deposits of different age, framed in the geological evolution of the African continent.
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Hypogene: Lusaka region (Zambia) The prospects of the Lusaka area occur in the marbles of the late Proterozoic Zambezi Belt. The main ore mineral is willemite, associated with hematite, franklinite, and the Zn-spinel gahnite. High homogensation temperatures suggest a hypogene-hydrothermal origin for the ores, with brines derived from highly evaporated seawater. A similar paragenesis is a vector towards massive sulphides in other parts of the world; therefore it is possible that the Lusaka showings may be part of a still unexplored zinc province. Hypogene/Supergene: Otavi region (Northern Namibia); Kabwe (Zambia) The willemite ores from the Otavi region in Namibia are hosted by Neoproterozoic carbonates of the Otavi Group. In the main occurrences (Berg Aukas and Abenab West), the nonsulphide ores clearly replace base metal sulphides and/or the carbonate host. Willemite mineralisation in Namibia is related to hydrothermal processes, which followed the main Damaran deformational events. The same genesis and age (post-Lulian orogeny) can be assigned to the willemite prospects of the Kabwe area (Zambia). Neither of these deposits has been exploited for willemite so far. Both primary sulphides and willemite ores have been subjected in both areas to late supergene enrichment processes. Supergene: Skorpion (Southern Namibia); KihabeNxuu (Namibia-Botswana) Skorpion is a nonsulphide deposit, hosted by volcanosedimentary rocks of the Proterozoic Gariep Complex. Supergene ore-forming processes involve wallrockreplacement, as well as direct-replacement. The zincsilicate (sauconite)-smithsonite ore is treated by acid leach, solid liquid separation, zinc solvent extraction and electro-winning to produce high-purity zinc on site. The Kihabe-Nxuu Project is located in siliciclastic Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks, on the border of Botswana and Namibia, and contains total resources of 33 mtons of Zn.Pb ore. Zinc in the oxidised zone is found in the minerals smithsonite and baileychlore. Metallurgical test work has shown that the ore is amenable to tank acid leaching and electro-winning on site. How geothermal exploration led to gold exploration: a case history the Afar Depression D. James Stratex International plc., London, UK The term epithermal derives from the genetic classication scheme for hydrothermal ore deposits proposed by Lindgren. On the basis of stratigraphic relationships in volcanic sequences, and by analogy with mineral and metal occurrences and mineral textures in active hydrothermal systems, Lindgren inferred that epithermal deposits formed at ,200uC and ,100 atmospheres (y100 bars). It was early recognised that clear parallels exist between the near surface (y500 m) depositional environment of these deposits and that of modern hot spring systems and these were emphasised by the results of exploration activity through the Western USA (e.g. McLaughlin deposit, CA). Bonanza epithermal veins are dened informally as those containing roughly 1 million metric tonnes or more averaging at least y1 oz t21 Au (i.e. y30 metric tonnes gold) and occur sparingly in the epithermal
environment. However, somewhat surprisingly nearly 60% of them occur in rifts with bimodal volcanism. The Afar Depression lies within the Afro-Arabian Rift System. This rift system extends from Syria in the north and passes through Jordan valley, Dead Sea, Red Sea, Afar Depression and the East African Rift and terminates in southern Africa. The Main Ethiopian Rift, the southern Red Sea and the western Gulf of Aden lie within the Afar Depression forming a rift-rift-rift triple junction between the Nubian, Somalian and Arabian Plates. The volcanism within the rift is strongly bi-modal. Many petrological indications suggest that silicic rocks may have generated by fractional crystallisation of transitional basaltic magmas in shallow level magma chambers with some degree of crustal assimilation. Geothermal exploration has been undertaken in the Tendaho graben of Ethiopia and in Republic of Djibouti. Hydrothermal activity, both active and extinct, was reported in the Tendaho Graben. The extinct hydrothermal activity is indicated by silica deposition within NW to NNW sub-vertical fractures crosscutting the rift sediments. No extinct hydrothermal activity was reported by the geothermal work in Djibouti however, epithermal potential had been recognised by the USGS. Bonanza gold deposits make attractive targets because of their potential to yield high rates of return. The need for the discovery of high quality, high prot margin gold deposits is essential to sustain a competitive industry position. Stratex initiated a programme in January 2008 to prove the concept of gold potential of the African Rift valley. In March 2009 work commenced in the Lakes District of the Main Ethiopian Rift based on data from geothermal reports. In October 2009, the Tendaho graben was visited to investigate in and around known hot springs. This resulted in discovery of the Megenta hot spring gold prospect. Review of nickel exploration in eastern Africa D. M. Evans1,2 1 Carrog Consulting, Canada House, Eastcote, HA4 9NA, UK 2 Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 1BB, UK (Evans_dave_m@hotmail.com) The Precambrian terranes of eastern Africa may represent an emerging exploration province for both sulphide and laterite nickel deposits. I dene eastern Africa as including Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Malawi, Zambia, the eastern part of DRC and the northern part of Mozambique. This area has excellent deep water ports on the Indian Ocean, but as yet poorly developed transport and energy infrastructure inland. Two factors are driving the emergence of eastern Africa as a potential source of nickel. (1) The perceived imbalance of supply/demand for nickel from emerging economies around the Indian Ocean such as India and China in the near to medium future. (2) The possibility of acceleration of infrastructure development led by the World Banks transit corridors project, aiming to replicate the success of the Maputo corridor farther north.
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There is one operating nickel mine in the region, the relatively small producer at Munali in Zambia. Two main advanced projects stand out: the laterite deposit at Musongati in Burundi, and the sulphide nickel deposit at Kabanga, Tanzania, for which the results of a feasibility study are imminent. Other deposits for which mineral resources have been estimated are the laterite deposits at Mibango and Dutwa, and the small but highgrade sulphide deposits at Nachingwea (all in Tanzania). All of the deposits mentioned so far were discovered in the 19651975 global nickel boom, or even earlier, but lay nearly idle until the last 1015 years. However, continuing exploration and new geological appraisal, together with the evolving economic situation have led to the possibility that all or most of these deposits may become viable operations in the near future. In addition, brand new deposits are beginning to be uncovered in previously unprospected terranes such as northern Mozambique. The known nickel deposits are situated in a diversity of geological settings, but the main prospective belt is the Mesoproterozoic Karagwe-Ankole Belt of northwestern Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda. This contains the major deposits of Musongati, Kabanga and Mibango, plus several less important occurrences, all associated with intracontinental high-Mg basaltic magmatism. Exploration in this belt is not yet mature, and the discovery of signicant new deposits at Kabanga (Tembo and Safari) since 2006 indicates the continuing potential for new sulphide deposits. Other geological settings include the Archaean craton (Dutwa), and Neoproterozoic orogenic belts (Munali, Nachingwea, northern Mozambique). The background geological knowledge of many of these terranes is rapidly improving, and as it does, it suggests that some received ideas about favourable tectonic settings and geological eras based on other parts of the world may not be applicable in eastern Africa. Lamproite and a possible carbonatite in the Troms area, North Norway K. Kullerud1, D. R. Zozulya2, E. J. K. Ravna1 1 Department of Geology, University of Troms, N-9037 Troms, Norway (kare.kullerud@uit.no) 2 Geological Institute, Kola Science Centre, 14 Fersman Str, 184209 Apatity, Russia A lamproite dyke and a possible high-pressure carbonatite have recently been discovered near Troms, North Norway. The lamproite dyke occurs within the 1?79 Ga Ersfjord granite at the island Kvalya west of Troms. The dyke rock shows high concentrations of K2O (910?3 wt-%), TiO2 (3?24?0 wt-%), BaO (0?55 1?47 wt-%), P2O5 (2?53?0 wt-%), Zr (26503000 ppm), Sr (23002500 ppm), Cr (270350 ppm), Ni (240 320 ppm) and SREE (9001260 ppm), and low concentrations of Fe2O3 (45 wt-%), Al2O3 (8?510 wt-%) and CaO (3?24?2 wt-%). The SiO2 content is 54?856?8 wt-%. In consequence of the high K2O content, the dyke rock shows high element ratios K/Na (2?32?9) and K/Al (1?01?2). The rock is porphyritic, with 13 mm long phenocrysts of phlogopite in a ne-grained matrix. The ne-grained matrix is principally composed of K-magnesioarfvedsonite (y25 modal%), orthoclase (y40 modal%) and quartz (y10 modal%). Accessory minerals include apatite (57 modal%), baotite [Ba4Ti4(Ti,Nb,Fe)4Si4O28Cl;
up to 3 modal%], rutile (13 modal%), barite and zircon. Several unknown phosphates, including a Na2Mg2Ba phosphate have been observed. Baotite formed at an advanced stage of crystallisation, probably as a result of (1) an abnormally high content of BaO and TiO2 in the melt, and (2) rapid crystallisation of the melt. Also important for baotite formation was the low calcium content of the melt. Most likely, all calcium was consumed during early apatite forming reactions, leaving no Ca for titanite. Titanium in excess from the baotite forming reactions resulted in the crystallisation of rutile. Furthermore, when all Ca had been consumed during the apatite forming reactions, excess P was responsible for the formation of more uncommon phosphates. High pressure carbonatite-like rocks occur spatially associated with eclogite, garnet pyroxenite, (kyanite)garnet-phengite schist and, and marble within the uppermost tectonic unit in the northern Scandinavian Caledonides. Veins of carbonatite-like rock cross-cut the metamorphic fabric dened by alternating laminae of garnet and omphacite in eclogite and foliation in marble. The rock is variably deformed, but locally massive parts exhibiting isotropic texture are present. Potassic fenitisation resulted in phlogopitisation of the host rock (eclogite, pyroxenite -. glimmerite) and a consequent K-depletion in the carbonatite-like rock along contacts. Gold particle characteristics in vein-gold deposits: implications for evaluation and metallurgy S. C. Dominy1,2, I. M. Platten1, Y. Xie3, R. C. A. Minnitt4, R. L. Abel5 1 Snowden Mining Industry Consultants Limited, Abbey House, Wellington Way, Brooklands Business Park, Weybridge, Surrey KT13 0TT, England, UK 2 School of Science and Engineering, University of Ballarat, Mount Helen, Vic 3353, Australia 3 Department of Minerals Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China 4 School of Mining Engineering, University of Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS 2050, South Africa 5 Micro-Tomography Specialist, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, England, UK Vein gold mineralisation generally contains both ne (,100 mm) and coarse (.100 mm) gold particles. The in-situ size and shape, deportment, distribution and abundance of the particles controls deposit sampling characteristics, grade distribution and metallurgical properties (Dominy and Platten, 2007; Dominy et al., 2008; Dominy et al., 2010) Particles can range from individual disseminated grains, clusters of particles and masses above 1 cm in size (Dominy and Platten, 2007). At each end of the coarse-gold to ne-gold spectrum, the samplability of a deposit ranges from relatively simple for ne-grained disseminated gold particles (e.g. Carlin style deposits), through to extremely difcult for very coarse particles (e.g. Bendigo-Ballarat mineralisation). Most vein-gold deposits show a background grade of mineralisation dominated by disseminated ne gold particles. Drilling will resolve the background grade relatively well, though is likely to considerably understate the grade related to the coarser gold particles depending upon drill density, support and sampling
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protocols. Knowledge of gold particle sizing and distribution enables evaluation programmes to be optimised. Gold mineralogy has a signicant impact on metallurgy, with key factors affecting recovery being particle size, deportment, liberation parameters and silver content of gold minerals (Dominy et al., 2010). For coarse gold particles the focus should be on liberation and the early removal of the particles from the mill circuit by gravity concentrators and gold traps. Finer particles will require more grinding to liberate prior to otation or cyanide extraction. Early gold particle determination enables metallurgical recovery parameters to be dened prior to detailed feasibility studies. The determination of gold particle sizing is thus required to minimise evaluation and geometallurgical uncertainty and lower project risk.
Dominy, S. C. and Platten, I. M., 2007. Gold particle clustering 2 a new consideration in sampling applications, Trans. Inst. Min. Metal, 116, B130B142. Dominy, S. C., Xie, Y. and Platten, I. M., 2008. Characterisation of insitu gold particle size and distribution for sampling protocol optimisation, in Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress on Applied Mineralogy 2008, 175185; Melbourne, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Dominy, S. C., Platten, I. M. and Xie, Y., 2010. Determining gold particle size in gravity ores for sampling and metallurgical characterisation discussion and test protocol, in Proceedings of Gravity Gold Conference 2010, 8395; Melbourne, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
these both tensile and shear fractures, mode 1 and 2, respectively, were built. Applied density governing attributes include strain ratio E1/E3 and deviation from cylindricity. Quantifying these attributes required several restoration steps. Subsequent fault related fractures were built using fault plane orientations and estimated damage zone widths. The optimum discrete fracture network, and the range of scenarios, aims to honour the geological history, with number of sets, predicted lateral variation, and cross cutting relationships. It can now be ne-tuned as soon as drill-hole data comes in. Characteristics of the fracture networks, including sigma value, block size and permeability tensor, can be output using a geocellular grid and provide input parameters for geotechnical and hydrological modelling.
Kloppenburg, A., Grocott, J. and Hutchinson, D. 2010. Structural setting and syn-plutonic fault kinematics of a cordilleran Cu-AuMo porphyry mineralization system, Bingham Mining District, Utah, Econ. Geol., 105, (4), 743761.
Fracture prediction for mine planning using 3D kinematic structural modelling, Bingham Canyon mine, Utah A. Kloppenburg1, J. Grocott1, X. Guifen2 1 Midland Valley Exploration Ltd, 144 West George Street, Glasgow, G2 2HG, UK (armelle@mve.com) 2 Schlumberger, 10 The Courtyard, Eastern Rd, Bracknell Berkshire RG12 2XB, UK Discrete fracture network modelling can inform mine development where it helps rock mass characterisation, including block size and block size anisotropy for mine design and for ow property prediction for optimum ground water handling. Traditionally, fracture predictions are made by interpolating and extrapolating observations from surface and/or drill-hole data using contouring techniques. This approach may carry high risk depending on the heterogeneity of the controls on fracturing and on the observation density. Our 3D kinematic approach involves identifying fracture causes, both spatially and through time. We use 3D kinematic modelling software (MoveTM) to restore the 3D model and determine the associated volumetric strain, both for discrete sequential steps through time and cumulatively. Strain quantication provides volume dilatation and strain tensors with orientation and magnitude of the principal strain axes. Strain values and ratios of specic restoration steps can then be selected to govern fracture density and orientation of particular fracture sets, depending on the applied geological concept for that particular deformation stage. For the area of interest in Bingham Canyon, a 7-step geological history (Kloppenburg, 2010) served as a basis for the 11-set fracture network recipe. Lack of drillhole data and direct eld observations, required the fracture modelling to largely build on theoretical constraints. Early fracture sets are fold related and for
Isotope study of hydrothermal deposits and geothermal activity: implication to resource exploration in Kamchatka R. Takahashi1, H. Matsueda2, V. M. Okrugin3, E. D. Andreeva4, S. Ono1, N. Shikazono5, A. Imai6, K. Yonezu7, K. Watanabe7 1 Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan (ryoheit@eng.hokudai.ac.jp) 2 Hokkaido University Museum, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan 3 Institute of Volcanology and Seismology FEB, Russian Academy of Sciences, Petropavlovsk- Kamchatsky 683006, Russia 4 Graduate School of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan 5 Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan 6 Faculty of Engineering and Resource Science, Akita University, Akita 010-8502, Japan 7 Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0387, Japan There are a hundred of hydrothermal mineral occurrences in Kamchatka, Far Eastern Russia. This study focuses on sulphur isotopes of sulphide minerals from hydrothermal gold, silver and base metal deposits and oxygen and hydrogen isotopes of uids from the present geothermal elds, in order to elucidate the genesis of ore formation and the potential of geothermal activity. In Kamchatka peninsula, Cenozoic hydrothermal Au2Ag and base metal mineralisation is recognised in Central Koryak, Central Kamchatka and East Kamchatka metallogenic belts. However, Sn-bearing base metal deposits occur only in Central Koryak, whereas porphyry-like deposits are only in Central Kamchatka. The sulphur isotope study on Au2Ag and base metal deposits resulted in particularly negative d34S values (25?2 to 20?8%, av. 22?8%) for Central Koryak metallogenic belt, indicating an assimilation process of 32S-enriched sedimentary sulphur. The magma in Central Koryak metallogenic belt would have been reduced during the intrusion process through a
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thick turbidite terrane (Ukelayat-Lesnaya River trough) and thus causing the Sn-bearing mineralisation. Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes and dissolved chemical compositions were analysed for volcanic gas, hot spring water and meteoric water in Central Kamchatka and Eastern Kamchatka volcanic belts. The d18O and dD analysis revealed a mixing of magmatic water and meteoric water for the present hydrothermal system in the Eastern Kamchatka volcanic belt. Geothermometry using Na, K, Ca and Mg indicates a denitively higher equilibrium temperature in the underground of Eastern Kamchatka (170380uC) compared to that of Central Kamchatka (155232uC). Geothermal scale from production wells of Mutnovskie geothermal power station in Eastern Kamchatka contains relatively high Au and Ag, at maximum 8?8 and 33 ppm respectively. The results suggest that the epithermal gold mineralisation is still on going in geothermal elds of the Eastern Kamchatka volcanic belt. It is expected that above results, with previously reported ore-forming ages, would become a guideline for exploration of hydrothermal deposits in Kamchatka peninsula. The hydrothermal gold system of the Archaean greenstones in the Nuuluk area, Sermiligaarsuk Fjord, South West Greenland D. M. Schlatter, J. Kolb Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Copenhagen (dms@geus.dk) Nuuluk is located about 75 km SE of Paamiut, and gold exploration has been carried out since the early 1970s (Evans and King, 1993; Appel and Secher, 1984). Exploration work at surface dened two ore horizons which were tested by Winkie and diamond drilling (Petersen and Madsen, 1995). In this paper, we discuss new geological, petrographical and lithogeochemical data from the Nuuluk gold prospect with the aim to characterise the host rocks and hydrothermal alteration associated with gold mineralisation. The rocks are metamorphosed to greenschist facies grade, comprise greenstone, quartz-feldspar-garnet schist and carbonate altered metavolcanic rocks of Archaean age, which in turn were thrust over an Archaean gneiss basement to the east. The Nuuluk area comprises two distinct NNE striking, 40 to 60 degrees WNW-dipping, 50 to 100 m thick and 5 km long zones containing gold mineralisation and hydrothermal carbonate-white mica alteration (Petersen and Madsen, 1995). The distance between the two zones is about 500 m and both zones are intimately associated with thrust contacts. The western carbonate zone was studied from a 60 m long surface prole, which comprises hydrothermal altered greenstones consisting of ankerite-muscovite-chlorite-pyrite-arsenopyrite, narrow quartz veins and minor magnetite and graphite schist. A three metre thick layer of brownish white micaankerite schist yielded up to 900 ppb Au. The eastern carbonate zone was studied from a 130 m long surface prole and the lithologies comprise mainly massive and hydrothermal carbonate altered greenstones. A narrow 15 cm quartz vein rimmed by thin ankerite alteration yielded up to 1300 ppb Au. The hydrothermal alteration is similar in both zones, but in the eastern carbonate zone magnetite and graphite schists are lacking. Application of immobile-element methods show that
the rocks from both zones are mainly tholeiitic basalts with at REE patterns and only few ankerite-whie mica altered metavolcanic rocks from the western carbonate zone are mildly calc-alkaline basaltic andesites. The gold reefs of Nuuluk typically occur in pervasively ankerite altered metavolcanic rocks or are hosted in quartz veins rimmed by ankerite halos. Fluid ow and mineralisation is suggested to be conned to high-strain zones within the greenstones conrming a structurally controlled lodegold origin for both horizons (Petersen and Madsen, 1995).
