Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 24 (1985) 141--173

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

141

H E L I U M IN SOIL A N D O V E R B U R D E N PATHFINDER -- AN ASSESSMENT

GAS AS AN EXPLOitATION

C.R.M. BUTT and M.J. GOLE

CSIRO Division o f Minerals and Geochemistry, Private Bag, P.O., Wembley, W.A. 6014, Australia
(Received May 3, 1985; revised and accepted July 3, 1985)

ABSTRACT Butt, C.R.M. and Gole, M.J., 1985. Helium in soil and overburden gas as an exploration pathfinder -- an assessment. J. Geochem. Explor., 24: 141--173. Orientation surveys were conducted over five deposits to test the potential of determining helium in overburden gas as a pathfinder for uranium mineralization and other deposits containing uranium or thorium. Samples were collected via fixed tubes eraplaced at depths o f 6 m in backfilled holes drilled for this purpose. Compared to the atmospheric background value o f 5.24 ppm v]v He, a variable weak anomaly (maximum 5.45--5.65 ppm He) was found over part of the Angela uranium deposit, N.T., in an arid area where mineralization is mostly at a depth o f 60--90 m, at or below the watertable. Helium contents were mostly at background levels over a uranium deposit in the Officer Basin, W.A., where mineralization is at the water-table at 30--35 m, although radon gave a marked anomaly. Neither helium nor radon indicated the Manyingee deposit, W.A., which has uranium mineralization in a confined aquifer at 60--110 m. Similarly, no helium anomalies were found over the uranium- and thorium-rich Mt. Weld carbonatite or mineral sands at Eneabba. There appeared to be no correlation between helium distributions shown by groundwater and overburden-gas sampling at Manyingee or Mt. Weld. At Mt. Weld, groundwaters contained 0.06 to 13.60 ul/l He and overburden gases 5.24--5.47 ppm He, with the higher gas concentrations over country rock, where waters had background helium contents. It is presumed that equilibration between overburden gas and the atmosphere is far more rapid than that between overburden gas and groundwater, so that any helium released from the water is quickly dispersed. Overburden-gas helium concentrations were found to vary according to overburden type, being 5.24--5.32 ppm where sandy and porous and 5.30--5.50 ppm where clayrich and less permeable. These background variations, which are greater than the total background-anomaly contrasts reported in the literature for shallow soil gases, have not been accounted for in most trial surveys, nor has the possibility of similar variations being due to analytical error. F r o m the data obtained, there is little evidence that helium can be considered an effective pathfinder for blind or concealed deposits using soft gas or overburden gas as sample media. Previous work on the use o f soil and soilgas helium determinations in uranium exploration is reviewed in the light of these findings and the concept and techniques assessed.

0375-6742/85/$03.30

1985 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

142 INTRODUCTION

The use o f gases in exploration is an attractive possibility, as they might be expected to migrate through cover rocks and thus give a surface expression to buried deposits. In addition, in Australia, extensive deep weathering and abundant transported overburden adversely affect conventional geological, geophysical and geochemical exploration procedures, so that ore-related gases that might penetrate this overburden would be of particular value. Inert gases, where applicable, might have advantages over other volatiles in that they do not react chemically with other components and hence not become fixed as a solid phase. The use of helium in exploration, primarily for uranium and hydrocarbons, has been examined in the U.S.A., Canada and France in the last decade, and for fault location and earthquake prediction in the U.S.S.R. for rather longer. Some of the results that had been reported appeared to be quite encouraging (Reimer et al., 1979a; Pogorski and Quirt, 1979) but little work had been carried out in conditions similar to those in Australia. Consequently, a research programme was initiated to examine the potential of helium surveys in mineral exploration. In this paper, the results of soil-gas investigations over three uranium deposits, a carbonatite and a zircon-monazite-rich sand deposit are reported. Published results from other terrains are reviewed and discussed in the light o f these findings and the validity of the procedure as a whole evaluated. The results of soil-gas surveys over natural gas fields and groundwater surveys over uranium deposits are given elsewhere (Butt and Gole, 1984; Butt et al., 1985; Gole and Butt, in press).
ANALYSIS AND SAMPLING