Appel, P. W. U. and Secher, K. 1984. On a gold mineralization in the Precambrian Tartoq Group, S. W. Greenland, J. Geol. Soc. Lond., 141, 273278. Evans, D. M. and King, A. R. 1993. Sediment and shear-hosted gold mineralization of the Tartoq group supracrustals, southwest Greenland, Precambr. Res., 62, 6182. Petersen, J. S. and Madsen, A. L. 1995. Shear-zone hosted gold in the Archaean Taartoq greenstone belt, South-West Greenland, in Gold mineralization in the Nordic countries and Greenland. Extended abstracts and field trip guide (ed. P. M. Ihlen), 95/10: Copenhagen, Open File Series Grnlands Geologiske Undersgelse, 6568.
The nature and genesis of marginal Cu2PGE2Au sulphide mineralisation in palaeogene macrodykes of the kangerlussuaq region, east Greenland D. A. Holwell1, T. Abraham-James2, R. R. Keays3, A. J. Boyce4 1 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (dah29@ le.ac.uk) 2 Platina Resources Limited, PO Box 4192, Robina, Queensland 4226, Australia 3 School of Geosciences, Building 28, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia 4 Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, Scottish Enterprise Technology Park, Rankine Avenue, East Kilbride, G75 0QF, UK The Kangerlussuaq region of east Greenland hosts a variety of extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks of early Tertiary age including the spectacularly layered and iconic Skaergaard Intrusion. Spatially and temporally related to Skaergaard are a series of gabbroic macrodykes, two of which: the Miki Fjord Macrodyke, and the newly discovered Togeda Macrodyke, contain Cu2PGE2Au sulphide mineralisation along their margins. Sulphides occur as disseminated interstitial blebs and rounded globules of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite with some Fe2Ti oxides and platinum group minerals, comprised largely of Pd-bismuthides and tellurides. The globules are interpreted to have formed from fractionation of trapped droplets of an immiscible Cu- and Pd-rich sulphide melt and high resolution X-ray computer tomography has revealed that the droplets show geopetal indicators. Sulphur isotopes indicate that the source of S in these sulphides is of crustal origin, sourced locally from isotopically light pyritic sediments of the Kangerlussuaq Basin. Thus, generation of these sulphide occurrences is controlled by local country rock type. Low Ni/Cu and Pt/Pd, also present in the Platinova reefs in the Skaergaard Intrusion, indicate that early fractionation of olivine may have depleted the magma of Ni and
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suggest the likely presence of large magma chamber at depth. Xenoliths of olivine-rich cumulates found within the Miki Fjord Macrodyke may have been sourced from such a body which may be analogous to the Hidden Zone postulated to be present beneath the exposed part of the Skaergaard Intrusion. During emplacement of the macrodyke magma, interaction with sulphides in the local sediments may have induced further sulphide saturation, producing Cu- and Pd-rich sulphides which were then entrained and emplaced along the macrodyke margins. The location of thus far unidentied conduit or feeder zones beneath the present day surface may represent potential targets for more massive sulphide orebodies. Geochemical pattern recognition of lead and zinc deposits in the central part of Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone (Western Iran) B. Mehrabi1, A. Meshkani1,2, A. Yaghubpur1, Y. Fadakar3 1 Department of Geology, Tehran Tarbiat Moallem University, Tehran 15614, Iran (mehrabi@tmu.ac.ir) 2 Geological Survey of Iran, PO Box 13185-1494, Tehran, Iran 3 School of Earth Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia The Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone (SSZ) is a magmatic-metamorphic belt with a NW2SE trend located between the Zagros and Urmieh-Dokhtar volcanic zone of Iran. It is a major metallogenic zone in Iran, containing gold, copper, iron, lead and zinc deposits. In the central part of the SSZ, lead and zinc mineralisation is widespread and hitherto exploration has been based on geological criteria. In this study, representative mineralised samples were collected from 104 active and abandoned mines and prospects. After ICP-OES multi-element chemical analyses (Amdel Lab., Australia) of representative samples the data were processed and a database created. Using hierarchical cluster analysis, ore- and rockforming elements were separated. As, Au, Co, Ni, Cu, Fe, Cd, Sb, Ag, Pb, Zn and Mo clustered as an elemental association with Pb2Zn mineralisation whereas Ca, Mg, Mn, Ba and Sr grouped as carbonate hosts rocks. The derived elemental associations were put through K-means clustering and the outcomes plotted as scattered plot. Well-separated element groups possess practical geochemical signicance, representing distinct types of mineralisation, were plotted on a map using ArcGIS. Based on the hierarchical clustering and elemental associations, it is shown that lead and zinc deposits in the central SSZ belong to two genetic groups: an MVT type hosted by limestone and dolomites and an SEDEX type hosted by shale, volcanic rocks and sandstone. The elemental associations and spatial distribution of the lead and zinc deposits exhibit zoning in the central part of the SSZ. The ratios of ore-forming elements (Sb, Cd, Zn) versus (Pb, Ag) show zoning along an E2W trend, while host rock-forming elements (Mn, Ca, Mg) versus (Ba, Sr) show a zoning along an SE2NW trend. Large and medium deposits occur mainly in the centre of the studied area. The pattern recognition methods were able to uncover elemental zoning, identify key elemental associations for further geochemical exploration and indicate exploration target areas for large to medium size ore deposits in the central
SSZ. Our conclusions justify further exploration around occurrences and abandoned mines in the centre of the study area, as there is potential for medium to large PbZn deposits. This methodology can be applied in a similar way to search for new ore deposits in a wide range of known metallogenic zones. Metallogeny of gold of the northwestern part of the AltaySayan fold belt A. I. Chernykh FGUP SNIIGGiMS, Novosibirsk, Russia (cherntkhai@ mail.ru) The main gold deposits in the Altai-Sayan fold belt (ASFB) are lode gold-quartz, gold-skarn and placer ones. Formation of endogenic gold mineralisation occurred in the Late Cambrian Early Ordovician metallogenic epoch and is related to collision stage of the region development. Gold ore is localised in nearcontact parts of polyphase essentially granitoid massifs, breaking through Vendian Early Cambrian volcanogenic-sedimentary rocks of ophiolitic and island-arc complexes. In recent years we received data testifying to prospects of the north-western part of the ASFB for non-conventional gold mineralisation of four oreformational types. 1. Gold-sulphide mineralisation in carbonaceous strata is confined to Late Riphean Early Cambrian and Devonian metamorphosed terrigenous complexes. These rocks are formed in marginal sea basins. They show enhanced average content of noble metals. Metamorphism and repeated tectono-magmatic activisation of the region resulted in gold concentration. We estimate undiscovered potential gold resources of category P3 in carbonaceous strata of the north-western ASFB at the level of 550 t. Gold-sulphphde mineralisation in carbonate strata (Karline type) is confined to Vendian and Late Devonian-Carboniferous carbonaceous dolomite and limestone. Formation of such epithermal mineralisation is associated with Siberian plume evolution in Mesozoic. Gold mineralisation is confined to major tectonic zones, is accompanied by listwanite, jasperoid and argillisite as well as barite, polymetallic and mercury mineralisation. Gold-sulphphde mineralisation in carbonate rocks is most widely represented within the Kuznetsk zone. We estimate undiscovered potential gold resources of category P3 in carbonaceous carbonate strata of the north-western ASFB at the level of 350 t. Gold-porphyry mineralisation is confined to the habitat of small massifs and dyke fields of diorite, granitoid, monzonite, and syenitoid compositions. Such massifs are distributed within collision complexes (Kuznetsk-Altai zone), Early-Middle Devonian volcanic2plutonic associations and habitat of granitoids of Mesozoic intraplate activisation (Pezass-Kurai and Salair zones). There is a close association of gold with copper and molybdenum reflecting general regularities in formation of porphyry orogenic systems. We estimate undiscovered potential gold resources of category P3 of gold-porphyry type at the level of 300 t.
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Gold in crusts of weathering is found in Cretaceous-Paleogene deposits within Salair ridge, Gornaya Shoria and northern Altai. Crusts of weathering represent clay and clay-rubbly rocks developed after gold-bearing sulphidised rocks. Salair region is one of the most promising. We estimate undiscovered potential gold resources of category P3 in crusts of weathering of the northwestern ASFB at the level of 500 t.
Hence, despite the lack in the region of specialised prospecting work for gold mineralisation of the types considered, their resources of category P3 are estimated at the level of 1700 t. Further development of gold mining in the north-western Altai-Sayan region will directly depend on this resource base development. Dhezkazgan-style copper deposits in Kazakhstan A. Dolgopolova1, R. Seltmann1, B. Syusyura2 1 Natural History Museum, CERCAMS, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK (allad@nhm.ac.uk) 2 Mining Economic Consulting (MEC), Almaty, Kazakhstan Kazakhstan ranks in the 10th position with regard to copper resources of the world. The annual production of copper is relatively small, contributing 470490 tons of the total world production of 13?613?9 Mt. The State Inventory of Mineral Resources of Kazakhstan includes 90 mineable copper deposits with an average copper grade of 0?65%. Some 26 deposits with an average copper grade of 1?22% account for about 50% of the total reserves. The remaining 64 deposits contain lowgrade ores of copper porphyry type with an average copper content of 0?40%. Unlike a number of major copper producing countries where the porphyry type is of greatest industrial importance, more than two-third of the production in Kazakhstan comes from the sandstone-hosted copper deposits of the Dzhezkazgan area, which make up 30% of the total copper reserves in Kazakhstan. In addition to copper, the ores of these deposits contain signicant amounts of lead, zinc, silver, rhenium, osmium and sulphur. These co-products, together with the high average grades of copper (.1%), ensure the protability of the mining operations in the main copper deposits and have guaranteed the stability of the copper mining industry in Kazakhstan over the period of more than 35 years. Economic sandstone-hosted deposits are the basis of mineral resources of the Dzhezkasgantsvetmet Copper Mining and Metallurgical Combine of the Kazakhmys Corporation. They have been explored within the Dzhezkazgan Basin in the northern part of the large DzhezkazganChuSarysu Depression and are grouped into the Dzhezkazgan and Dzhilandy, and ZhamanAybat copper ore clusters. The Dzhezkazgan and Dzhilandy copper ore cluster (Dzhezkazgan, Zhartas, Itauz, Saryoba, Qipshakbay, Qarashoshak, Shilisay deposits) is a type of copper sandstone in Eurasia. This copper giant occupies about 1000 km2 as a common structural-metallogenic zone of copper ore localised in the epigenetic sandstones controlled by the Qengir Brachyanticline complicated by regional faults. The anticline is a synsedimentation structural unit that grew during accumulation of uvial
sediments of the Permian-Carboniferous red beds. The thickness of this formation regularly increases from core (800 m) to limbs (1500 m) of the anticline. This determined a paragenesis of gas, oil, and bitumen accumulating in structural trap and copper deposition from formation water in discharge area of elision artesian basin. The epigenetic nature of copper sandstones of the Dzhezkazgan region is conrmed by UPb and Ar/Ar isotopic age of about 210 Ma and by biogenic sulphur source of sulphides (prevalence of the light isotope with a wide variation of d34S) against the background of heavier sulphur of sulphates (gypsum, anhydrite) in the host red beds and sulphur of diagenetic pyrite. The Dzhezkazgan-group deposits attracted efforts of geologists over more than a century. These efforts were focused on the parametrisation of ore zone and study of ore composition. Despite this activity, copper mineralisation in this district remains incompletely contoured at anks and deep levels because of (i) complex morphology of ore zone (multistage mineralisation in the section, apron- and ribbon-shaped ore layers in plan view); (ii) complex internal structure (small folds, numerous exures, thrust faults, intraformational offsets, and regional faults); (iii) multi-component composition of ore (Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Re, Os, Cd) along with linear and concentric mineralogical zoning; and (iv) insufcient exploration of anks of the deposits, which tend to merging into a single superlarge deposit with substantial growth of resources. The Zhaman-Aybat copper ore cluster (ZhamanAybat, Taskura deposits) is situated 200 km southeast of the Dzhezkazgan deposit in the AzatZhaman-Aybat Anticline, which complicates the eastern margin of the Dzhezkazgan-Sarysu Basin as a structural nose. The northern limb of the anticline is downfaulted along the Azat Fault. The latter is a sharp exure more than 500 m in amplitude. In structure and metallogeny, this copper ore cluster is similar to the Dzhezkazgan cluster but better preserved owing to the signicant depth (600 800 m) of ore-bearing layers. Copper ore of the Zhaman-Aybat deposit is hosted in the middle and lower parts of a large lens composed of epigenetically altered grey sandstones. The ore-bearing lens is 25612 km (.250 km2) in area; the composite area of ore beds is about 30 km2. The ore is multi-component (Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Re, Os, Cd) with elevated Ag grade up to appearance of silver sandstone. The localisation of ore reveals distinct linear and concentric zoning relative to cores of small anticlines (undulation of axis of the main fold). The chalcocitebornite ore that occurs in the outer zone gives way to the chalcopyritegalena sphalerite ore in the inner zone. Because of retention of the Zhaman-Aybat Anticline as a structural petroleum trap, sandstones in the ore zone are enriched in bitumen and hydrocarbon gases, clearly demonstrating close links between petroleum and copper accumulation. The ore zone at the ZhamanAybat deposit has not been contoured at anks and deep levels and currently is an object of follow-up exploration with expected substantial growth of copper ore resources. In general, Zhaman-Aybat is estimated as a large deposit. The Taskura deposit is hosted at the bottom of calcareous marly rocks that overlie the ore-bearing red
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beds. Thus, the position of copper ore in section is similar to the Mansfeld stratigraphic level in the Zechstein of Central and East Europe. A number of similar anticlinal structures, which are suggested in the Dzhezkazgan-Sarysu Basin at a depth of 5001000 m from geophysical data, can be regarded as potential Dzhezkazgan-type copper ore zones. Ore mineralisation of the Karashokho diatreme, Western Uzbekistan A. V. Golovko, F. K. Divaev Central geologicalgeophysical expedition of the State Committee on Geology & Mineral Resources of Uzbekistan Republic (divaev2749@mail.ru) The diamond-bearing diatreme of Karashokho is 1256525 m; and is composed of massive lamproites and their eruptive breccias. It is located in Bukantau Mts (the Central Kyzylkum desert) in the western border of the Kokpatas gold deposit. The diatreme has a complicated multistage formation, and is composed of two submeridional elongated, stocks-like bodies of lamproites of ultramac, mac and intermediate composition. There are also two stages of eruptive breccias. Diamonds were found within ultramac and mac types of massive lamproites and their breccias. In the diatreme, ne crystals (up to 1 mm) are more common than rather large ones. The latter (up to 2?2 mm) makes up 710%. Predominated crystal habit is octahedron, rarely, transitional forms from octahedron to rhombic dodecahedron. The main morphological crystal types are diverse, often distorted octahedrons and dodecahedrons. Cubes and cub-octahedrons are rare. Most of the crystals are colourless and transparent. Morphological peculiarities of diamonds from Karashokho diatreme and preliminary data on contain and distribution nitrogen in them were obtained by specialists of the Institute of Geology, Mineralogy and Ore-forming of Ukraine Academy of Sciences (Kvasnitsa et al.) in the Centre of Geological Researches (Germany, Potsdam) using methods of Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy. These data indicate that surroundings of diamond crystallisation were carbonaceous and silicate melts with active participation of uids. Most of the diamonds are among the laB1 or laAzlaB1 spectral type. This testies to evolution of nitrogen centres within crystals and to prolonged time in mantle conditions, as a result largediamonds were formed. Gold mineralisation in rocks of the Karashokho diatreme has many shapes in common with mineralisation of Kokpatas gold-sulphide deposit. Gold-sulphide mineralisation within diatreme is located in tectonic zones of latitudinal and northwestern strikes and is accompanied by the same hydrothermal metasomatic alterations (listvenitisation, brecciation and silicication). The same three generations of hypogenic gold form as at the Kokpatas deposit: (1) gold-pyrite-arsenopyrite; (2) polysulphide-quartz-dolomite; (3) quartz-calcite-stibnite. The differences consist in the following: gold-sulphide mineralisation is superposed both on country sedimentary-metamorphic rocks of Kokpatas suite of PreCambrian age and on lamproites of the Karashokho
complex, Lower Permian age, and granitoid dykes of the Central Bukantau complex of the Upper Permian age. The other important difference is the additional independent generation of native gold, which was generated by lamproitic magma. It was established within the latest variety of micro granular porphyric lamproites, which did not undergo metasomatic change. This gold has forms of thin plates and lms of yellow colour measuring up to 1 mm (assay number 782911), contains heightened quantity of copper (6?1814?36%) and nickel (0?291?36%) but admixtures of arsenic and antimony are practically absent. On the contrary gold from granitoid dykes and country rocks is characterised by low copper and nickel and elevated arsenic and antimony. The largest gold contents are incataclasite and brecciation in granitoid dikes and breccias of the rst stage of injection, i.e. to places which are the most favourable for circulation of hydrothermal solutions. Co-existence of gold and diamonds jointly within Karashokho diatreme raise perspectives of its economic signicance. The Bugdaya AuMo(W) porphyry deposit (Transbaikalia, Russia): geology, mineralisation sequence, formation conditions G. D. Kiseleva, V. A. Kovalenker, T. L. Krylova Institute of Geology of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry (IGEM RAS), 35, Staromonetny per., 119017, Moscow, Russia (kis60@ rambler.ru) The Bugdaya deposit is the largest Mo-deposit in Transbaikalia (ore 436?2 Mt, Mo 347 500 t, Au 11?2 t, Ag 193?5 t, Pb 41 400 t). It is located in the zone of the collisional of the Mongol-Okhotsk fold belt in the area of the main structural S-like bend (Zonenshine et al., 1990). The deposit is conned to the central part of volcanic dome-like radial-concentric structure of 3?5 km diameter. This dome is located in the SE part of large pluton of Variscan granitoids, which was intruded by Jurassic subvolcanic bodies of rhyolitegranite-porphyry. The deposit comprises a net of diversely oriented quartz-molybdenite veins and veinlets, located around a small stock of silicied rhyolite porphyry. The stockwork has a shape of vertical column with 11006800 m (in plane). It was traced by drilling to a depth of 1200 m without pinching out. Gold concentrations (from few to 100150 ppm) occur in steeply dipping gold-base metal veins crosscutting MoW stockwork. MoW mineralisation is mainly conned to submeridional and north-east trending faults and the gold-base metal veins to north-west and submeridional faults. The most widespread metallic minerals of more then 70 minerals of the deposit are molybdenite, pyrite, galena, sphalerite, less common chalcopyrite and scheelite. Subordinated are arsenopyrite, fahlores, wolframite, magnetite. More rare are various sulphobismutites (aikinite, matildite, berryite and others), sulphoantimonides (polybasite, Te-polybasite, pearceite, bournonite, boulangerite), sulphotellurides (tetradimite, cervelleite), and extremely rare cassiterite. Gold of varying neness (962223) was found only in base metal veins. Gangue minerals are represented by quartz
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(most widespread), chalcedony, carbonates, white mica, K-feldspar, phlogopite, kaolinite, smectite and others; uorite is present in rather low concentrations. The earliest wall-rock alterations were K-feldspathisation and silicication which followed intrusion of rhyoliteporphyry stock and predated molybdenite mineralisation, both of them (alteration and ore) being parts of early quartz-molybdenite stage. Following gold-basemetal stage started from phyllic alteration (white mica plus pyrite) and formation of gold-base metal ores. These two stages were divided by a drastic change of regional pattern of tectonic deformations with brecciation. Post-ore stage was manifested as argillisation followed by formation of chalcedony-carbonate veins and veinlets with some remobilisation of earlier minerals. Supergene processes are rather weak but produced unusual Mo-rich stolzite, native Ag-Agamalgams in assemblage with greenockite, and exotic dzhalindite. Fluid inclusions study. Preore mineralisation stage was formed at the nal of magma crystallisation, when salt and vapour uids exsolved from the melt as indicated by syngenetic melt (silicate and salt), and vapour uids in the FIs of the rhyolite-porphyry festoon-like early quartz. Later salt melt transformed to aqueous salt melt-brine, and then to hydrothermal uid. Preore quartz and quartz-molybdenite veins precipitated in similar T intervals (580420 and 550 290uC respectively). At T.400uC the immiscible lowdensity vapour and Na2Ca2Mg2Cl high-density (1?51?2 g cm23) brine (70?540 wt-%, equiv. NaCl) coexisted. The vapour uid inclusions are dominant, pointing to a signicant role of the gas uids particulary at the early deposit formation period. At T,400uC mineral precipitation took place from NaCl uid (,25 wt-%). MoS2 daughter crystals were detected in all types of uid inclusions of quartz-molybdenite stage. The next gold-base metal stage mineralisation precipitated at 360140uC from NaKCl(HCO3?,SO4?) uids of moderate to low salinity. The rst generation of native gold was deposited by NaCl (2321 wt-%) uid at 330260uC, more common electrum (2nd generation) by lower temperature (240190uC) Na Cl (HCO3) (167 wt-%) uids. The main gas component of the uids was CO2. Molybdenite, base metals, and gold precipitation could be triggered by appearance of H2, N2 and H2S (no more than 2 mol.-%) in uid composition. dS34 H2S aq values are within a range of 05%, and correspond to magmatic S source. A comparison of Bugdaya and Climax-type deposits shows their similarity, but there are some distinction that include simpler magmatic system, low F, Sn, relatively low Re-content in MoS2, mineral diversity in comparison with the rhyolite subtype porphyry deposits and economic Au based metals in the Bugdaya deposit. Large Mo reserves of the deposit can be explained by convergence of many factors: formation of the dome-like structure in the anisotropic area of the main structure S-like bend, multiple magmatic system, stockwork localisation at the centre of the volcanic structure, simple shape of the ore-forming stock favourable for uid focusing, uids peculiarities (unique high density and salt content in the brine) and others. This work was supported by RFBR (10-05-00354).