Analysis
Data available from soft-gas surveys in the U.S.A. (e.g. Reimer and Adkisson, 1977; Reimer and Rice, 1977; Pogorski and Quirt, 1979; and Reimer et al., 1979a,b) indicated that only very subtle anomalies might be expected, with maximum He contents o f 5.30--5.35 ppm v/v (and rarely to 5.70 ppm v/v) compared to the concentration in the atmosphere, which provides an essentially constant background of 5.24 p p m v/v. Following these authors, therefore, mass spectrometry was used in this study to attain rapid analysis with the necessary high sensitivity and precision. Two instruments were used in the course o f the research: (a) Helium monitor: this is a modified gas-leak detector, developed by the CSIRO Division of Chemical Physics (Swingler, 1971). It is tuneable to mass 4 and is a 180-sector instrument with a 2-cm beam radius and permanent magnet. (b) Vacuum Generators Micromass MM8-80; this is an 8-cm radius, 80 -

143 magnetic sector instrument with electromagnetic scanning control and high sensitivity ion source. Two inlet systems have been used, utilizing either a constant pressure o f gas (Reimer et al., 1979a), or a constant volume of gas; the systems and their limitations are described b y Butt and Gole (1984) and Hart et al. (1985). Gas from these inlets passes through a variable leak valve to be preconcentrated b y molecular sieve at liquid nitrogen temperatures, which removes most components except for helium, hydrogen and neon. A similar preconcentration step was described by Reimer et al. (1979a), w h o used activated carbon instead o f molecular sieve. With a constant-pressure inlet system, the mass spectrometer measures, in effect, the He flow rate, which is proportional to the concentration, if operating conditions remain stable. However, under constant pressure, different gases pass through the leak valve and are absorbed b y the molecular sieve (or activated carbon) at different rates. Thus, variations in bulk soil-gas composition will give proportionate variations in flow rate and hence in apparent He content. Although small, these variations can cause enhancement of the atmospheric He concentration from 5.24 ppm to 5 . 3 0 - 5 . 4 0 ppm, (Hart et al., 1985), i.e. to levels considered significantly anomalous b y some workers. Such enhancements will occur even for shallow samples, which can retain high CO2 concentrations, for example, even though helium may have equilibrated to near atmospheric levels. Use o f a constant-volume inlet, in which the total signal during the passage of the gas sample is integrated, eliminates problems associated with different flow rates. Although analysis is slower using this inlet system, it is essential if significance is to be given to very low contrast anomalies. Determinations o f neon-20 are similarly affected by flow-rate variations in constantpressure inlet systems. The analytical problem associated with the constant-pressure inlet system was identified late in the research, but could affect only the more precise and otherwise more accurate analyses b y MM8-80. However, samples from each prospect were analyzed using both instruments and inlets and, except for Manyingee, comparative results are given herein. The potential error, i.e. the generation of low-order false anomalies, did n o t occur and neither results nor conclusions are affected. For both inlet systems, water-saturated air containing a nominal 5.24 ppm He is used as a standard and read before and after each sample. Using a constant-pressure inlet and 3 ml min -1 sample flow rate, the MM8-80 has a sensitivity o f 0.01 ppm. Fifty replicate samples from a bulk container, analyzed t o give an estimate o f precision, gave a mean of 5.606 ppm, range 5 . 5 7 - - 5 . 6 2 p p m , S.D. 0.008. Despite extrapolation from the 5.24 p p m reference, response is linear to 5000 ppm, being within 2% o f prepared standards at this concentration. With a constant-volume inlet, with gas volume reproducible to + 0.005 ml in 7 ml, the helium m o n i t o r has an effective sensitivity o f about 0.02 p p m

144 at 5.24 ppm; precision is similarly a little worse than the MM8-80. All analyses were performed in the laboratory. Gases from the Officer Basin and Manyingee deposits were also analyzed on site for radon, using an EDA RD-200 emanometer.

Sampling
Most workers have sampled soil gases using probes hammered up to 1 m into the ground (Reimer et al., 1979a; Pogorski and Quirt, 1979). From the outset, however, it was considered that this procedure was inappropriate for the following reasons: (1) Cemented or partly cemented near-surface horizons, stony softs or dry clay-rich soils render this procedure almost impossible. (2) Where a probe can penetrate, cracks and fractures form around it, so that mixing and contamination with the atmosphere must be suspected. (3) Clay-rich softs develop desiccation cracks and cavities seen to be 1.0 m deep or more, allowing equilibration with the atmosphere. (4) Because of its highly diffusive nature, helium in soil gas must equilibrate rapidly with the atmosphere and hence the deeper that samples are collected, the smaller the effect and the greater the contrasts are likely to be between anomalous and background areas. Deep sampling also reduces the effect o f barometric pumping. Preliminary tests showed that soil-gas He contents above an artificial source {natural gas containing about 500 ppm He, bubbled into the groundwater) decline towards the surface, and subsequent experience showed that sampling depths of less than 3 m were subject to excessive equilibration. Consequently, in all surveys, samples were routinely collected from 6-m depths, unless ground conditions (e.g. shallow water, hardness, porous sand) dictated otherwise. Broadly similar conclusions were drawn by Jones and Drodz (1983), who recommended a sample depth of 4 m. Only if a satisfactory response could be obtained from deep samples would it be appropriate to test shallow sampling procedures. Sample sites were prepared by drilling to a predetermined depth (usually 6 m), generally using rotary air blast machines. Clear vinyl tubing (3 mm i.d.) was placed in each hole, each tube fitted at the top with a nylon tap having standard luer joints and, mostly, having nylon mesh at the b o t t o m to prevent blockage. The holes were then backfilled to the surface, generally adding cement or drilling mud, and water, to make a plug in the fill. The protruding length of t u b e was protected by a short length of PVC casing. The tubes were checked by withdrawing 50 ml of a gas with a syringe, and the site left to equilibrate. Although sampling was n o t normally undertaken within one or two days, tests showed that equilibration occurred within 4 hours. This rather laborious procedure was justified because the initial objective was to determine whether detectable amounts of helium were being evolved at all. The procedure allowed repeat sampling from exactly the same site.

145

Samples were collected using a 50-ml syringe fitted with a tap similar to those on the sampling tubes. Each t u b e was purged b y withdrawing at least 100 ml of gas, to ensure that the sample was obtained from the base o f the hole and there was no cross-contamination. A 50-ml sample was then collected, a needle fitted to the syringe and the sample injected into a container. Initially, samples were collected over water in glass vials fitted with rubber bungs b u t later, samples were stored in evacuated metal cylinders fitted with septa for injection and sealed b y brass nuts with lead washers. Tests showed that both types o f sample containers could retain helium for several weeks (Butt and Gole, 1984) although analysis was generally done within a week o f sampling. The cylinders were easier to use and less prone to error, but could suffer from either partial loss of vacuum or preferential inflow of helium when evacuated, or preferential loss of helium when filled, then being at pressure o f a b o u t 2 atmospheres. However, samples were normally collected in duplicate or triplicate, hence any such errors could be detected. In addition, at a b o u t every tenth site, samples of atmospheric air were collected to monitor sampling and analytical performance. Detailed tests showed that for an anomalous sample, i.e. one containing 5.50 ppm He, 5% above ambient, the total sampling, sample transfer and analytical error is probably 0.03--0.04 ppm (coefficient o f variation c = 0.5--0.7%). Expressed as excess helium, i.e. above 5.24 ppm, the errors are more significant (c = 11--15%).
ANGELA URANIUM DEPOSIT, ALICE SPRINGS, N.T.