Zonenshine, L. P., Kuzmin, M. I. and Natapov, L. M. 1990. Lithospheric plates tectonics of the USSR territory, 1, 297318.
Permo-Triassic gold deposits of Eastern Kazakhstan and South Siberia: types of mineralisation and connection with magmatic events E. A. Naumov1, A. S. Borisenko1, K. R. Kovalev1, Yu. A. Kalinin1, G. S. Fedoseev1, R. Seltmann2, A. V. Travin1 1 Institute of Geology and Mineralogy SB RAS, pr. Koptyuga, 3, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia (naumov@ igm.nsc.ru) 2 Natural History Museum, Mineralogy, CERCAMS, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK The junction of Caledonides and Hercynides structures in West Siberia and Eastern Kazakhstan hosts many deposits of various types, including gold-arsenic (Au As), gold-telluride (AuTe), gold-quartz (AuQ), and gold-mercury (AuHg). These are localised in two major ore regions: Eastern Kazakhstan (Shcherba et al., 2000) and Ob-Salair (Sotnikov et al., 1999). In the Eastern Kazakhstan gold mineralisation is represented by Au As (Bakyrchik, Suzdal, Zherek), AuTe (Sekisovskoe), AuQ (Balazhal, Boko), AuSbHg (Kyzyl-Char, VeraChar) and other types. Recent detailed isotopic-geochronological studies have revealed a clearer scheme of the development and evolution of magmatism in this region (Vladimirov et al., 2008; Lyons et al., 2002). However, the absence of data on the age of gold mineralisation of Eastern Kazakhstan makes it difcult to correctly correlate it with the occurrence of granitoid and mac magmatism. With this aim, we used 40Ar/39Ar dating of sericite from various types of ores from goldore deposits in this region (analyses were performed in the Analytical centre of the IGM SB RAS, Novosibirsk). For analysis we selected newly formed sericite from ore vein and veinlets and/or from pervasively hydrothermally altered terrigenous and magmatic rocks, consisting of relict and newly formed quartz, sericite, and gold-bearing arsenopyrite. The oldest age (306?63?8 Ma) was established for the ores of the Sekisovka gold-telluride deposit. This deposit lies within the Rudnyi-Altai belt, within hydrothermally altered gabbro-diorites. The age of mineralisation distinctly correlates with small intrusions of plagiogranites and diorites of the Kunush complex and palaeovolcanic structures of similar ages (306?78?7 and 2992?3 Ma; UPb, SHRIMP (Vladimirov et al., 2008). According to the UPb data, the age of contact zones between plagiogranite and porphyries with molybdenum mineralisation in the black-schist series at the Zherek gold-sulphide deposit is 309 3?5 Ma (UPb analysis were performed in the Centre of Isotope Researches of VSEGEI, St. Petersburg). The 40 Ar/39Ar age of mineralisation of hydrothermally altered endocontact zones with gold-sulphide mineralisation is 286?73?4 Ma. Of a younger age is the goldsulphide (AuAs) mineralisation widely spread within Eastern-Kalba and Kalba-Narym belts and localised among carbonaceous terrigenous rocks. The age of Au As mineralisation of Bolshevik deposit is 285?6 3?3 Ma. The age of the main gold-ore stage of Suzdal deposit, dated using sericite from quartz-sericite-pyritearsenopyrite metasomatites, is 2813?3 Ma. At the Suzdal deposit, within a zone of early metasomatic
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AuAs mineralisation, one can observe younger antimony and antimony-ore cluster-veinlet mineralisation, whose sericite is dated at 248?33?4 Ma. This conforms to the time of formation of trachybasalttrachyrhyolite association in the Semeitau volcanoplutonic structure (248?20?5 Ma), (Lyons et al., 2002), which is in the ore eld of this deposit. In brecciation zones of metasomatic gold-arsenic ores, there are veinlets of lepidolite whose age 241?9 2?7 Ma, is quite close to the stage of emplacement of the Monastyrskii complex granitoid intrusions with Li2Ta. Moreover, the Suzdal deposit hosts dykes of altered granite-porphyries dated at 257?82?1 Ma (U Pb, SHRIMP), containing redistributed gold-polysulphide mineralisation. The muscovite-dated younger age of AuAs mineralisation from the Daubai (Belaya Gorka) deposit is 254?33?1 Ma is, most likely, related to contact metamorphism effects by the Late Permian granitoid intrusions on primary ore-arsenic ores. Thus, three basic age boundaries of formation of ore mineralisation are established in Eastern Kazakhstan: Late Carboniferous (AuTe), Early Permian (AuAs) and Early Triassic. Redistribution of primary AuAs ores or their transformation is related to the Early Triassic. A similar sequence and age of formation of gold mineralisation was revealed in the Ob-Salair gold-ore region, with localisation in the Early Palaeozoic structures of NW Salair, which were activated in the Middle Palaeozoic, and in Hercynides of the Kolyvan-Tomsk fold zone. This region abounds in mac rocks and granitoid complexes related to the Late Hercynian and Late Permian Early Triassic stages of intraplate magmatism (Shcherba et al., 2000; Vladimirov et al., 2008). The earliest type of ore mineralisation is AuTe, represented by quartz veins and stockworks with chalcopyrite, galena, sulphosalts of Cu, Ag and Pb, tellurides of Pb, Ag, Au and Hg (Novolushnikovskoye deposit, gold-quartz stockworks at the Salair and Ursk deposits). According to our data, the age of this mineralisation is 299?82?7 Ma (40Ar/39Ar). It is preceded by the Cu-Mo-porphyry mineralisation in the apical part of the Novolushnikovsky plagiogranite intrusion. A younger (with respect to AuTe) mineralisation is AuAs mineralisation represented by quartzarsenopyrite veins, stockworks and zones of phenocrysts of arsenopyrite mineralisation (Baturinskoe, Larinskoe, Legostaevskoe). It is younger relative to the Ob Complex granitoids (252249 Ma, ArAr, (Fedoseev et al., 2005) and younger than quartz veins with AuTe mineralisation. The terminal stage of hydrothermal activity in this region is related to Hg and AuHg mineralisation, which overprints the Triassic (241?6238 Ma, ArAr, (Fedoseev et al., 2005) dykes of dolerite and lamprophyre (Semiluzhenskoe AuSbHg deposit). Our data suggest the similarity of metallogeny of the two above-discussed gold-ore regions and a single trend of evolution of magmatism and ore formation. As to the age aspects, magmatism and metallogeny correlate in these regions with similar structures of NW China and Central Asia. The age of all large AuAs deposits in this region (Muruntau, Kumtor, Suzdal, Zherek, Khatu, Saerbulak) ts within a narrow time interval: 2853 Ma.
Fedoseev G. S., Sotnikov, V. I. and Rikhvanov, L. P. 2005. Geochemistry and geochronology of Permo-Triassic basites in
the Northwestern Altai-Sayan folded area, Russ. Geol. Geophys., 46, (3), 287301. Lyons, J. J., Coe, R. S., Zhao, X., Renne, P. R., Kazansky, A.Y., Izokh, A. E., Kungurtsev., L. V. and Mitrokhin, D. V. 2002. Paleomagnetism of the early Triassic Semeitau igneous series, Eastern Kazakhstan, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 2139. Shcherba, G. N., et al. 2000. Great Altai: geology and metallogeny. Book 2. Metallogeny. Almaty. Sotnikov V. I., et al. 1999. Geodynamics, magmatism, and metallogeny of the Kolyvan-Tomsk folded zone. Scientific Publishing Centre, IUGGM Novosibirsk. Vladimirov, A. G., et al. 2008. Permian magmatism and lithospheric deformation in the Altai caused by crustal and mantle thermal processes, Russ. Geol. Geophys., 49, (7), 468479.
Map of mineral resources of the Kyrgyz Republic Scale 1 : 500 000 V. V. Nikonorov1, R. D. Djenchuraeva2, Yu. V. Karaev1, T. S. Zamaletdinov1 1 Ministry of Natural Resources of the Kyrgyz Republic, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (nikonorov99@mail.ru) 2 Institute of Geology of the Academy of Science, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan The Kyrgyz Republic has a signicant mineral potential. Geologists discovered several thousands deposits and occurrences of metal and non-metal resources. Complex and prolonged geological evolution of the Kyrgyz Tien Shan created favourable conditions for the formation of deposits of various mineral resources. Gold, antimony, mercury, tin, coal and oil, gas and building materials are mined at present in Kyrgyzstan. Fresh, mineral and thermal waters are being exploited. There exists a possibility for future mining of tungsten, iron, titanium, vanadium, aluminium, copper, strontium, molybdenum, beryllium, tantalum and many other non-metal commodities. Information about existing mineral resources became very important after entering the market economy. The rst overview on mineral resources of the Republic was compiled in 1986. At that time a lot of information was not included due to either existing limitations on data release or information that was not any longer up-todate. As a result, compilation of a new version of the map of mineral resources of Kyrgyzstan was needed. Scheme of distribution of large structural complexes that show the main geological features within the territory of the Kyrgyz Republic was taken as a geological base for the new map. Different structural complexes are formed as a result of various geodynamic conditions (passive and active margins, island arcs, ophyolite, collisions, rift zones) in Northern, Middle and Southern Tien-Shan. Therefore, with some reservations, the base for the new map can be called geodynamic. More than 2000 deposits, mineral occurrences and aureoles of more than 150 types of mineral resources are shown on the new map. The following commodities are shown on the map (number of large and medium-sized deposits in brackets): oil 11 (-); oil and gas 6 (1); gas 5 (-); coal 30 (-); brown coal 23 (7); iron 11 (2); manganese 5 (1); chromium 2 (-); iron-titaniumvanadium 1 (1); aluminium (bauxites) 14 (-); aluminium (nepheline syenite) 5 (2); copper 74 (1); copper-base metals 6 (1); nickel 2 (-); cobalt 6 (-); lead 87 (-); zinc-lead 64 (-); zinc 4 (1); tin 59 (1); tintungsten 4 (1); tungsten 47 (1); arsenic 9 (4); molybdenum 21 (3); molybdenum-tungsten 12 (2); beryllium 30 (-); mercury 98 (2); arsenic-antimony 13
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(2); antimony 25 (5); antimony-base metals 11 (-); strontium 9 (1); rare earth elements 20 (2); tantalumniobium 7 (2); hafnium 1 (-); zirconium 3 (1); lithium 4 (1); gold 218 (11); gold-copper 30 (5); gold-base metals 14 (1); gold-antimony 25 (5); gold-mercury 1 (-); gold-cobalt 1 (1); gold-tungsten 2 (-); gold-bismuth 9 (2); silver 9 (2); silver-base metals 10 (3); uranium 31 (-); thorium 2 (-); uranium-molybdenum-tungsten 11 (2); gold placers 85 (2); uranium-thorium placer 1 (1); litho-chemical aureoles 100; black sand aureoles 50; gemstones 77 (18); optical materials 35 (-); chemical raw materials 29 (14); raw materials for metallurgy 31 (18); ceramic raw materials 129 (45); abrasive raw materials 11 (2); salts and brines 20 (6); building materials 197 (110); other non-metallic materials 57 (23); underground waters 88 (69). From all mineral resources within the territory of Kyrgyzstan the largest number of deposits belong to the commodities of gold (300 deposits), base metals (155 deposits), mercury (111 deposits), copper (80 deposits) and tin (51 deposits). 85 large and medium size deposits are amongst those. The Republic is also rich in deposits of coal, non-metal mineral resources and underground waters. A Catalogue of all deposits shown on the map is available. For each deposit and mineral occurrence it shows administrative and geographic coordinates, scale (large, medium, small deposit or occurrence), short geological characteristics of mineralisation, average grades and quality of mineral components, reserves or prognostic mineral resources. Notes show some information about infrastructure, exploration maturity and its perspectivity. At present this is the most complete summary on mineral resources of the Kyrgyz Republic. Ore potential of Kazakhstan for rare earth elements (Lanthanides) B. Syusyura1, I. Gorlachev2, D. Berezovskiy2 1 Eurasian Mining Gelogical Company LLC, Almaty, Kazakhstan (boris.euras@gmail.com) 2 Institute of Nuclear Physics of National Nuclear Centre, Almaty, Kazakhstan In the Republic of Kazakhstan rare earth elements (REEs) have been explored as admixtures in eight deposits belonging to different types: uranic phosphorite, essentially argillaceous rare earth residual soils, and uranium as bedded inltration type in underground leaching of uranium. Main prospects of expansion of REE raw material sources in Kazakhstan are related to the following industrial ore objects: (i) albitite-greisen type of complex deposits containing REE of yttrium group (ii) network type of rare metal deposits (REE in fluorite and turnerite) (iii) titan-zirconium placers with turnerite; (iv) argillaceous residual soils of churchite-rhabdophanite type; (v) molybdenum-vanadium, phosphoritic, uranium and coal deposits. The major deposit of Kundybai (South Urals) is located in kaolin residual soil within exo-interface of ancient serpentinite intrusive massif. Areal ore bodies are
deposited at a depth of 510 m at seam thickness from 2 to 40 m. REEs in ores are presented as ion-sorbate formed on argillaceous minerals (50%) and forming their own mineral churchite [Y(Ce, Ca)[PO4]2H2O (50%). The sum of the rare earth oxidesin ores varies within the range from 300 to 28 kg m23 (average is 2 kg m23). Spectrum of lanthanides in ores is characterised by the uniquely high contents of yttrium (more than 50% of samarium and rare earth sum), scare lanthanides europium (2?0%), neodymium (15?2%), samarium (4?6%) and the more expensive heavy lanthanides (thulium, lutetium, erbium and ytterbium) being 26?7%. Besides REE there are ore reserves of Ta, Nb and Ti. In the central part of Kazakstan (Ulitauski and Kokchetauski anticlinorium, the West and East side of Turgay yield) are known a number of prospects with similar ores in residual soils (the largest are Mayatas and Koshkargai). Complex (TaNbBeREEUTh) multiple mineralisation is the major deposit Maytyube located in zone of large massif of granosyenite on Karsakpay plateau that is only lightly explored. The deposit is characterised by radiometric anomaly with the intensity of gamma background up to 100 micro roentgens per hour, at a depth of logging of a exploratory well up to 1300 micro roentgens per hour. Ore bodies with thickness of 10 40 m contain up to 330 g t21 REE of cerium group light lanthanides and increased contents of middle yttrium lanthanides (1012%) due to dysprosium (up to 7?4 g t21). Anomaly 308 has TaNbREEZr ores in Chingiz anticlinorium of East Kazakhstan where REE total 400 g t21. High REEs are in uranium and phosphorus deposits which have a practical importance as the valuable extraction co-components. Overall, the territory of the Republic of Kazakstan has signicant REE raw material potential but the detailed ore geological examination has just started. Review on copper porphyry deposits in Kazakhstan past investigations, actual situation, future perspectives I. Ussoltsev K.I.Satpaev Institute of Geological Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan (ussolt@yahoo.com) The territory of Kazakhstan is a large copper porphyry province exists Kounrad, Bozshakol, Aktogay, Nurkazgan. These are associated with Devonian (orogenic) and Caledonian (island arc) volcano-plutonic belts. Largest copper reserves in the Country belong to Kazakhmys, the leading natural resources group with main operations in Kazakhstan and the surrounding countries of Central Asia. The copper division of the Kazakhmys consists of 20 mining entities of various mineral types with 14 underground mines and 6 open pit mines. The mineral reserves and resources of these mines are sufcient to support projected production for at least 20 years. The mined ore is processed in 10 concentrators and 2 smelters. In addition to producing copper, the division produces signicant quantities of zinc, silver and gold, which are sold as by-products. The division has spare smelting capacity and copper concentrate is purchased, providing additional output.
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Kounrad copper porphyry deposit, proud of Kazakhmys, was depleted and closed in 2009. Nurkazgan is the only copper porphyry deposit in production. Kazakhmys Copper has two major long-term expansion projects comprising the large copper porphyry deposits at Bozshakol and Aktogay managed by a specialist internal team, Kazakhmys Projects. The technical studies for the development of the Aktogay deposit have progressed during 2009 with a combined pre-feasibility study completed in October 2009 that incorporated the deposits sulphide and oxide ore bodies. The study demonstrates that Aktogay is a large resource containing nearly 5 Mt of copper along with silver and molybdenum by-products. The current estimated mineable oxide resource contains 119 Mt of ore with 0?37% copper grade, and a mineable sulphide resource of 1268 Mt of ore with 0?38% copper grade. Scope exists to expand the resource in the Aktogay deposit with further exploration work. The deposit would be mined using a conventional open pit truck and shovel system. Based on the estimated production levels, the resource base supports a mine life of 40 years. The project would involve the construction of a processing plant and a copper concentrator. Kazakhmys is currently evaluating the results of the 2009 pre-feasibility study to identify opportunities for improving the economics of the project and assessing nancing options prior to its potential advancement to feasibility stage. The pre-feasibility study was successfully completed for the Bozshakol sulphide ore deposit in April 2009. The study conrmed that Bozshakol is an economically viable project. The Bozshakol deposit is substantial with a management estimated geological resource of 1169 Mt of ore and a copper grade of 0?36%, a gold grade of 0?21 g t21, a silver grade of 4?9 g t21 and molybdenum and rhenium by-products. Based on current projections of production levels, the resource base supports a mine life of 40 years. Geology and geochemistry of the shear zone-related gold deposits in west Tianshan, Xinjiang, NW China Y. Zhu School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China (yfzhu@pku.edu.cn) Gold has been introduced syn-deformationally during a period of brittle-ductile shear development of shear zone with the gold-bearing sulphides subsequently deformed in the brittle eld (Allibone, 1998; Klemm and Krautner, 2000; Voicu et al., 1999). Gold introduction is postdeformational and related to a brittle fracture event (Zhu et al., 2007). The Tianger (also called Bingdaban) shear zone strikes roughly E-W, varies between 500 and 2000 m in width and extends over 100 km. This shear zone cuts a Silurian gneissic granite dated at 442 Ma by zircon SHRIMP. The shear zone is comprised of mylonitised granite with yellowish alteration. Disseminated sulphides are abundant in sheared rocks and rare in weakly deformed rocks. Three gold deposits have been found in the Tianger shear zone: Wangfeng, Tianger and Saridala. The orebodies and their wall rocks in these deposits are heterogeneously mylonitised. The degree of mylonitisation of the
wall rocks increases gradually towards the orebodies. Subhorizontal fractures are lled with syntaxial quartz-bres and antitaxial brous muscovite, which was dated at 220 Ma by ArAr techniques. Pyrite is mainly disseminated in mylonite consisting of quartz subgrains, albite, muscovite and calcite. The pyrite-bearing mylonite is cut by a late-stage sulphide-quartz vein which generally is 1 2 mm wide and consists of pyrite and quartz showing undulose distinction. Such pyrite-quartz veins formed after the major ductile deformation stage of the Tianger shear zone. They are, in turn, crosscut by micro-scale veins carrying pyrite, mica and quartz. Stable isotope characteristics and high initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio suggested that no magmatic process was related with the ore-forming process of gold deposits during the Triassic period in west Tianshan, and the ore-forming materials were solely derived from the continental crust.
Allibone, A. 1998. Synchronous deformation and hydrothermal activity in the shear zone hosted high-sulphidation AuCu deposit at Peak Hill, NSW, Australia, Miner. Dep., 33, 495512. Klemm, D. D. and Krautner, H. G. 2000. Hydrothermal alteration and associated mineralization in the Freda-Rebecca gold deposit Bindura District, Zimbabwe, Miner. Dep., 35, 90108. Voicu, G., Jebrak, M. B. M. and Crepeau, R. 1999. Structural, mineralogical, and geochemical studies of the Paleoproterozoic Omai Gold Deposit, Guyana, Econ. Geol., 94, 12771304. Zhu, Y. F., Zhu, J. Zeng, Y. 2007. The Tianger (Bingdaban) shear zone hosted gold deposit, west Tianshan, NW China: Petrographic and geochemical characteristics, Ore Geol. Rev., 32, 337365.
Geology and tectonic implications of Early Palaeozoic ophiolitic belts in west Junggar, Xinjiang, NW China Y. Zhu1, B. Chen, J. J. Tan School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China (yfzhu@pku.edu.cn) The Ordovician Tajin Taerbahatai Kujibai Honguleleng ophiolitic belt accreted to the ChingizTaerbahatai arc, while the Ordovician Tangbale - Mayila Baijiantan-Baikouquan ophiolitic belt (TMBB) accreted to the Junggar plate, Xinjiang (Xu et al., 2006; Zhu and Xu, 2006; He et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2008). The spreading of the Ordovician Ocean probably started from the Precambrian and lasted to Devonian. TheOrdovician Baijiantan-Baikouquan ophiolite melanges in the TMBB consist of different rock units including serpentinised lherzolite, spinel serpentinite, metagabbro, garnet amphibolite, basalt, spinel-bearing marble, and abyssal radiolarian-bearing chert. Metagabbro is mainly composed of clinopyroxene and plagioclase pseudomorph consisting of zoisitezalbitegarnetilmenite chlorite. The garnet amphibolite, occurring together with spinel serpentinite, mainly consists of hornblende, garnet and assemblage of zoisitezalbite with minor amounts of clinopyroxene, ilmenite, sphene, epidotite, chlorite, quartz, rutile, biotite and apatite. Geochemical data demonstrate that the spinel lherzolite, metagabbro, and garnet amphibolite resemble N-type MORB with enrichments of large ion lithophile elements. The high eNdT values (.z9) indicate that the spinel lherzolite represents a depleted mantle. Insignicant depletions of high eld strength elements in metagabbro, and the slightly enrichments of HFSE in garnet amphibolite suggest that strong uid modication or partial melting did not happen during metamorphism in subduction zone.
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Thermodynamic calculations indicate that metagabbro has undergone metamorphism at 6?68?3 kbar (420 470uC), whereas metamorphic pressure recorded in garnet amphibolite is much higher (y15 kbar at 520uC). The clockwise P-T path reects a subduction channel condition in which the Baikouquan ophiolitic melange was recycled. The metagabbro exhumated from the shallow part of the subduction channel, while garnet amphibolite from the deeper part.
suggest that, high Fe is not the only factor in suboptimal Pb recovery.

Ashton, J. H., et al. 2010. The giant Navan carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb deposit a review. IAEG Extended Abstracts Volume ZINC 2010, 97102. Boyce, A. J., Anderton, R. and Russell, M. J. 1983. Rapid subsidence and early Carboniferous base-metal mineralization in Ireland, Trans. Inst. Min. Metall., 92, B55B66. Philcox, M. E. 1989. The mid-Dinantian unconformity at Navan, Ireland, in The role of tectonics in Devonian and Carboniferous sedimentation in the British Isles, (ed. R. S. Arthurton et al.), Yorkshire Geol. Soc., Occasional Publ., 6, 6768. Ohfuji, H. and Rickard, D. 2005. Experimental syntheses of framboidsa review, Earth Sci. Rev., 71, 147170.
Chen, B., et al. 2008. Acta Petrol. Sin., 24, 10341040. He, G. Q., et al. 2007. Acta Petrol. Sin., 23, 15731576. Xu, X., et al. 2006. Geol. China, 33, 470475. Zhu, Y. F. and Xu, X. 2006. Acta Petrol. Sin., 22, 28332842. Zhu, Y. F., et al. 2007. Acta Petrol. Sin., 23, 10751086. Zhu, Y. F., et al. 2008. Acta Petrol. Sin., 24, 27672777.
The geological significance and mining-related problems associated with framboidal pyrite-rich ore at Navan, Ireland G. J. Barker, J. F. Menuge UCD School of Geological Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland (gareth.barker1@ gmail.com) The Navan deposit, Co. Meath, Ireland is a world-class zinclead (ZnPb) orebody with pre-production resources of y105 Mt at 8?1%Zn, 2?0%Pb, and is currently Europes largest Zn producer. Around 3% of ore occurs as lenses termed the Conglomerate Group Ore (CGO), hosted by a sequence of fault talus and debris ows known locally as the Boulder Conglomerate. CGO contains volumetrically signicant Fe-sulphides (dominantly framboidal pyrite) amounting to y23% of the total 3?15 Mt of ore (Ashton et al., 2010). These deposits overlie an erosion surface and both are considered to be the product of gravitational instability caused by extensional faulting during the Chadian (Boyce et al., 1983; Philcox, 1989). Pyrite framboids are microscopic spheroidal to subspheroidal clusters of discrete, equant, equidimensional and equimorphic microcrystals packed with varying degrees of ordering (Ohfuji and Rickard, 2005). CGO framboidal pyrite shows extreme variation in size, shape and internal ordering of individual pyrite framboids, with the prevailing shape of microcrystals being octahedral. The morphology and size distribution of the CGO framboidal pyrite gives insights into the biogeochemical processes of the ancient depositional environment suggesting that precipitation occurred both syngenetically and diagenetically. CGO framboidal pyrites are frequently overgrown by later phases of pyrite lling the pore space between microcrystals, masking their original internal structure. CGO framboidal pyrite may be amalgamated to various extents eventually forming massive pyrite. Overall CGO mineralisation is mainly replacive with reactive carbonate clasts and plant material completely replaced. Other styles of mineralisation occur including open-space inlling and entrained reworked clasts of sulphide ore sourced from exhumed, stratigraphically lower, mineralised lenses. Historically at Navan, high Fe grades result in suboptimal Pb recovery. Mill feed with high Fe grade correlates with reduced Pb recovery but early results
The Algtrask Au-deposit, northern Sweden, an example of a higher level Au-bearing hydrothermal system related to the Palaeoproterozoic Tallberg porphyry Cu deposit? T. Bejgarn1, H. Areback2, C. Broman3, R. Large4, 2 J. Nylander , P. Weihed1 1 Division of Geosciences, Lulea University of Technology, SE-971 87 Lulea, Sweden (Therese.Bejgarn@ltu.se) 2 Boliden Mineral AB, SE-936 81 Boliden, Sweden 3 Division of Geosciences, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden 4 CODES, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 126, Hobart TAS 7001, Australia The Palaeoproterozic Tallberg porphyry Cu and Algtrask Au deposits are situated in the northern part of the Skellefte district, northern Sweden. These deposits are hosted by the early orogenic-synvolcanic Jorn Granitoid Complex (JGC) that is coeval with a remnant of a volcanic arc succession, hosting several 1?89 Ga VMS deposits (Allen et al., 1996). Mineralisation in Tallberg occurs as disseminated and quartz vein stockwork sulphides associated with mainly propylitic and phyllic alteration and quartz-feldspar porphyritic (QFP) dykes dated at 1886 Ma (Weihed, 1992). The Algtrask Au deposit (indicated mineral resource of 2?9 Mt at 2?6 g t21 Au), situated approximately 3 km east of the Tallberg deposit, is mainly hosted by a coarse grained granodiorite of the JGC. The Algtrask deposit is characterised by several steeply dipping, subparallel, NESW striking zones of varying width with disseminations and veins of mainly pyrite, locally enriched in chalcopyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, accessory Teminerals and Au (Bejgarn et al., 2011). The mineralised zones are structurally controlled and display intense proximal phyllic-silicic alteration and pervasive distal propylitic alteration of the host rock. QFP dykes with comparable composition as in Tallberg predate the Algtrask mineralisation (Bejgarn et al., 2011), whereas similar style Au-mineralisation as in Algtrask is com monly associated with the QFP dykes in the southern Tallberg area. However, no porphyry style mineralisa tion has yet been observed in the Algtrask area. Preliminary results from microscopic and LA-ICP-MS studies of sulphide minerals from both deposits suggest at least two different stages of mineralisation. Fluid inclusions from the Algtrask deposit have variable CO2/ H2O proportions, low salinity and suggest formation temperature of 150200uC. The Tallberg porphyry Cudeposit and adjacent Au bearing zones formed at higher temperatures and possibly from two unmixed salinity
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groups (Weihed, 1992). The uid forming the Algtrask deposit is interpreted to represent a higher level later phase of the hydrothermal system forming the Tallberg deposit, or alternatively a similar but different, deeper lying porphyry system.
Allen, R. L., Weihed, P. and Svenson, S.-A. 1996. Setting of Zn-Cu-AuAg massive sulfide deposits in the evolution and facies architecture of a 1?9 Ga marine volcanic arc, Skellefte district, Sweden, Econ. Geol., 91, 10221053. Bejgarn, T. et al. 2011. Geology, petrology and alteration geochemistry of the Palaeoproterozoic intrusive hosted Algtrask Au deposit, Northern Sweden, in Granite-related ore deposits, (ed. A. N. Sial et al.), Geol. Soc., Lond. Spec. Publ., 350, 105132. Weihed, P. 1992. Geology and genesis of the Early Proterozoic Tallberg porphyry-type deposit, Skellefte district, northern Sweden, PhD thesis, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, Publication A72.
for barren and potentially ore-bearing norites that can be used during mining and exploration processes.
Holwell, D. A., McDonald, I. and Armitage, P. E. B. 2005. Observations on the relationship between the Platreef and its hangingwall, Appl. Earth Sci. (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B), 114, B199B207. Holwell, D. A. and Jordaan, A. 2006. Three-dimensional mapping of the Platreef at the Zwartfontein South mine: implications for the timing of magmatic events in the northern limb of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa, Appl. Earth Sci. (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B), 115, 4148. Holwell, D. A., McDonald, I. and Armitage, P. E. B. 2006. Platinumgroup mineral assemblages in the Platreef at the Sandsloot Mine, northern Bushveld Complex, South Africa, Miner. Mag., 70, 83 101.