Location and description

The Angela deposit is approximately 26 km S o f Alice Springs, Northern Territory, (Fig. 1). The area is one o f low relief and generally p o o r outcrop. The rocks are mostly deeply weathered and c o m m o n l y overlain b y thin colluvium and/or aeolian sands. Pedogenic carbonates are developed in the near-surface horizons. Persistent uranium mineralization, (cut-off grade 500 ppm U3Os/2 m), is present in Devonian--Carboniferous sedimentary rocks (mudstones, siltstones, sandstones and conglomerates) in the Missionary Syncline, generally associated with the interface o f palaeoredox boundaries. The mineralized unit dips to the west, with the mineralization itself being at depths from 25--50 m to 90--110 m in the area tested. Outcrops of the host unit give l o w ~ r d e r radiometric and geochemical anomalies b u t for the most part mineralization is blind. The climate is semi-arid to arid, with an erratic rainfall averaging about 200 mm p.a.; summers are h o t and winters mild. A perched water-table was encountered at 6 m in part o f one traverse, b u t the main water-table is deeper than 60m. Sampling was also carried o u t over the Daria Prospect, about 60 km

146
I i ~ T - - - -

~!

--10S

Darwin

/
Northern , i

_t5

_20 On MANYINGEE Western

Australia Alice

Springs

_25 MT WELD OFFICER BASIN

EABBA

............ ;
._L

{
_30

~
Perth~ j

I
OKalgoorlie

L_

-35S

110E 1 __

115 ,L-

120 I

125 I

130 I

135 I

140 I

145 I

150E I

Fig. 1. Location of Angela, Officer Basin, Manyingee, Mt. Weld and Eneabba deposits.

WSW of Alice Springs, 58 km W of Angela. The mineralization is patchy and o f lower grade than the Angela deposit, being mostly less than 240 ppm ,U3Os/1 m, occurring at depths o f 60--160 m in similar host rocks, here dipping 15--20 to the north.

Sampling and results

At Angela, two intersecting traverses o f 6-m holes were drilled at 50-m intervals over the mineralization and associated country rocks. One traverse, 2850N, was along the axis of the deposit, with mineralization situated at 95--110 m at the western end and outcrop of the host unit at the eastern end. The four most westerly holes on this traverse contained water and sampling tubes were set at 4 m. Traverse 600W was across the mineralized trend, being over patchy mineralization in the north and extending into outcrop o f the redox boundary and barren reduced zone in the south. Other holes were drilled in the vicinity to test sampling depths and reproducibility from given sites. At Daria, previously drilled holes were used. They were at 100-m intervals on three N--S traverses but had caved in to be only 1--7.5 m deep. Samples were collected on a number o f occa-

147

sions, mostly using glass vials for storage. One set o f samples was collected using metal cylinders but unfortunately, after nearly 3 years, many of the sampling tubes were either destroyed or blocked so that the data are incomplete. Sampling at Daria was discontinued when it was realized that the variations in sampling depth exerted a strong control on the helium content. Results from three separate surveys at Angela are shown in Fig. 2. They illustrate considerable variations in distribution and abundance although there are a few c o m m o n features. Thus, on line 2 8 5 0 N , m a x i m u m values up to 5.45 ppm He were found over mineralization from 6 5 0 to 750W, declining westwards where shallower samples were taken because o f the perched water-table. In most surveys, including some not illustrated, sub3800N

UlllIm~I ~ - -~ Line
|

600W

,~IUlII~ioo.
5.5 Line 2 8 5 0 N
,,uwwwLuWW i l w w w ~

~.

%
Line 2850N

5.4

'

"

,,

2200N

5.3

5.2 I 1000W 800 IIIllll...........

I 600
llln ...........

I 400
IIIIIIllllllllll

I 200

1 0

I 200E

III ...........

5.7[-

Line 6 0 0 W

"n'm'rr L o c a t i o n

of

F-"l
5.6
i " I~

blind

mineralization

I
I ~' I ,

I
II ~ ;\s~ iI ~ , ~ D e c e m b e r 1980 April 1981 .... S e p t e m b e r 1981 . . . . . . . . 5.31 5.34 5.35

s
0.05 0.11 0.05

5.5

'

Ji; J'/l
/t,~ I
'0 3;o o' 3oo
i111P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I~T

M.-

,.

5.2 3600.340

' .800

28'oo

' .4o0

' 2200.

Fig. 2. Overburden-gas He contents, Angela deposit, Northern Territory.

148

sidiary highs were also found from 200W to 0W, in the area where the mineralized horizon outcrops. On line 600W, peak values above 5.50 ppm He were found over mineralization from 3000N to 3200N. Elsewhere, on both traverses, He contents were usually lower. Of the individual surveys, the greatest contrasts and the distribution comparing most closely with the known occurrence of mineralization were obtained in April 1981. Thus, mineralization and the outcrop of the mineralized zone were indicated on line 2850N by He concentrations above 5.30 ppm, as was the patchily mineralized area north of 3000N o n 600W, where concentrations up to 5.64 ppm were found. However, concentrations in supposedly background areas also exceeded 5.30 ppm in a few samples. The December 1980 and September 1981 surveys gave more restricted anomalies, especially along 600W; the latter survey also had a higher mean concentration overall and a lower contrast. Preliminary results from Daria were such that it was evident that the depth of sampling was crucial in determining He content. Six o f 7 sites shallower than 2 m contained 5.25--5.35 ppm He, whereas 15 of 17 sites deeper than 5.5 m contained 5.45--5.60 ppm He. Even within these depth groupings, the distribution was not related to the occurrence of mineralization. Because of the variability observed between adjacent sites and with depth, a few clusters of holes were drilled close together over part o f the apparent anomaly on line 2850N. Variation with depth was also investigated at two background sites (13-mile Bore and Alice No. 1 Bore). Results are given in Table 1. The data suggest that quite marked variations, e.g. 0.05--0.08 ppm He, may occur between samples from the same depths in closely adjacent holes. Although within the anomaly, no sites had particularly high He contents, hence the tests for depth variations were not ideal. On most occasions that samples were collected, there was the expected increase with depth, particularly between 2.8 m and 5.7 m; however, in some there was either no change or even a slight decrease -- although these were within the range o f analytical error. The final sampling test, unfortunately marred by many holes being blocked, utilized metal cylinders for sampling {Table 1). This was carried out after a period of heavy rain and at one site (665W), the 2.8-m tube was blocked by water even though deeper ones were dry. Unlike experience elsewhere, the He contents {mean 5.39) were higher than when vials were used and there is a possibility that the depth variation trend may be reversed. Some drill holes t h a t were cased to the mineralized horizon were capped and the contained head-space gas later sampled and analyzed. Measured He contents were 5.3 to 5.8 ppm in unmineralized holes and 6.7 to > 5 0 ppm in mineralized holes. The results were very variable and should be considered semi-quantitative -- but they do suggest that helium is being evolved by the uranium mineralization, as indeed must be the case.

149 T AB L E 1 Variations in He contents from replicate sampling at individual sites and with depth, Angela Prospect, N.T. (data in ppm v/v) Depth (m) Line 2850N : 1000W 17.12.80 (1) 7.4.81 (1) 21.9.81 (1) 26.4.83 (2)

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.2 5.0 5.0 4.2 2.8 5.7 2.8 5.5 7.0 2.7 5.7 2.8 5.7 6.3

5.32 5.29 5.25 5.32 5.30 5.25 -5.29 5.24 -5.27 5.39 5.29 5.33 5.24 5.31 5.35 5.26 5.27 5.31

5.31 5.31 5.31 5.30 5.30 5.28 5.34 5.33 5.32 5.34 5.41 5.41 5.41 5.41 -5.32 -5.36 5.30 5.30

5.39 5.36 5.34 5.33 5.33 5.29 -5.35 5.32 5.37 5.34 5.39 5.35 5.38 5.37 5.32 -5.27 5.33 5.36