Platinum-group mineralogy of hybrid norites within the Platreef at Zwartfontein and Overysel, northern Bushveld Complex, South Africa A. P. Bevan, D. A. Holwell Department of Geology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (ab381@le.ac.uk) The Platreef is a platinum group element (PGE)enriched pyroxenite unit, located in the northern limb of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa, which contains base metal sulphide mineralisation with associated high grades of PGE. The Platreef was intruded into country rocks made up of Palaeoproterozoic sediments and Archaean gneiss, and is overlain by gabbronorites of the Main Zone (Holwell et al., 2005). The base of the Main Zone consists of norites and gabbronorites that have eaten into the Platreef and in some cases intruded along serpentinised shear zones within the Platreef, formed prior to the emplacement of the Main Zone magma (Holwell and Jordaan, 2006). In addition, a number of intrusive norite bodies referred to as hybrid norites intrude the Platreef. It is thought these latter intrusions may represent hybrid magmas of Platreef magma and melted oor rocks, or Main Zone magma and melted Platreef rocks. This study has investigated examples of these intrusive norites that are both PGE-bearing and PGE-barren. So far an intrusive norite from Anglo Platinums Overysel property has yielded range of telluride-dominant platinum group minerals (PGM) with a palladium mineral majority as well as unnamed germanides (Pd,Pt)2Ge and PtGeS and a minor amount of arsenides. The vast majority of PGM occur either as part of polyphase sulphide (pentlandite with secondary amounts of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite) grains enclosed in amphibole on the edge of massive interstitial sulphides or as a coating to secondary amphibole crystals surrounded by the interstitial sulphides. Similarities between the norite, Platreef, main zone magma and oor-rock whole-rock geochemistry are being used to help determine an origin for the hybrid magma. (Pd,Pt)2Ge is the dominant PGM of the hangingwall gabbronorite in the Sandsloot pit to the south of Zwartfontein and Overysel (Holwell et al., 2006). Also like Sandsloot, the PGMs are often associated with polyphase pentlandite-secondary amphibole contacts. The intention is to dene nomenclatures
The origin and economic significance of dioritic sills within the Skaergaard Intrusion, Kangerlussuaq region, east Greenland P. J. Bird1, D. A. Holwell1, T. Abraham-James2 1 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (pjb44@le.ac. uk) 2 Platina Resources Limited, PO Box 4192, Robina, Queensland 4226, Australia Greenlands east coast is host to an extensive igneous suite consisting of ood basalt, ultramac to alkaline plutons and mac dyke swarms, produced during the early Tertiary in association with the opening of the North Atlantic, and the ancestral Icelandic plume. Of these, the most well known is the Skaergaard Intrusion, famous for its world class example of igneous differentiation and layering. The discovery of signicant stratiform AuPd mineralisation within the Skaergaard Intrusion, termed the Platinova Reefs, during the late 1980s resulted in renewed study of the Skaergaard Intrusion and its surrounding area. Platina Resources Limited are currently conducting a resource denition drilling program and, during the 2010 eld season, identied previously uncharacterised dioritic sills occurring in multiple drill cores within the Skaergaard intrusion above the Platinova Reefs. These structures are particularly notable because of their great thickness, unusual composition and presence of sulphide mineralisation. Sill material shows variable composition away from the wall contacts graduating through chilled marginxenolith rich anks-xenolith poor centre with progressively increasing assimilation of small (,3 cm) crustal xenoliths towards the centre of the sill. Sill exhibits a plagiocalse-biotite-chlorite mineralogy. Sulphides, principally pyrite, are dispersed throughout the sills but show a propensity to cluster around the xenoliths and chlorite masses, possibly indicating a link between the assimilation of xenoliths and the precipitation of sulphides. It has been shown that assimilation of pyritic shales within the Togeda and Miki Fjord Macrodykes, located to the northeast of Skaergaard, resulted in the precipitation of Pd- and Cu-bearing sulphides (Holwell et al., 2010) and a similar process may have occurred within these newly discovered intrusive bodies. Initial studies using bulk geochemistry have shown distinct compositional variations and grouping of samples based upon their relative location.
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Holwell. D. A., et al. 2010. Marginal Cu-Au-PGE mineralisation in the newly discovered Togeda Macrodyke, Kangerlussuaq region, East Greenland, in 11th International Platinum Symposium, Extended Abstracts, (ed. P. Jugo), Sudbury, Ontario Geological, Miscellaneous Release, Data 269.
A possible iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) style of gold mineralisation at Laka, Northwest Nigeria A. E. Bullimore, L. J. Robb Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3AN, UK (aebullimore@hotmail.co.uk) Nigeria lies in the heart of the West African Craton, underlain by ancient orogenic terranes, with proven gold endowment. Despite a more recent record of petroleum, tin and coal extraction, Nigeria is virtually unknown as a producer of gold. Recent exploration in Laka, Kebbi State in the northwest of Nigeria, has discovered potentially economically viable gold mineralisation. Gold-in-soil anomalies have been found over a 7 km long, WNW-trending zone, the central portion of which has soils with up to 300 ppb Au. The gold-in-soil anomalies coincide broadly with shallow hills comprising resistant pods of quartzmagnetite rock, and associated, highly altered quartzepidote-garnet-hematite rocks. These bodies are spatially related to a probable Pan-African granitoid intrusion that cuts across one of several NNE trending schist belts that underlie the NW sector of the country, and which may be Palaeoproterozoic in age (and therefore be Birimian correlatives). Preliminary ground based magnetic surveys suggest that the granitoid underlies much of the mineralised area and possibly is genetically associated with the quartzmagnetite bodies. The quartz-magnetite and quartz-epidote-garnethematite rocks exhibit anomalous gold values and occasionally show evidence of copper mineralisation in the form of malachite staining. Detailed geological mapping of the area suggests that the irregular ironrich bodies are discordant to the regional fabric and may be hydrothermal in origin possibly associated with the granitoid intrusion. The close proximity of the deposit to a granitoid intrusion, as well as the abundance of iron-oxide minerals associated with gold and copper anomalies, suggest that the Laka deposit bears afnities with iron oxide-copper-gold deposits such as those in western Zambia (Mumbwa, Kasempa, Dunrobin) or Mauritania (Guelb Moghrein). Such deposits have not previously been described in Nigeria, or elsewhere in the West African Craton. Developing an exploration model for gold mineralisation associated with Archaean basement rocks at Sortekap, East Greenland K. G. Butterworth1, D. A. Holwell1, T. AbrahamJames2 1 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (kb165@le.ac.uk) 2 Platina Resources Limited, PO Box 4192, Robina, Queensland 4226, Australia
East Greenland has a history of mineral exploration, mostly concentrating on the numerous Tertiary intrusives and basalts concentrated around the Kangerlussuaq area, which include the world famous Skaergaard Intrusion. However, little to no exploration has taken place focusing on the Archaean country rock in the region. Sortekap is a remote locality in East Greenland, approximately 30 km north of the Skaergaard Intrusion. It comprises a series of ridges composed of Archaean basement gneiss and a supracrustal unit of amphibolite and ultramac rocks, with a number of gabbroic Tertiary intrusions that cut the basement sequence. Initial exploration of the area was undertaken by Platina Resources Ltd during the summer of 2009. They discovered extensive quartz veining within the basement amphibolite, with associated sulphide mineralisation. Samples returned gold values of up to 34 g t21 Au. Numerous gold grains have been identied using SEM analysis; the rst positive identication of gold in the Archaean of East Greenland. The grains range in size from 2 mm to almost 10 mm. More importantly, two generations of gold have been identied: (i) those hosted in the Ca silicates of the host rock amphibolite (ii) those as inclusions within arsenopyrite (the dominant sulphide). The larger grains appear to be within the host rock silicate minerals whereas the gold inclusions in arsenopyrite are much smaller. A variety of sulphides have been discovered, with arsenopyrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and small amounts of lollingite and galena. The sulphide and gold mineralisation is primarily within the host rock and not in the quartz veins. Comparison to other similarly hosted gold deposits in Greenland will provide a framework on which to base the model of mineralisation. The mineralisation observed at Sortekap appears to be quite similar to the Nalunaq gold mine in South Greenland, but further data will be required in order to make a full comparison and help to construct an exploration model for Archaean gold in the region. The evolution of tungsten vein-type deposits in Rwanda: a fluid inclusion and stable isotope study F. De Clercq1, Ph. Muchez1, S. Dewaele2, M. Fernandez-Alonso2, K. Piessens4 1 Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200E, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium (Friso.Declercq@ees.kuleuven.be) 2 Department of Geology and Mineralogy, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Leuvensesteenweg 13, B-3080 Tervuren, Belgium 3 Isotope Geoscience Unit, Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre (SUERC), Rankine Avenue, East Kilbride G75 0QF, Glasgow, UK 4 Geological Survey of Belgium, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Jennerstraat 13, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium The Central African Kibara orogen consists mainly of Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic rocks which were intruded by different generations of granite (G1G4). At 986
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10 Ma G4-granites were emplaced. After emplacement of these granites, pegmatites formed between 975 and 960 Ma. The entire set has been crosscut by quartz veins which may contain cassiterite or wolframite. This study focuses on the W vein-type deposits in the northern part of the Kibara belt, in Rwanda. The W deposits are hosted by pyritiferous black shales and grey sandstones. W-mineralisation is present in two types of cm to m thick quartz veins: (i) bedding parallel veins restricted to pelitic host-rocks, and (ii) veins crosscutting both host-rocks and bedding parallel veins. Wolframite formed during a late stage of the vein development. Afterwards, wolframite was altered to porous crystals. Muscovite crystals related to the formation of the W-mineralised veins were dated at about 990960 Ma (40Ar39Ar), which overlaps with the timing of G4-granite emplacement. Fluid inclusions in both quartz and wolframite were analysed by (IR-) microthermometry and Raman analysis. The W-mineralising uid was most likely a low to medium saline H2OCO2N2CH4NaCl uid with a minimal formation temperature between 240 and 320uC. All quartz veins have relatively homogeneous d18O values (14?4 to 16?0%V-SMOW), but the dD values vary signicantly (233 to 264%V-SMOW). In a d18O-dD isotopic diagram, these values plot in the area typical for metamorphic water, with a small overlap with the area of primary magmatic water (De Clercq et al., 2008). The W-mineralised quartz veins show a similar oxygen composition as the metapelitic rocks in the area, which ranges between 13?5 and 16?0%V-SMOW. The d18O data of the wolframite crystals range between 23?3 and 3?4%V-SMOW, and the dD values between 287 and 2133%V-SMOW. The wolframite samples plot below the eld typical for metamorphic and magmatic water. Based on the d18O data wolframite and quartz did not precipitate in isotopic equilibrium. The dD values of wolframite might indicate uid-rock interactions with low dD host-rocks or the involvement of a low dD uid. The W-mineralised veins most likely formed from a hydrothermal uid which strongly interacted with metasedimentary rocks.
De Clercq, F., Muchez, Ph., Dewaele, S. and Boyce, A. 2008. The tungsten mineralisation at Nyakabingo and Gifurwe (Rwanda): preliminary results, Geol. Belgica, 11, 251258.
sequential growth along well-dened layers (i.e. colloform texture), which have been targeted for isotopic analyses. The investigated samples are from the 5 Lens, which corresponds to the stratigraphically lowest and largest body of mineralisation within the so-called Pale Beds. A New-Wave device was used for mineral microsampling along sphalerite layers at a spatial resolution of 50100 mm. Zn, Fe and Pb were puried using AG1-X8 anion exchange resin and isotopic analyses were carried out using a Thermo Scientic Neptune MC-ICPMS instrument in UCD. A large spread in Fe and Zn isotopic composition has been obtained from sphalerite microsamples, which is especially dramatic in the case of d56Fe (from 22?20 to 20?24%) compared to d66Zn (from 20?27 to 0?28%). This contrasts with uniform Pb isotopic composition. A clear correlation between d66Zn and d56Fe is also observed, which is exemplied by both inter- and intra-sphalerite colloform layers. In-situ S isotopic analyses in sphalerite equally display a substantial range of variation (of 24%), and can be imperfectly correlated with d66Zn and d56Fe variations. It is proposed that kinetic, Rayleigh-type, Fe and Zn isotopic fractionation occurred and was due to rapid precipitation at a high degree of supersaturation (Wilkinson et al., 2005), with negligible metal source variations. Intra-grain S isotopic data indicate that kinetic fractionation was intimately associated with the mixing of two uids at the site of deposition. It is thus proposed that early precipitated sphalerite had a hydrothermal signature (d34S.0), light Zn and Fe isotopes, and precipitated at relatively high temperature (.150uC). Conversely, later precipitated sphalerite had a more bacteriogenic signature (d34S,0), heavier Zn and Fe isotopes, and precipitated at lower temperature (about 50150uC). The possible role of other processes will also be discussed.
Wilkinson, J. J., Weiss, D. J., Mason, T. F. D. and Coles, B. J. 2005. Zinc isotope variation in hydrothermal systems: preliminary evidence from the Irish Midlands ore field, Econ. Geol., 100, (3), 583590.
Sphalerite isotopic constraints (Fe, Zn, S, Pb) on the genesis of the Navan Zn-Pb ore body: evidence for fluid mixing and kinetic fractionation D. Gagnevin1, J. F. Menuge1, C. D. Barrie2, A. J. Boyce2, M. A. Murphy1, R. J. Blakeman3 1 UCD School of Geological Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland (damien.gagnevin@ ucd.ie) 2 Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, East Kilbride, Glasgow G75 0QF, Scotland 3 Boliden Tara Mines Ltd, Navan, County Meath, Ireland This study investigates the giant carbonate-hosted Navan ZnPb ore body, Ireland, the largest of the Lower Carboniferous Irish midlands ore eld, using a multi-isotopic approach on micro-drilled sphalerite samples (Fe, Pb, Zn), as well as in-situ S isotopic analyses. Sphalerite in Navan provides evidence of
Geological, geochemical and metamorpho-tectonic setting of gold mineralisation at the Kiaka deposit, Southern Burkina Faso J. O. Garman, L. J. Robb Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3AN, UK (Jack.garman@st-annes.ox.ac.uk) Although artisanal gold exploration and extraction have dominated Burkina Faso for centuries, modern exploration is a relative newcomer to the country. Primary gold deposits in the Palaeoproterozoic Birimian Belt are signicant, yet there is little detailed research into their formation and occurrence, especially in southern Burkina Faso. This study focuses on the Kiaka gold deposit in Southern Burkina Faso, which occurs where the Boromo and Gourma greenstone belts intersect the NNE trending Markoye Fault zone. Two styles of gold mineralisation occur within this sheared fault zone and show similarities to many other epigenetic West African orogenic gold deposits. Gold mineralisation occurs both
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in high grade, low tonnage quartz vein systems, as well as in disseminated, wall rock hosted deposits of high tonnage and low grade. Both types of mineralisation are economically signicant; their genesis and paragenetic sequence need to be ascertained in order to advance exploration in Burkina Faso. Analysis of geochemical down-hole elemental data, as well as petrography and mineral chemistry were used to identify the nature of the host rocks, their mineralogy and alteration assemblages and the gold deportment. These data are complemented by portable XRF elemental data taken from cores in the main zone of the exploration site, which were plotted against AU re assay data for the corresponding pulped cores. Field mapping and core log extrapolation, combined with regional gravity and magnetic data, provide structural insights into the regional metamorphic and tectonic setting of the Kiaka deposit, allowing it to be compared with others in the West African Craton. Detailed ore genesis studies of this nature have not previously been undertaken in this remote part of Burkina Faso and should contribute to a better understanding of important new deposits such as Kiaka, from which a resource of 1?4 millions ounces of gold has already been ascertained. Towards a genetic model for targeting gold mineralisation in the Scottish Dalradian N. J. Hill1, G. R. T. Jenkin1, D. A. Holwell1, D. Catterall2, A. J. Boyce3, D. Mark3, J. Naden4, G. Gunn4, C. M. Rice5 1 University of Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (njh35@le.ac.uk) 2 Scotgold Resources Ltd, Tyndrum, FK20 8RY, UK 3 Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, G75 0QF, UK 4 British Geological Survey, NG12 5GG, UK 5 University of Aberdeen, AB24 3UE, UK The Cononish deposit is an economic gold prospect situated within the Grampian Highlands, y4 km SSW of Tyndrum. Scotgold Resources Ltd currently controls the project and has exploration licences throughout the Scottish Dalradian. Cononish has a JORC compliant resource, with 31 000 oz of Au at 17?9 g t21 in Measured, 24 000 oz of Au at 10?2 g t21 in Indicated and 108 000 oz with a grade range of 10?8 to 16 g t21 in Inferred. This project aims to increase understanding of Cononish and place it in the context of the wider geology and mineralisation of the Tyndrum area, with a view to enhancing its own and the surrounding areas potential for gold exploration. Mineralisation at Cononish is hosted in a ,6 m wide steeply-dipping quartz vein running parallel to the NEtrending Tyndrum Fault. The vein cuts units of Argyll and Appin age including psammites, pelites, and some calcareous units. Gold is hosted in electrum and within sulphides, with a lack of visible gold. Pyrite dominates the sulphide assemblage, with sporadic galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite. The deposit has undergone multiple phases of uid input: an early quartz phase, sulphiderich quartz, clean white quartz and late calcite and chlorite veins. There are large variations in the relative abundance of elements at Cononish. Highest gold grades are associated with high Cd and Te. Enrichment of Pb and Zn may be associated with later base metal mineralisation
utilising pathways associated with earlier Au mineralisation. On a deposit scale, no consistent As enrichment is observed. However, within a more regional setting anomalous As values (up to 300 ppm) are common. Mo abundances appear to be decoupled from Au grades. The heat source for hydrothermal activity is unclear; there is no surface outcrop at Cononish of igneous bodies. However, a regional gravity anomaly around Tyndrum may represent an igneous body. A late Carboniferous quartz-microgabbro dyke cross cuts the vein in the adit and microgranite is exposed 1?5 km from the adit entrance. At Glen Orchy (y8 km NNW of adit) there are microgranite and lamprophyre intrusions. Metamorphic and fluid infiltration history of the Tambien Group, Ethiopia; a Neoproterozoic pre-Snowball Earth sequence M. R. S. Hodgkinson, G. R. T. Jenkin University of Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (mh227@le.ac. uk) Sediments of the Tambien Group, Ethiopia were deposited over a period of approximately 65 Ma from 800 to 735 Ma (Alene et al., 2006). The Tambien Group is exposed in four different inliers in the Tigrai region, Northern Ethiopia; from west to east, these are the Mai Kenetal, the Tsedia, the Chemit and the Negash Inliers (Alene et al., 2006). The Tambien Group is the younger of the two sequences that together make up the Neoproterozoic basement of the Nafka Terrane and forms part of the Arabian Nubian Shield (Sifeta et al., 2005). The region is also being investigated for gold by Stratex with the potential for many different deposit groups such as mesothermal lode gold, orogenic gold, VMS (Sifeta et al., 2005) as well as overlapping in age with host rocks of the Zambian Copperbelt. The region has experienced two major stages of tectonic compression, the rst being NS and the second EW (Alene et al., 2006). The rst stage has given rise to a penetrative foliation with folds from millimetres to tens of metres in wavelength and the second, less compressive stage formed folds up to 10 km in wavelength (Alene et al., 2006). Peak regional metamorphism has PT conditions in the pumpellyite-actinolite facies and occurred during the rst stage of deformation (Alene et al., 2006). The Tambien group sequence comprises metamorphosed carbonates and slates with the dominant lithologies being black limestones featuring up to 95% calcite and nely laminated green-grey slates (Alene et al., 2006). At the base of the Tambien Group, there a major negative carbon isotope anomalies of 24% that are is not attributed to one of the major glaciations seen towards the end of the Neoproterozoic (Alene et al., 2006; Halverson et al., 2007). There are only four sequences featuring deposition at this time and two of the other studied groups are the Akademikerbreen Group in north east Svalbard, Greenland and the Bitter Springs Formation, Central Australia (Halverson et al., 2007). They all have the same carbon isotope anomaly which has been called the Bitter Springs Anomaly. However as the region has experienced metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration it is possible that the original isotopic data has been altered. This project aims to characterise the conditions of the
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metamorphism and the hydrothermal alteration so that new and existing isotope data from the Tambien Group can be characterised and a possible model can be made for explaining the reasons behind the carbon isotope anomaly. Since it examines the uid history of this region the results will also have implications for mineral exploration in the area.