5.44 5.42 5.30 5.48 5.49 -5.51 ---5.58 5.51 wet 5.65 5.25 5.49 -5.41 5.45 5.40

900W

800W

680W 665W

630W 615W

Background sites: 13-Mile Bore

2.8 5.7 11.8 2.6 5.5 11.6

5.29 5.32 5.25 5.22 5.27 5.32

-5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.36

-5.33 5.35 5.34 5.32 5.36

Alice No. 1 Bore

(1) Analysis by helium monitor; gas stored in glassvials. (2) Analysis by MM8-80; gas stored in metal cylinders. MULGA ROCK URANIUM PROSPECT, O F F I C E R BASIN, W E S T E R N AUSTRALIA

Location and description

T h e M u l g a R o c k p r o s p e c t is l o c a t e d a b o u t 2 4 0 k m N E o f K a l g o o r l i e , o n t h e SW m a r g i n o f t h e G r e a t V i c t o r i a D e s e r t ( F i g . 1). T h e a r e a is a n u n d u l a t i n g s a n d y p l a i n a t an e l e v a t i o n o f 3 2 5 - - 4 0 0 m , c r o s s e d b y E S E t r e n d i n g s e i f d u n e s . T h e c l i m a t e is s e m i - a r i d t o a r i d , w i t h a n e r r a t i c r a i n fall a v e r a g i n g a b o u t 2 0 0 m m p . a . , w i t h h o t s u m m e r s a n d m i l d w i n t e r s .

150 The prospect is on the SW extremity of the Officer Basin, where sediments of the L o w e r Permian Paterson Formation overlie the Precambrian basement, predominantly Archaean and Proterozoic granitoids. The Permian rarely outcrops and is overlain by a variety o f Cainozoic sediments. The sedimentary rocks in the prospect area include sandstones, siltstones and clays. The uppermost units have been deeply weathered and sandrich horizons have subsequently been silicified, with silcrete formed at about 5 m. Uranium mineralization occurs at or above the water-table (25--30 m), and is overlain b y clays, silty clays and sandstones, with some silcrete, and a surficial cover o f up to 8 m o f sand at the sites tested. Exploration has been by wide-spaced (500--1500 m) percussion drilling, closing to 200- or 100-m intervals in areas of interest. Mineralization has been delineated by down-hole mdiometric logging followed by chemical analysis. There is no surface radiometric expression.

Sampling and analysis

Overburden-gas sampling sites were selected with the objective of comparing the He contents of soil gases from mineralized and background areas. The sites are on a traverse along a down-hole radiometric anomaly, and extending into the adjacent background area, at 100-m and 50-m intervals (Fig. 3). A further set of 10 holes was drilled to 6 m to determine background well away from the mineralized zones. Sites were prepared by drilling to 6 m into slightly damp clay-rich silty sands, below the surficial cover o f aeolian sand and silcrete; where this surficial cover was thicker (up to 6 m) holes were drilled 1.5--2 m into the clay-rich material below. Sampling tubes were set at 3 m and at the b o t t o m of the holes. (Many holes partly infilled as the drill rods were withdrawn, so that the deeper tubes were c o m m o n l y less than 6 m.) Three sampling runs were carried out, with samples stored in glass vials and analyzed b y helium monitor. In a final run (December 1983), samples were collected in triplicate, stored in metal cylinders and analyzed b y MM8-80. Radon determinations were carried out in conjunction with this later survey, using an EDA RD-200 emanometer.