Alene, M., Jenkin, G. R. T., Leng, M. J. and Fiona Darbyshire, D. P. 2006. The Tambien Group, Ethiopia: an early Cryogenian (ca 800735 Ma) Neoproterozoic sequence in the Arabian-Nubian shield, Precambr. Res., 147, 7999. Halverson, G. P., Hoffman, P. F., Schrag, D. P. and Kaufman, A. J. 2007. Stratigraphy and geochemistry of a ca 800 Ma negative carbon isotope interval in northeastern Svalbard, Chem. Geol., 237, 527. Sifeta, K. et al. 2005. Geochemistry, provenance, and tectonic setting of Neoproterozoicmetavolcanic and metasedimentary units, Werri area, Northern Ethiopia, J. Afr. Earth Sci., 41, 212234.
nearby Au mineralisation this indicates potential afnities with IOCG or Kiruna type Iron ore deposits. The diorite bodies are a potential source for this uid, which has inuenced mineral parageneses in Au ore bodies throughout the Bambadji permit as well as at Gara. It is suggested that the SMSZ represents a boundary between two distinct uid domains, with a magmatic sourced uid dominant to the west and a metamorphic uid dominant in the east. The primary aim of this study is to effectively map these two uids in order to gain an understanding of how they interact and mix along and across the SMSZ, and to test the potential link between IOCG and orogenic gold mineralisation.
Lawrence, D. M. 2010. Characterisation and evolution of Au mineralisation in the Loulo mining district, Western Mali, PhD thesis, Kingston University London.
The Senegal-Mali shear zone: interaction of two fluid domains along a sinistral strike-slip system and their influence on Au mineralisation J. S. Lambert-Smith1, P. J. Treloar1, D. M. Lawrence1, R. Harbidge2 1 Centre for Earth & Environmental Science Research, Kingston University London, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, UK (J.Lambert-Smith@kingston.ac.uk) 2 Randgold Resources (UK) Ltd, 1st Floor, 2 Savoy Court, Strand, London, WC2R 0EZ, UK The Senegal-Mali shear zone (SMSZ), which parallels the Senegal-Mali border, hosts a number of world class orogenic gold deposits in the highly prospectivxic Kedougou-Kenieba Inlier, West Africa. The deposits are typically hosted along second and higher order splays off the main shear zone. New mineral stretching lineation and shear criteria data reported here conrm the sinistral strike-slip nature of the SMSZ. This study builds on that of Lawrence (Lawrence, 2010) who showed that some deposits feature uid compositions and paragenetic characteristics atypical of orogenic gold deposits. Two distinct hydrothermal uids were involved in mineralisation in the Loulo permit area of western Mali. (1) A high temperature, hypersaline, NaFeClB bearing magmatic sourced uid and (2) a lower temperature, low salinity, CO2N2H2S rich metamorphic uid. The magmatic uid is absent at the Yalea deposit, which represents a typical orogenic gold deposit formed from unmixing of the CO2 rich uid. The Gara deposit is thought to have formed due to mixing of the two uids, resulting in a deposit with an unusually Fe-rich paragenesis. The Bambadji permit area lies to the west of the Loulo permit and straddles the SMSZ. It contains numerous prospective Au targets that surround two large albitite bodies in the metasedimentary rocks of the Ko Series in the east as well as several iron skarn deposits associated with dioritic intrusions in the Faleme Volcanic Belt. Preliminary analyses of diorite and Fe-rich hydrothermal breccia indicate the presence of a regionally distributed magmatic uid similar to that at Gara. SEM analysis of the iron endoskarns shows enrichment in LREEs, P, Cu, U, Ni, Co and As. Combined with their association with widespread sodic alteration and
The genesis of base and precious metal vein mineralisation in the Amdrup Fjord area, east Greenland: are lamprophyres the key? S. P. Lawrence1, D. A. Holwell1, T. Abraham-James2 1 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (sl230@le.ac.uk) 2 Platina Resources Limited, PO Box 4192, Robina, Queensland 4226, Australia The Kangerlusuuaq region of east Greenland hosts intrusive and extrusive rocks associated with the passing ancestral Icelandic plume and continental break up associated with the opening of the North Atlantic. These basic and alkaline intrusions include the 50 Ma Kangerlusuuaq Alkaline Intrusion (KAI), and a number of satellite intrusions which both pre and postdate it. The KAI is located on the western side of the Kangerlusuuaq Fjord, 20 km to the northwest of the world famous Skaergaard Intrusion. Platina Resources Ltd currently holds the exploration licence for the Kangerlusuuaq area and is prospecting for base and precious metals. A suite of lamprophyre dykes intrude syenites of the KAI in the Amdrup Fjord area, and are spatially associated with hydrothermal base and precious metal vein mineralisation, and surround the porphyry Mo deposit of Flammefjeld (Brooks et al., 2004). Mineralised epithermal style quartz-carbonate breccia veining is found along the contact between the dykes and the unaltered syenite. Through eld observations the veins have been classied into four groups: 1. 2. 3. 4. PbZn with prominent galena and calcite quartz gangue pyrite veins within syenite with associated Au grades up to 33 g t21 pyrite with tetrahedrite that may host Ag mineralisation quartz veins in dyke material (Thomassen and Krebs, 2001). Further analysis of the vein material will determine any petrological, geochemical and genetic relation between the dykes and the veins.
Analysis of the dykes indicates that they are alkaline lamprophyres based on their bulk geochemistry. They have been dated between 43 and 34 Ma (Gleadow and Brooks, 1979) which is considerably younger than the host syenite, and this overlaps the 39?7 Ma porphyry Mo mineralisation at Flammefjeld (Brooks et al., 2004)
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representing the most recent magmatic event in the region. This project aims to constrain the temporal relationship between these poorly studied veins and dykes in what is a hugely signicant region in terms of early Tertiary magmatic and metallogenic activity.
Brooks, C. K., Tegner, C., Stein, H. and Thomassen, B. 2004. Re-Os and 40Ar/39Ar ages of porphyry molybdenum deposits in the east Greenland volcanic-rifted margin, Econ. Geol., 99, 12151222. Gleadow, A. J. W. and Brooks, C. K. 1979. Fission track dating, thermal histories and tectonics of igneous intrusions in east Greenland, Contrib Miner. Petrol., 7, 4560. Thomassen, B. and Krebs, J. D. 2001. Reconnaissance for noble metals in Precambrian and Palaeogene rocks, Amdrup Fjord, southern east Greenland, Geol. Greenland Surv. Bull., 189, 7682.
overprint according to the Groves model for orogenic gold (Groves et al., 1998). Shallow-level mineralisation is also suggested by uid inclusion studies on quartz-stibnite veins which show the predominance of low temperature (homogenisation temperatures between 115200uC) H2ONaCl uids (,6 wt-% NaCl equiv).
Groves, D. I., Goldfarb, R. J., Gebre-Mariam, M., Hagemann, S. G. and Robert, F. 1998. Orogenic gold deposits: a proposed classification in the context of their crustal distribution and relationship to other gold deposit types, Ore Geol. Rev., 13, 7 27.
The Massawa Au deposit, Kedougou-Kenieba Inlier, Senegal, West Africa D. Senghor1, D. M. Lawrence2, P. J. Treloar2 1 Randgold Resources, 3rd Floor Unity Chambers, 28 Halkett Street, St Helier, Jersey, UK (D.M.Lawrence@kingston.ac.uk) 2 Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston-UponThames, London, KT1 2EE, UK The Massawa Au deposit is located within the Senegalese part of the highly prospective/productive Kedougou-Kenieba Inlier, which hosts several world class orogenic goldelds in western Mali (e.g. Loulo and Sadiola). Massawa is located in the Kounemba exploration permit along the eastern margin of the Palaeoproterozoic (Birimian) Mako volcano-sedimentary belt, with mineralisation focussed along splays off a major terrane-bounding dextral shear known as the Main Transcurrent Shear Zone (MTZ). The deposit is at least 8?5 km long and has a current resource of 3?01 Moz at an average grade of 3?96 g t21. The Massawa structure trends NE (030u) with high grade zones situated along NS dilational shears that are interpreted to be right-hand exures developed during dextral reactivation. Exploration is currently focussed on the northern 4?5 km section of the structure where the deposit is split in two separate mineralised zones (Central and Northern). Host rocks strike sub-parallel to the main shear direction and consist of a package of low grade regionally metamorphosed volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks (tuffs and ash-tuffs), quartz-feldspar and lithic wackes, carbonaceous shales, hydrothermal breccias, and gabbro and porphyry sills. These sedimentary rocks have undergone pervasive silica alteration (Central zone) followed by a sericite-ankerite-dolomite alteration event related to mineralisation (both zones). Two major styles of mineralisation are recognised at Massawa from eld and laboratory studies. The rst stage of sulphide-Au mineralisation is associated with disseminated arsenopyrite-pyrite accompanied by carbonate-sericite alteration, which follows shear bands in the sedimentary-igneous host rocks. The second stage consists of quartz-stibnitetetrahedrite veining (conned to the Central zone) distinguished by coarse visible gold mineralisation (100 mm to a few mm). A distinctive trace assemblage is linked to stibnite formation including multiple Sb phases such as chalcostibnite, zinkerite, roschinite, aurostibite, jamesonite and robinsonite. This Sb-Au mineralisation is likely to represent a shallower (,6 km) late stage
Mesothermal gold mineralisation in the Southern Alps, New Zealand: comparisons between mineralised and barren veins C. D. Menzies1, D. A. H. Teagle1, S. C. Cox2, A. J. Boyce3 1 School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, University of Southampton, SO14 3ZH, UK (cdm1g08@soton.ac.uk) 2 Dunedin Research Centre, GNS Science, 764 Cumberland Street, Dunedin 901, New Zealand 3 SUERC, Rankine Avenue, Scottish Enterprise Technology Park, East Kilbride, G75 0QF, UK The Alpine Fault in the South Island of New Zealand marks the transpressional boundary between the Australian and Pacic plates. Rapid uplift (810 mm/ year) along the dextral strike slip fault has formed the .3000 m high Southern Alps. Theoretical models (Koons, 1987; 1989) indicate that the combination of rapid uplift with highly asymmetric erosion results in high (.200uC km21) geothermal gradients in the uppermost crust, raises the brittleductile transition to sha llow levels (around 56 km), and fuels hydrothermal circulation. The Southern Alps are commonly presented as a modern analogue for mesothermal gold mineralisation, such as the signicant Mesozoic gold deposits in Otago, New Zealand (Pitcairn et al., 2006). In the Southern Alps gold mineralisation is restricted to quartzcalcite ankeritechloriteadularia veins in steeply dipping vein networks in low grade schists and greywacke in the high mountains (Craw et al., 1987). Quartzcalcite chlorite veins hosted in ampibolite grade mylonites in the Alpine Fault Zone are barren. These veins form at varying structural levels, dened by ductile versus brittle deformation styles. Rare earth element patterns of calcite from barren ductile veins in the Alpine Fault Zone and mineralised veins in the high mountains suggest vein uids had similar ligand chemistries. However, the mineralised veins have more radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr (87Sr/86Sr5y0?705 to 0?708 versus y0?710 to 0?711) and lower d18O (d18O(vsmow) uid5y4 to 6 % versus y6 to 13 %). The radiogenic signature of the mineralised veins is attributed to interaction with pelitic host rocks which have a higher 87Sr/86Sr than the host rocks of the barren ductile veins. These low grade metamorphic rocks also contain more gold than high grade rocks which host the barren veins (Pitcairn et al., 2006). The lower d18O signature of the mineralised veins is inferred to be due to mixing with meteoric waters at shallow depth (y1 km), which also
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serves as the mechanism for gold precipitation (Craw et al., 1987).

Koons, P. O. 1987. Some thermal and mechanical consequences of rapid uplift: an example from the Southern Alps, New Zealand, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 86, 307319. Koons, P. O. 1989. The topographic evolution of collisional mountain belts: a numerical look at the Southern Alps, New Zealand, Am. J. Sci., 86, 10411069. Pitcairn, I. K., Teagle, D. A. H., Craw, D., Olivo, G. R., Kerrich, R. and Brewer, T. S. 2006. Sources of metals and fluids in orogenic gold deposits: insights from the Otago and Alpine schists, New Zealand, Econ. Geol., 101, 15251546. Craw, D., et al, 1987. Structural geology and vein minseralisation in the Callery River headwaters, Southern Alps, New Zealand, New Zealand J. Geol. Geophys., 30, 273286.
represents a non-economically recoverable phase. This may lead to an incorrect evaluation of the extractable metallic resources calculated from the assay data, and from non-specic mineralogical analyses.
Hitzman, M. W., Reynolds, N. A., Sangster, D. F., Allen, C. R., Carman, C. E. 2003. Classification, genesis, and exploration guides for nonsulphide zinc deposits, Econ. Geol., 98, 685714. Boni, M., Mondillo, N., Balassone, G. (in press). Zincian dolomite: a peculiar dedolomitization case? Geology.
In search of the lost zinc: Zn-dolomite in supergene nonsulphide ores N. Mondillo, M. Boni, G. Balassone Dipartimento Scienze della Terra, Universita di Napoli ` Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 8 80134 Napoli, Italy (nicolamondillo@libero.it) The supergene nonsulphide zinc and lead ores result from the weathering of original sulphide-bearing deposits (SEDEX, MVT and CRD), whose host rocks are mainly carbonates. Until now, the best-known interaction between the sulphide-hosting carbonate rocks and supergene uids was limited to the exchange between the host rocks and the Zn and Pb ions carried in the uids, commonly resulting in the precipitation of smithsonite, hydrozincite, cerussite and hemimorphite (Hitzman et al., 2003). However, during our research in the nonsulphide mining districts of Jabali (Yemen), Yanque (Peru) and Southwest Sardinia (Italy), we could detect an unexpected widespread replacement of the host dolomites by newly formed zincian dolomite phases. The zincian dolomites from these mining districts are extensively distributed around the main deposits, and replace the predecessor dolomite phases. Their characteristics, which include the presence of variable amounts of Zn, Pb and Cd in the crystal lattice, are quite similar in all the investigated districts. The precipitation of Zndolomites is commonly followed by several Fe- and Mn(hydr)oxide phases and, eventually, by sparry calcite and/or (Mg-) smithsonite. From the paragenesis observed in many samples, we envisage the replacement of the dolomite host as a supergene multi-step process, starting with a progressive zincication of the dolomite crystals controlled by microfractures, followed by a patchy dedolomitisation (resulting in the formation of calcitezFe-Mn(hydr)oxides), and then eventually concluded by the complete substitution of dolomite by smithsonite. Part of the magnesium derived from the dolomite replacement is hosted in zoned smithsonite concretions. On the base of textural evidence, we interpret the Zn-dolomite phases occurring in the supergene zone of sulphide zinc deposits as the missing link between dolomite and smithsonite in the wall-rock replacement process (Boni et al., in press). The ample extent of these replacement bodies of zincian dolomite in several mining districts, underestimated so far, is important for the exploration of nonsulphide zinc ores, because Zn-dolomite currently
Sedimentary copper mineralisation within the YozgatDelice-Yerkoy Basin, Middle Anatolia, Turkey J. P. Nowecki1, S. Roberts1, R. P. Foster2, Bahri Yildiz3 1 School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, European Way, Southampton, SO14 3ZH, UK (jpn205@soton.ac.uk) 2 Stratex International PLC, Wessex House, Upper Market Street, Eastleigh, Hampshire, SO50 9FD, UK 3 Stratex Madencilik Sanayi ve Ticaret Ltd. sti. Iran Caddesi 53/6, G.O.P./Ankara, Turkey The Yozgat-Delice-Yerkoy basin (y145 km east of Ankara) is part of the Cankiri basin, which formed during the Late Cretaceous to Tertiary closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean, represented by the collision between the Kirsehir and Sakarya continental blocks. Minera lisation primarily occurs at three main horizons within the Incik Formation of Middle to Late Eocene age terrestrial conglomerates and sandstones, in sedimentary channel structures. The Incik Formation is in close stratigraphic association with evaporite sequences, and contains gypsum veinlets. Host sediments are both texturally and compositionally immature, comprising siltstones to sandstones of all sizes to ne grained conglomerates. Clasts are moderately sorted and are generally sub-angular to sub rounded. A variety of clast types are observed, including quartz, feldspar (mostly plagioclase), biotite, ilmenite, lithofragments and lignite. Lithofragments include choritised basalt, metaquartzite, schists, andesites, and reworked sandstones, indicating that the source region for the sedimentary rocks was diverse, containing lithologies from the nearby Ankara Melange and various volcanics in the region. Cu (and minor VPbUCoMo) mineralisation consists almost solely of oxidised copper minerals, likely formed by supergene alteration of primary sulphide phases. Malachite and azurite are the major copper minerals, with minor chrysocolla and cuprite. Malachite mineralisation occurs within the metasedimentary rocks, lling pore spaces with a brous habit and coating clasts. It is also observed within microcrystalline quartz veinlets, lling fractures in clasts, penetrating schistosity in metamorphosed lithoclasts, and intruding and expanding mica cleavages. Azurite shows an afnity for areas of high uid ow, forming as near-spherical concretions in pore space around microcrystalline quartz veins and on porosity and permeability boundaries, as well as near organic clasts. Rare sulphides were observed penetrating cleavage within biotite phenocrysts in an andesite clast within a conglomerate. The similarities between this method of sulphide emplacement and the sites of malachite emplacement indicate that the deposits probably contained sulphides before widespread supergene oxidation
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occurred. Organic material is common as large lignite clasts within the sediments, and can frequently be observed with signicant malachite formed on the edges and in cracks. Thin lenses contain abundant blocky organic material (interpreted as degrading lignite fragments) partially replaced by malachite surrounded by microcrystalline quartz. These organic phases likely acted as a reductant for copper bearing uids, which were channelled along areas of enhanced permeability and porosity.