Results Helium. The results of each sampling run over the traverse using glass vials are shown in Fig. 3. Although the soil-gas He contents are above the mean atmospheric concentration ( 5 . 2 6 p p m He for all runs), there are no consistent patterns, nor any significant differences in He contents between gases from background areas and those from over mineralization. Thus, on the September 1982 run, 16 samples overlying the radiometric anomaly (above 3000 cps) had a mean content o f 5.36 p p m He (range 5.31--5.47 ppm) whereas 10 background samples distant from the traverse contained

151
May. 1982

54

53 Mean ambient

5.2 55

July, 1982

5.4

5.E Mean ambient

5.~

l l l l l l l l l

I I I

5.z E

5E

A
Mean ambient
I I I I I I i
I I I I I l I

September. 1982

3m samples

"'---\
I I I I I

K"-.,,,"-" i
[ I I I I I I

\
I I J

,",v/ V
J l

5.2

Mean: May July, September 5.4

5.~

sample depth

-44

5.~

~ I J I

Plan: Down hole radiometric anomaly(cps) 1000

1 (

ICI %._s-.,o,
/
i

9"//10

/11

-12,.

13

14

18

18

2()"~22

23

25

2'6

400m

Fig. 3. Overburden-gas He contents, Mulga Rock, Officer Basin, Western Australia.

(He monitor; samples stored in glass vials.) Di~tmat from mineralization, background was 5.31--5.38 ppm He.

152 5.34 ppm He (range 5 . 3 1 - - 5 . 3 8 ppm). A plot o f the mean He c o n t e n t for the three runs, however, does suggest that there may be a marginal increase in the He flux o n the western part of the traverse, where the stronger radiometric anomaly is found. In general, He contents o f 5.40 ppm He and above can be considered anomalous and most such levels are in the mineralized area, with none in the background group on the traverse (CS21--26). Equilibration with the atmosphere is shown by shallow samples. Those from 3 m generally have lower concentrations and less variability than deeper samples collected at the same time.
Radon lm probe May 1983

E 40 o 20

Radon 800

6m holes

December

1983

1765

c
~: 4 0 0

55

Helium
- -

6m holes
absolute

December

1983

concentration to c o n s t a n t neon

5.4

----

normalized

5.3

_A

,.--~--~--~,-~.~'~o-~---~
I I i i L I I I 1

-'~--
~.

52

I anomaly

i (cps)

Ptan: D o w n h o l e r a d i o m e t r i c ~------t000

oo

~ 2 0 0 0

400m~ ~" I

Fig. 4. Concentrations in overburden gas of helium (at 6 m depth) and radon (1 m and 6 m depths), Mulga Rock, Officer Basin, Western Australia. (Samples stored in metal cylinders.)

153

Results o f sampling in December 1983, using metal cylinders for samples and analysis by MM8-80, are given in Fig. 4. Helium concentrations are lower than found previously but similarly show no pattern that reveals the location of the mineralization, other than the occurrence o f the marginally higher values (5.29--5.31 ppm) over the main radiometric anomaly at the western end of the traverse. There is, however, no significant difference in He c o n t e n t between mineralized and background areas, which have mean values o f 5.27 and 5.26 ppm respectively (Table 2). The December 1983 samples were also analyzed for neon-20, a nonradiogenic isotope whose abundance in the atmosphere (18.2 ppm) is constant and bears no relationship to the presence or absence of uranium or thorium. This was to test whether variations in the major components of the overburden gas (N2, 02, CO2, H20 etc.} could affect the measured
TABLE 2
S u m m a r y statistics for helium, neon and radon in overburden gas at 6 m, Mulga Rock, Officer Basin (December 1983) N e o n (ppm) I Helium (ppm) I Helium (ppm) (Ne corrected) Radon (cpm) 2

Mean (SD) (0.07) (0.06) (0.01) (0.03)

Mean (SD) 5.266 (0.019) 5.269 (0.020) 5.260 (0.016) 5.240 (0.010)

Mean (SD) 5.246 (0.020) 5.248 (0.022) 5.244 (0.013)

N 26

Mean (SD) 384 (371)

All data 28 18.28 Mineralized zone (CSI--CS20) 20 18.29 Background (CS21--CS28) 8 18.28 Atmosphere 15 18.22

19 470 (401) 6 129 (61)

1: Metal cylinders; MM8-80; 2: E D A RD-200. S D = standard deviation; N = number of samples.