R. A. Shaw British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UK (rashaw@bgs.ac.uk) The rare earth elements (REEs) have a wide range of industrial uses including important applications in environmental technology. The REE have recently been identied by the European Commission as critical to the EU, chiey because 95% of global production is from China and because for many applications no substitutes exist. Rock samples from various settings within and around the Cornubian batholiths in SW England have been studied to determine: the distribution and abundance patterns of individual REE; the nature and composition of REE minerals; and the controls on REE mineralisation in granitic rocks. Total REE concentrations range from less than 10 to greater than 500 ppm. The highest values occur in skarns and metasedimentary rocks surrounding granite bodies. The light-REE (La-Sm) is concentrated in monazite and allanite; whereas the middle-REE (PmHo) and heavy-REE (Gd-Lu) are concentrated in xenotime. Monazites are either of primary magmatic origin and occur as inclusions in biotite, ilmenite and apatite, or of hydrothermal origin, occurring as framboids and ne-grained aggregates within cavities. Allanite is almost exclusively restricted to skarns. REE distribution is predominantly controlled by magmatic processes and melt composition. Alteration (e.g. chlorite) of granitic rocks results in small scale redistribution and local upgrading of REE. Mixing of magmatic uids containing REE with meteoric/metamorphic uids causes the precipitation of hydrothermal monazite in metasedimentary units surrounding granite intrusions. Reaction of magmatic uids carrying REE with calcic-skarns results in the formation of hydrothermal allanite. Data from this study suggest that, REE concentrations in South West England are generally sub-econo mic. However, metasedimentary units surrounding granites and calcic-skarns have the greatest potential for higher REE concentration. Alteration mineralogy, geochemistry and elemental mass balance through the hydrothermal alteration zones of Maher Abad CuAu porphyry deposit, Khusf, Iran K. Siahcheshm1, A. Abedini2 1 Geology Department, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Tabriz University, Tabriz, Iran (kl_siahcheshm@tabrizu. ac.ir) 2 Geology Department, Faculty of Sciences, Urmieh University, Urmieh, Iran The Maher Abad porphyry CuAu deposit is located in Khusf, South Khorasan province, East of Iran. Copper gold mineralisation is related to the emplacement of multiple stages of granodiorite porphyries. The hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation developed in three temporally and spatially stages, namely, (1) The early stage which is divided into potassic (biotite) and propylitic (chlorite-epidote) zones. (2) The transitional alteration stage is typied by a phylic (quartz, white mica and chlorite) zone. (3) The late alteration stage is characterised by destruction of feldspar and formation of argillic (muscovite, paragonite and kaolinite) zone.
Mineral exploration using whole rock multi-element geochemistry on the Chirano Shear Zone, Ghana, West Africa M. J. Roberts1, G. R. T. Jenkin1, C. Smeathers2, H. Stuart2 1 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (mjr39@le.ac.uk) 2 Hugh Stuart Exploration Consultants, Lower Farm Barns, Brandon Lane, Coventry, CV3 3GW, UK The Chirano Gold District covers a strike length of 9 km within the Sefwi-Bibiani volcanic belt in Ghana, y100 km southwest of Kumasi, Ghanas second city. The district comprises 14 mesothermal gold deposits, hosted within altered mac rocks of the Birimian Supergroup. All of these deposits are located along the Chirano Lode Horizon, an intensely altered and deformed fault bound package of rocks, displaying albite and later carbonate alteration with intense bleaching surrounding and within the ore zone. Exploration at Chirano is at a relatively mature stage and is becoming more conceptual in order to search for deeper blind thrust deposits along the Chirano Lode Horizon. A total of 458 drill core samples have been analysed for their whole rock geochemistry covering a range of depths and distances from the ore zone. These samples have been correlated against 17 hand specimen and polished thin section samples to further classify the alteration zones and deformation present. Sampling focused on mac rocks within the Chirano Lode Horizon at two deposits, Paboase and Akwaaba. These underground deposits were chosen for study as they represent the largest proportion of gold within the Chirano District and have associated underground resources which are the continued focus of the exploration team at Chirano. Whole rock geochemical analysis of drill core samples from the deposits has produced mixed results by highlighting the immediate lack of pathnder elements typically associated with mesothermal gold deposits. Low amounts of arsenic and undetectable levels of tellurium within the mac samples are prompting a closer study of the chemical patterns and alteration detected in association with increasing gold levels. Any correlations or anomalies within the data set will be used to increase the precision of drill holes targeting mineralisation, generating new drill targets and to help nd deeper blind deposits such as the Akwaaba and Paboase underground deposits which have added over 1?5 Moz to the Chirano deposits total gold reserves. The potential for rare earth element resources in South West England: a reconnaissance study
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The potassic zone is enriched in Si, Fe, K, Rb, S, Cu and Au with a decrease in mass and volume of 5?441?67% respectively. Copper and gold enrichments in the potassic zone represent the abundance of copper gold bearing sulphides consist of bornite, digenite and chalcopyrite. The early propylitic alteration zone is relatively unchanged. The transitional phyllic zone shows general depletion of ferromagnesian oxides and alkalis, which is consistent with a decrease in mass and volume. The late argillic zone is characterised by a complete destruction of pre-existing mac minerals and plagioclase, expressed by an overall decrease of mass and volume (8?656?61 and 17?766?88% respectively). In general, as a consequence of breakdown of hornblende, biotite and plagioclase, major elements (Ca, Mg, Na and K) and REE decrease from least altered rocks towards the late alteration zones. Based on elemental mass balance calculations by using the isocon method, degree of mass and volume losses increases from early, through transitional to late alteration stages. This is compatible with a general decrease of elemental activities in hydrothermal uids during the alteration. Platinum group mineralogy within the Grasvally-NoritePyroxenite-Anorthosite member in the Rooipoort area, Northern Limb, Bushveld Complex, South Africa J. W. Smith1, D. A. Holwell1, I. McDonald2, T. Pearton3 1 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (jws14@le.ac. uk) 2 School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3YE, UK 3 Caledonia Mining Corporation, Johannesburg, South Africa The northern limb of the 2?06 Ga Bushveld Complex is host to the PGE-rich Platreef which forms the base of the magmatic succession north of the town of Mokopane. The area to the south of Mokopane is considerably less well understood and differs in its magmatic succession. This region consists of ultramac Lower Zone lithologies, a unique layered package referred to as the Grasvally-NoritePyroxenite-Anorthosite (GNPA) member and Main Zone gabbronorites and gabbros. The GNPA member has been divided into the Lower Mac (LMF) unit, the Lower Gabbronorite (LGN) and an upper Mottled Anorthosite (MANO) unit. Seven sulphide and PGE mineralised horizons have been identied within the GNPA member. The origin of this unit is highly disputed with some equating it to the critical zone of the eastern and western limbs and thus the mineralised horizons with the Merensky Reef and UG2 chromitite, whereas others suggest it is a facies of the Platreef. These discrepancies exist due to the lack of research, especially on the ne scale mineralogy undertaken in this area and on the PGM assemblages. A preliminary SEM study has revealed each reef is distinguishable by its unique platinum group mineralogy. The platinum group mineral (PGM) assemblage of the four reefs present within the LMF and underlying quartzite are dominated by Pd antimonides and Pd tellurides. These PGMs are associated with the principal sulphides, namely millerite, pyrite and chalcopyrite and silicates. In contrast, PGMs present within a chromitite
layer occur predominantly as the Pd-bismuthotelluride, micheneriteand primarily associated with silicates. The PGM assemblage within the LGN is overwhelmingly dominated by Pd antimonides which occur in association with sulphide blebs comprised of pyrite and millerite. Additionally, this reef also contains the mercury-rich PGM, temagamite which appears to be unique to the northern limb. The PGMs present in the MANO unit occur predominantly as Pd tellurides and bismuthotellurides which exhibit a strong association with silicates. Future work will aim to understand the genesis of each reef and to put the GNPA member and its mineralisation into context with the rest of the Bushveld Complex. The dominance of Pd PGMs, and the presence of abundant millerite and pyrite within the GNPA member noticeably contrasts with the Merensky Reef which is rich in the Pt and Ru PGMs, cooperite and laurite, and sulphides such as pyrrhotite and pentlandite. Additionally, the GNPA member also evidently differs to the Platreef as millerite and temagamite dominant assemblages do not occur within the Platreef. Petrogenesis of Silurian-Devonian intrusive and volcanic rocks of Western Argyll, Scotland: implications for Cu Au mineralisation E. Spencer1, R. N. Armstrong2 1 Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Royal School of Mines Prince Consort Road, Imperial College London, SW7 2BP, UK (edward.spencer06@imperial.ac. uk) 2 Department of Mineralogy, The Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, UK The Lorne Plateau Lavas (LPL) and Kilmelford Intrusive Suite (KIS) of Western Argyll, Scotland, form part of the extensive Argyll Suite of igneous rocks. The KIS hosts widespread sub-economic CuMoAu porphyry-style mineralisation. To further develop regional exploration models, greater understanding of the temporal and petrological relationships with the LPL is essential. Recent geochronological and geochemical studies demonstrate equivalent mineralisation ages (y425 Ma) and a unifying shoshonitic signature between the LPL and KIS. The resulting proposition is of cogenesis in a post-subduction environment that, to date, has only been tested using whole rock major element chemistry and a limited trace element suite. In this study, 27 collected samples from the KIS and LPL were forwarded for thin section examination and multielement analysis (ICP-AES and ICP-MS using 47 elements). Geochemical type for KIS and LPL samples varied from basic to acid, but many distinct major element trends, such as SiO2 versus TiO2, remained consistent suggesting common fractionation patterns for both suites. Results also demonstrate that using SiO2 versus highly uid mobile K2O to classify the rocks as shoshonites is awed due to extensive alteration of both suites. Observed trace element patterns on REE/ Chondrite and multi-element/Primitive Mantle plots show remarkably consistent patterns across all samples with variations in the LaN/YbN and DyN/YbN explained by the more fractionated nature of the KIS. Immobile element plots for samples follow the Calc-Alkaline trend and exhibit a strong afnity to Volcanic Arc Granites.
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Preliminary melt modelling suggests that both suites originate from the partial melt and consequent fractionation of a primitive mantle source. Considering the strong spatial and temporal links between the two suites, and the additional observed geochemical similarities it is clear that the LPL and KIS stem from the same melt source. This suggested that a wider tract of Western Argyll may host porphyry-style mineralisation. To make a mineral deposit: geothermal systems in ophiolites as examples of novel solutions for CO2 sequestration A. L. Stephen1, G. R. T. Jenkin1, J. Naden2, M. T. Styles2, D. J. Smith1, A. J. Boyce3 1 University of Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (als46@leicester. ac.uk) 2 British Geological Survey, Keyworth, NG12 5GG, UK 3 Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, East Kilbride, G75 0QF, UK Rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations are driving the need to greatly reduce anthropogenic emissions in order to avoid global warming (Meinshausen et al., 2009). Mineral carbonation is a natural process in which CO2 reacts with ultramac minerals to form carbonates (Lackner, 2003). Our aim is to provide geological understanding of the mechanisms and rates of natural carbonation in Tethyan ophiolites in order to aid the development of industrial mineral carbonation in essence to make a mineral deposit. Ultrabasic rocks are particularly reactive with CO2 and undergo natural carbonation in a range of settings, from the formation of vein carbonates from hydrothermal uids at moderate depths and temperatures, through to rapid carbonate formation in ultrabasic mine tailings (Wilson et al., 2009). Since the reactions are uid-mediated the techniques used for investigating ore genesis are equally applicable here. Our study is focused on the UAE section of the Semail ophiolite. Whereas numerous studies have examined particular generations of carbonate developed in ophiolites, we intend to undertake a holistic study of all carbonates developed within an area. This will determine how much carbon has been derived from the atmosphere compared to that which has been recycled from older sources, and accurately assess natural carbonation rates. Fieldwork undertaken in 2010 involved detailed examination and mapping of the spatial and geological relations of the different carbonate phases present. This has identied multiple generations, with some sites displaying up to 12 separate phases. Those identied include: (i) carbonate veins within host peridotite; (ii) travertines; (iii) cements in Quaternary conglomerates; (iv) modern carbonates precipitating from hyperalkaline springs and in irrigation channels; (v) carbonate crusts on stagnant water surfaces; and (vi) carbonate eforescence. These materials are currently being analysed for carbon isotopes to constrain the origin of the carbon and the rates of carbonate deposition.
Meinshausen, M., Meinshausen, N., Hare, W., Raper, S. C. B., Frieler, K., Knutti, R., Frame, D. J. and Myles, R. A. 2009. Greenhouse-gas emission targets for limiting global warming to 2uC, Nature, 458, 11581162. Lackner, K. S. 2003. A guide to CO2 sequestration, Science, 300, 16771678. Wilson, S. A., Dipple, G. M., Power, I. M., Thom, J. M., Anderson, R. G., Raudsepp, M., Gabites, J. E. and Southam, G. 2009.
Carbon dioxide fixation within mine wastes of ultramafichosted ore deposits: examples from the Clinton Creek and Cassiar chrysotile deposits, Canada, Econ. Geol., 104, 95 112.
Invisible gold mineralisation in high-sulphidation epithermal Luzonite S. Tapster1, A. J. Berry2,3 1 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK (srt9@le.ac.uk) 2 Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, UK 3 Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK The distribution and geochemical association of invisible gold within luzonite provides new evidence as to the mechanism by which Au is precipitated in highsulphidation epithermal systems during mineral growth of the Cu3(AsxSb12x)S4 enargite-luzonite-famatinite polymorphs. Inversion between the polymorphs is controlled by temperature and the uid Sb concentration (Posfai et al., 1998). Luzonite is the tetragonal, lowtemperature and high Sb form. Analyses of enargite and luzonite samples from the Chinkuashih (Taiwan) high-sulphidation epithermal deposit were conducted using reected light microscopy and spectroscopy. WDS electron microprobe analyses were used to produce elemental maps, which show that invisible Au is only associated with luzonite polymorph and occurs at concentrations up to 600 ppm. The crystal structure of enargite limits the Cu3(Sb)S4 component to a maximum of 6% of enargite. In contrast, this component ranges from 1 to 14% in luzonite. Within a luzonite crystal Sb concentration is controlled by compositional twinning between Sb-rich and Sb-poor domains. These compositional variations appear to mirror the well documented polysynthetic twining (Gaines, 1957) seen optically in reected light. Tellurium shows little substitution into the enargite lattice, however, readily substitutes into luzonite above a threshold of y5% Cu3(Sb)S4. The mechanism of Au incorporation is substitution of Te into the (As-Sb)5z site of Cu3(AsxSb12x)S4 as Te4z, rather than as Te22, which is commonly found in telluride minerals. Analysis of the Au rich zones using XANES spectroscopy indicates that gold occurs as Au3z rather than Au0, suggesting that Au may be sequestered into luzonite to charge balance the substitution of Te. However, the existence of Te rich zones without Au shows that these two elements are not inherently coupled within the hydrothermal uid during luzonite growth. When they do occur together in a uid, the favourable partitioning of Te into luzonite creates a mechanism by which Au may also be incorporated, thus removing it from solution. In the absence of Te, Au will either be xed in other mineral phases or possibly transported to a more distil part of the hydrothermal system.
Posfai, M. and Buseck, P. R. 1998. Relationships between microstructure and composition in enargite and luzonite, Am. Miner., 83, 373382. Gaines, R. 1957. Luzonite, famatinite and some related minerals, Am. Miner., 42, 766779.
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Temperature dependence on arsenate adsorption on minerals in the presence of oil W. Wainipee1, D. J. Weiss1,2, M. A. Sephton1, J. Cuadros2 1 Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK (w.wainipee07@imperial. ac.uk) 2 Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, London, UK
Our previous study shows that oil affects arsenate [As(V)] adsorption on goethite (Wimolporn et al., 2010) and clay minerals but there is a lack of study of temperature dependence. This research has been conducted to investigate the temperature effect on As(V) adsorption on goethite, illite and montmorillonite. The aim is to examine the effect of temperature on As(V) adsorption by comparing the magnitude of As(V) adsorption in the absence and presence of oil. These goethite and clay minerals selected due to the fact that they are typically found in the marine environment. The batch experiments have been performed using marine conditions at pH 8 and 0?7M NaCl concentration. The amount of oil used to coat 100 mg goethite is 3?5 mg. Oil of 35 mg was used to coat illite and montmorillonite because the effect of oil on As(V) adsorption could not be identied if too small amount of oil coated on these clays. The adsorption of As(V) ts well with Langmuir isotherm model. The thermodynamic parameters were calculated from the adsorption experiments at 5, 25, 35, 45 and 55 uC. In the presence of oil, Ea, nH, nS, and nG are not signicantly different from those of oil-free goethite and oil-free clays. The exception is nH, nG, and nS between oil-free illite and oil-coated illite systems. The positive nH suggests that the adsorption mechanisms are endothermic and the As(V) adsorption increases with increasing temperature. The magnitude of nH is related to the bond strength at the mineral surface. The nG values are in the range of small negative and positive values suggesting that a trend of adsorption could be spontaneous or requires small amount of energy to be more feasible.
Wimolporn, W., Dominik, J. W., Mark, A. S., Barry, J. C., Catherine, U. and Richard, C. 2010. The effect of crude oil on arsenate adsorption on goethite, Water Res., 44, (19), 56735683.
powerful method for geochemically ngerprinting gold and in ideal cases provides conclusive evidence for placer-lode relationships (Knight et al., 1999; Chapman et al., 2000). The determination of the alloy compositions and associated inclusion assemblages from 5877 placer gold grains (from 61 localities) and 1723 gold grains (from 24 lode localities) in the Klondike goldeld permitted identication of several gold types of coherent geographical distribution (Chapman et al., 2010a; 2010b). The identication of systematic compositional variation in gold signatures around Lone Star Ridge and upper Last Chance Creek in the north of the Klondike is interpreted as evidence for geographical and temporal zonation within two separate hydrothermal systems. This variation is consistent with predicted changes in uids within evolving orogenic hydrothermal systems and the associated inuences on alloy composition (Chapman et al., 2010b). Gold in the south of the Klondike exhibits a further distinctive signature and appears to be derived from several sources, as yet undiscovered. This work has identied the most economically important gold signature within the placer inventory and shown that other signatures evident in placer gold have not yet been identied in lode occurrences. Furthermore, the proposed model indicates that exceptionally rich orogenic gold mineralisation can be derived from geographically constrained hydrothermal systems.
Chapman, R. J., Leake, R. C., Moles, N. R., Earls, G., Cooper, C., Harrington, K. and Berzins, R. 2000. The application of microchemical analysis of gold grains to the understanding of complex local and regional gold mineralization: a case study in Ireland and Scotland, Econ. Geol., 95, 17531773. Chapman, R. J., Mortensen, J. K., Crawford, E. and LeBarge, W. 2010a. Microchemical studies of placer and lode gold in Bonanza and Eldorado creeks, Klondike District, Yukon, Canada: evidence for a small, gold-rich, orogenic hydrothermal system, Econ. Geol., 105, 13691392. Chapman, R. J., Mortensen, J. K., Crawford, E. C. and LeBarge, W. P. 2010b. Microchemical studies of placer and lode gold in the Klondike District, Yukon, Canada: 2. Constraints on the nature and location of regional lode sources, Econ. Geol., 105, 13931410. Knight, J. B., Mortensen, J. K. and Morison, S. R. 1999. Lode and placer gold composition in the Klondike District, Yukon Territory, Canada: implications for the nature and genesis of Klondike placer and lode gold deposits, Econ. Geol., 94, 649664.
Gold sources of the Klondike placers R. J. Chapman1, J. K. Mortensen2, E. C. Crawford2, W. L. LeBarge3 1 School of Earth and Environment, The University, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK (r.j.chapman@leeds.ac.uk) 2 Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia, 6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T1Z4, Canada, 3 Yukon Geological Survey, 102-300 Main St, Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada Attempting to identify the primary sources of the 13(z) million ounces of placer gold recovered from the Klondike District, Yukon Territory Canada, has challenged prospectors and explorationalists for more than a century. Characterising the placer gold itself in terms of alloy composition and mineral inclusions provides a
Discovery of the Gounkoto Au Deposit, Loulo Permit, Western Mali, West Africa D. M. Lawrence1, J. Holliday2, P. J. Treloar1, A. H. Rankin1, P. Harbidge2, 1 Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston-UponThames, London, KT1 2EE, UK (D.M.Lawrence@kingston.ac.uk) 2 Randgold Resources, 3rd Floor Unity Chambers, 28 Halkett Street, St Helier, Jersey, UK The Loulo Au mining district, in Western Mali, represents one of the most prospective terrains in West Africa, with current resources exceeding 11?5 Moz at production rates of 365 000 oz/year. The recent discovery of the world-class Gounkoto deposit has added further resource value to the Loulo permit and is the result of over a decade of focused exploration. The most recent phase of this work included the reintegration of all layers of data across the region, in addition to an
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Airborne EM survey. The subsequent revised exploration model generated a number of conceptual targets which all received follow-up work. The rst diamond drillhole at the Gounkoto target returned 46?6 m at 13?63 g t21. Two years later the Gounkoto feasibility study is approaching completion with recent drilling (e.g. 31?7 m at 23?9 g t21 and 15?05 m at 30?16 g t21) increasing the mineral resource by 100% to 5?76 Moz at an average grade of 5?28 g t21. Gounkoto has promoted Loulo to the largest West African gold district outside of Ghana, with current resources of 17?3 Moz. The Gounkoto orebody is a moderate- to steepdipping shear zone-hosted orogenic gold deposit situated in Palaeoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks of the Kedougou-Kenieba Inlier. Mineralisation extends along strike of the sinistral Gounkoto N2S structure for 1?7 km and to a depth of 520 m (open in all directions), with high grade zones situated along dilational NWtrending jogs or intersections. The deposit has a complex hydrothermal history with multiple deformation, alteration and mineralisation events. Intensely sheared semipelitic and carbonate sedimentary rocks show evidence of early albite-ankerite-quartz alteration followed by magnetite-chlorite-tourmaline and then hematite-sulphide-Au mineralisation. Chlorite replacement of Febearing phases represents the last phase of hydrothermal alteration. Two styles of sulphide-Au mineralisation are observed. The main mineralisation zone is characterised by a magmatic (granitic) Loulo-type ore assemblage (Lawrence, 2010) consisting predominantly of pyrite (Cu and Ni bearing), accessory Ni-sulphides and arsenopyrite, and REE phosphates. Hangingwall mineralised zones hosted in limestones/dolostones contain a polymetallic FeNiCoCuAsPbSeAuBi signature with sulphide phases of pyrite, Ni-pyrite (bravoite), cobaltite, chalcopyrite, clausthalite, sphalerite, polydymite and millerite. This distinct ore assemblage could be controlled by host chemistry driven processes (eO2 causing selective deposition of metals within the carbonate units) and/or be representative of shallow epithermal environments (as indicated by the widespread presence of TeBi minerals).
Lawrence, D. M. 2010. Characterisation and evolution of Au mineralisation in the Loulo mining district, Western Mali, PhD thesis, Kingston University.
composition of Fe545%, S51?18% and P50?08%. The mineralisation occurs within Early Cambrian felsic volcanic tuffs in a volcanicsedimentary sequence. The igneous activity in the area is bimodal and has a predominantly felsic character of calc-alkaline afnity with subordinate amounts of mac intrusive bodies and late diabase dykes with alkalic character, as found in the BIP. The main ore mineral in the Jalal Abad is low Ti, V, Cr magnetite with a wide range of textures: massive, cataclastic, disseminated, open space lling and brecciation. Primary hematite is rare and secondary hematite formed mainly at shallow depth along fractures. Actinolite shows extensive intergrowth with magnetite in depth. Apatite is and only found in microscopic studies. Small inclusions of uranium oxide and cassiterite have been identied in magnetite ore. Pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcocite, bismuthinite, co<?show=fo]baltite, and tsumite are the sulphidesulphosalt minerals in the Jalal Abad deposit. The Na CaK metasomatism is widespread and ferroactinolite, talc, chlorite, and white mica are the main alteration minerals. The homogenisation temperature of LzVzS inclusion in quartz veins is between 280 and 450uC with a peak frequency at 340360uC. Salinity is between 37 and 51 wt-% NaCl equivalent with a peak frequency of 3739 wt-%. LA-ICP-MS analyses of uid inclusions indicate that the concentration of Fe, Mn, Zn and Pb increases with the temperature, while Cu does not shows any trend. The Ca/K ratio of higher than 1, and Fe and Cu concentration above 10 000 and 1000 ppm respectively, indicate magmatic uids. The iron oxideapatite (IOA) deposits of the KKZ are often referred to as Kiruna-type, which is a member of the iron oxide-(CuAu) deposit style. Recent studies have concluded that the Central Iran iron ore deposits of the BIP show no association with CuAu. In contrast, the Jalal Abad iron ore deposit contains 0?17 to 0?90% copper and trace of gold. The preliminary studies in the Jalal Abad deposit may indicate that it is the rst IOCG deposit in the Central Iran. Carlin type Au deposit potential of the Central Asia HgSb belt D. E. Rickleman1, A. Archangelski1, M. Jackson2, V. Lysenko1, T. Zholdoshov1 1 Manas Resources Ltd, 30 Ledgar Road Balcatta, WA, 6021, Australia (daniel.rickleman@explorer.ktnet.kg) 2 CSA Global Pty Ltd, West Perth, WA, 6872, Australia The recent discoveries of the Obdilla and Shambesai gold deposits in the Southern Tianshan of Kyrgyzstan represent a new deposit style previously unknown in the region. These deposits are considered Carlin Style, most similar to the Chinese Carlin examples. The ore is hosted primarily, but not limited to thrust breccias within Carboniferous carbonate rich fore-reef siltstones at the contact with a massive Carboniferous limestone. Notably the ore is oxidised both at surface and below sulphide ore, indicating an oxidisation control other than proximity to surface. This region was historically a mercury and antimony producing area where mineralisation is similarly associated with the limestone and upper sediments contact. These deposits occur within the highly folded and deformed units of the Alay Segment of the Southern Tianshan which, with over 300 km of strike length, is
Geology and geochemistry of the Jalal Abad IOCG Deposit, central Iran B. Mehrabi1, B. Karimi1, D. A. Banks2, B. W. D. Yardley2 1 Geology Department, Tehran Tarbiat Moalem University, Tehran 15614, Iran (earbme@leeds.ac.uk) 2 School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK The Central Iran iron ore province is located in the Kashmar-Kerman Zone (KKZ) which is an ?X>over 1000 km long and up to 80 km wide arcuate fault-bounded structural zone. The world class Bafq Iron Province (BIP) is located in the central section of the KKZ and is host to major iron oxide ores (y1?8 Gt). The Jalal Abad hydrothermal iron deposit is located in the southern part of the KKZ, outside the BIP. It contains 200 Mt iron ore with an average
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now considered to have excellent discovery potential for similar style gold deposits.
Brookfield, M. E. 2000. Geological development and Phanerozoic crustal accretion in the western segment of the southern Tien Shan (Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), Tectonophysics, 328, 114. Cline, J. S., Hofstra, A. H., Muntean, J. L., Tosdal, R. M. and Hickey, K. A. 2005. Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada: Critical geologic characteristics and viable models, Econ. Geol. 100th Ann. Vol., 451484. Fillipova, I. B., Bush, V. A. and Didenko, A. N. 2001. Middle Paleozoic subduction belts: the leading factor in the formation of the Central Asian fold-and-thrust belt, Russ. J. Earth Sci., 3, 405 426. Jackson, M. and Louw, G. 2009. Geology and Mineral Resource Evaluation at the Shambesai Gold Project, CSA Global Pty Ltd, Technical Report Report No. R204.2009. Konopelko, D., Biske, G., Seltmann, R., Eklund, O. and Belyatsky, B. 2007. Hercynian post-collisional A-type granites of the Kokshaal Range, Southern Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan, Lithos, 97, 140160. Li, Z. P. and Peters, S. G. 1998. Comparative geology and geochemistry of sedimentary-rock-hosted (Carlin-Type) gold deposits in the Peoples Republic of China and in Nevada, USA. USGS Open File Report 98466. Nikonorov, V. V., Karaev, Yu. V., Borisov, F. I, Tolsky, V. I., Zamaletdinov, T. S., Larina, T. V. and Gorbaneva, T. V. 2007. Gold Resources of Kyrgyzstan. State Agency for Geology and Mineral Resources under the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic. The Kyrgyz Methodical Expedition for Geological and Economical Research.
include magnetite and lesser amounts of hematite which are sporadically present within the potassic zone. The presence of chalcopyrite and low-Fe sphalerite in the area testies to intermediate sulphidation state (Einaudi et al., 2003). The estimated values for pH of the ore-bearing hydrothermal uids are ,5 and the logfO2 of these uids ranges from 236 to 239 (Graham, I). Supergene processes developed both alteration and mineralisation zones. Goethite is the main supergene mineral within the leached and oxidised zone accompanied by lesser amounts of jarosite, hematite, malachite and azurite. Supergene enriched zone with an average thickness of 25 m, contains chiey covellite along with lesser amounts of bornite replacing chalcopyrite.
Einaudi, M. T., Hedenquist, J. W. and Inan, E. E. 2003. Sulfidation state of fluids of active and extinct hydrothermal systems: transitions from porphyry to epithermal environments, in Volcanic, geothermal and ore forming fluids: rulers and witnesses of processes within the earth, (ed. S. F. Simmonds and I. Graham), Soc. Econ. Geol., 10, 285313. John, D. A., Garside, L. J. and Wallace, A. R. 1999. Magmatic and tectonic setting of late Cenozoic epithermal gold-silver deposits in northern Nevada, with an emphasis on the Pah Rah and Virginia ranges and the northern Nevada rift, Geol. Soc. Nevada, 29, 65 158.
Hydrothermal alteration and CuMo mineralisation in Kighal porphyry stock, north of Varzeghan, EastAzarbaidjan, Iran V. Simmonds, A. A. Calagari Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Tabriz University, Iran (Simmonds_vartan@yahoo.co.uk) Quartz monzonitic porphyry stock of Kighal is located about 12 km north of Varzeghan, East-Azarbaidjan province of Iran. It intruded upper Eocene andesiticlatitic and andesitic-basaltic units during magmatic activities of Pyrenean orogenic phase (upper Oligocenelower Miocene) and its hydrothermal activities coupled with boiling caused shattering and hydro-fracturing within the cupola leading to the development of various kinds of pervasive alteration zones such as potassic, phyllic, argillic, advanced argillic and propylitic. Hypogene sulphide mineralisation principally occurred within potassic, transitional potassicphyllic and phyllic zones as disseminations, veinlets-microveinlets, and open-space llings. Pyrite is the most abundant sulphide mineral occurring as disseminations and also as dominant phase within quartz-sulphide, anhydritegypsum, carbonate-sulphide, and pyrite veinlets and micro-veinlets. The main copper mineral is chalcopyrite occurring as disseminations, as replacement of pyrite, and as minor phase within quartz-sulphide and carbonate-sulphide veinlets and microveinlets. Molybdenite is disseminated within the early-stage quartz veinlets as well as in the matrix of potassic alteration zone. Sphalerite and galena are mainly present in peripheral parts of the porphyry stock occurring as disseminations within the matrix and quartz-sulphide and carbonate-sulphide veinlets as well. They replace chalcopyrite and/or show intergrowth with it. The average grades of Cu and Mo in hypogene ores are about 760 and 30 ppm respectively. Hypogene oxides
Crystal chemistry of niobium mineralisation at Bayan Obo, China: constraints on the formation of hydrothermal Nb resources M. Smith1, J. Spratt2 1 School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK (martin.smith@brighton.ac.uk) 2 Department of Mineralogy, The Natural History Museum, London, UK The Bayan Obo FeREENb deposit is the worlds largest known rare earth element resource, with estimated reserves of up to 1500 Mt of iron ore (35 wt-%Fe) and 48 Mt REE (6 wt-%REE2O3). It also hosts reserves of 1 Mt Nb at 0?13%Nb). These reserves are relatively small compared the prime Nb producers of Araxa and Catalao, Brazil, and Niobec, Canada, but are signicant both for their association with world class REE reserves and for the fact that Nb mineralisation is unequivocally hydrothermal. In this study, we have examined the textural setting and chemistry of niobates and associated minerals from Bayan Obo in order to constrain the processes of mineralisation and the differences between Nb mineralisation here and at other major deposits word wide. Nb mineralisation is dominated by the mineral aeschynite (REE,Ca,Fe)(Ti,Nb)2(O,OH)6, but smaller amounts of other Nb bearing minerals occur. Notably minerals such as baotite [Ba4(Ti,Nb)8Si4O28Cl] may pre-date aeschynite in the paragenesis. Aeschynite occurs as aggregates cutting across the banding in the monazite-bastnasite-uorite-magnetite ores, as coarse grained, acicular, euhedral crystals accompanying and cross-cutting undeformed aegirine, and as a hydrothermal vein phase accompanied by aegirine, barite and calcite. All these settings clearly indicate a hydrothermal origin for Nb mineralisation. In all cases aeschynite occurs as either aeschynite-(Ce) or aeschynite-(Nd), with a normalised abudance peak from Ce to Pr and
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frequently a slight positive Eu anomaly. All aeschynaite contains signicant Th (up to 15 wt- % ThO2) and in some instances shows primary zonation with respect to Th and Y. Aeschynite also preserves evidence of hydrothermal alteration, possibly enhanced by metamictisation, with increasing contents of Ca, Si and F, and reduced concentrations of Nb and the REE. Biotite and riebeckite amphibole associated with niobium mineralisation both have elevated concentrations of F relative to other paragenetic settings within the ore deposits, indicating the importance of high HF activities for Nb, REE and Th transport in hydrothermal uids. Complexation of Nb with F in both carbonatite melts and hydrothermal uids may in part be responsible for the fraction of Nb from Ta in these deposit types. Fault-valve action, fluid mixing and gold deposition: identification of grade controlling mechanisms in Nalunaq gold mine, Greenland M. Smith1, F. Bowers2 1 School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK (martin.smith@brighton.ac.uk) 2 Angel Mining plc, 6 Station Road, Morton, Lincolnshire, UK Nalunaq is a vein-type shear zone-hosted gold deposit. The host lithologies are largely amphibolite facies metabasic rocks: metabasalt and metadolerite sills (with minor metatuffs and meta-agglomerate), which are believed to be co-magmatic and relatively contemporaneous in terms of timing of emplacement, cut by granitic aplite dykes. Signicant mineralisation occurs within a
0?52?0 m wide shear zone (known as the main vein) where gold is largely found within sheeted quartz veins and with associated calc-silicate alteration. The gold grade is irregularly developed along the main vein, with grades varying from 1 to over 200 g t21. Fluid inclusion microthermometric investigations of eight samples from the main vein at Nalunaq gold mine have been carried out in order to investigate possible controls on the Au grade distribution in the mine. The sample set included both high (.18 g t21) and low grade (,1 g t21) samples. The internal structure of the samples is consistent with repeated vein opening during crack seal vein growth. Later cross-cutting fractures may indicate a changing stress regime with time. Four main uid inclusion populations have been identied. (i): salinities from 32 to 44 wt-% NaCl equivalent and homogenisation temperatures from 13 to 380uC. (ii): salinities from 28 to 32 wt-% NaCl eq. and homogenisation temperatures from 130 to 250uC. (iii) salinities from 18 to 25 wt-% NaCl eq. and homogenisation temperatures from 130 to 250uC. (iv) salinities from 0 to 12 wt-% NaCl eq. and homogenisation temperatures from 140 to 210uC. High gold grades appear to correlate with the occurrence of Populations (ii) and (iii). This is interpreted to result from enhanced gold deposition as a result of uid mixing between high and low to moderate salinity uids, and rapid uid pressure cycling on vein dilation (fault valve action). Such pressure drops could also potentially enhance gold deposition through aqueous-carbonic uid immiscibility or boiling, but no evidence for these processes has been found in this study.
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Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

(comprising the farms Zwartfontein, Overysel and Sandsloot).

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

suggest that, high Fe is not the only factor in suboptimal Pb recovery.

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

serves as the mechanism for gold precipitation (Craw et al., 1987).

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)

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