TABLE3
Radon data for shallow (I m ) soil gases, Mulga Rock, Officer Basin (Data derived from survey conducted by P N C Exploration (Australia) Pty. Ltd.) N Radon (cpm) Minimum a Maximum Mean Standard deviation

All sites Sands, including dunes Red-brown sandy clays

340 210 130

-9 -8 -9

67 51 67

12.6 9.7 17.2

12.8 9.7 15.7

aNegative values represent poor counting statistics and over-correction in background areas.

154 He abundance by dilution or residual concentration. Normalization of the He data to constant neon reduced He concentrations but did not markedly change the He distribution pattern and the data still did not show any distinction between mineralized and background areas (Table 3, Fig. 4). The slightly elevated normalized He concentrations at the western end of the traverse again suggest an increased He flux, but they are also within the combined range of background variation and sampling plus analytical errors. Thus, although confirming the earlier result, it is difficult to assign much significance to this subtle 'anomaly'. Radon. In contrast to the results of the He survey conducted at the same time (December, 1983), Rn contents of overburden gas at 6 m showed a distinct difference between the mineralized area (mean 470 cpm) and background (mean 130 cpm), with maxima overlying the radiometric anomalies (Fig. 4). The peak Rn value, 1765 cpm in hole CS20, is close to the position of the highest-grade mineralization. Some o f the variability in the Rn data appears to be due to changes in surficial cover. Thus, holes CS1 and CS25 are in silcrete, through which gas migration might be slow, and holes C S l l to 14 are in dune sands, which would permit mixing with the atmosphere. These factors may explain the low Rn concentrations at those sites. PNC Exploration (Australia) Pty. Ltd., conducted a trial Rn survey of this area, using the 'standard' procedure of sampling gases at depths down to 1 m using a hammered probe. The survey, centred on the mineralized zone depicted b y the radiometric anomaly crossed by the traverse, covered a 3600 4600 m area at a sample spacing o f 200 X 400 m. Radon concentrations were found to vary according to the nature of the surface material, with lower values in aeolian sands than in ferruginous sandy clays (Table 3). Along the traverse, mostly in sands, these shallow samples gave a similar Rn pattern to the deep samples (Fig. 4) but with concentrations ten- to twenty-fold lower. Although the mineralized zone gave an anomalous response, equivalent responses were found elsewhere in supposedly background areas. However, there is inadequate drilling information to determine the significance o f these other anomalies.
MANYINGEE URANIUM DEPOSIT, W E S T E R N AUSTRALIA

Location and description The Manyingee deposit is approximately 80 km south o f Onslow, Western Australia (Fig. 1). It is situated on the alluvial plain of the Ashburton River, just west of the river itself, about 100 km from the mouth. The relief is very subdued, with elevations in the area in the range 47--50 m above sea level. The only topographic feature is Manyingee Hill, a 20-m-high, flat-topped ridge, 1 km SE of the mineralized zone. Much o f the area is subject to flooding. The climate is sub-tropical and semi-arid.

I
0~, z

6000W
4000W "~ 3000W

5000W \ N / // //// \\\ ~N MANYINGEE [

2000W

/IO00W

. . . .

500 i . . . . metres

1000

/
.--" ..-"
(
:

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5000W
I

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I k\ I \ \ I I

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Basement isobath (depth in metres)

Tertiary/Quaternary deposited on basement

Muderong Shale deposited on basement "~: : ::: : :::: ::: : :t-: \ \\\ \\\ \ \\
\

] Birdrong Sandstone deposited on basement

: . : ':.

\\

D~

-" MANYINGEE T[ ~ N

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Uranium mineralization ~ 6 0 0 ppm eU average'grade over~ lm

" 140-

--.

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r

Overburden gas sample 6m

\

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\ \
/

290 :: : i::::

Overburden gas sample 12m

B--B
--4000S

Gas sampling traverse .

::.:::

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" .: ::p- -_

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.,.:* t O 0 - ~ 4 0 0 0 5

4000W I

3000W
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Fig. 5. Plan of Manyingee prospects showing location of gas-sampling traverses.

156

The U mineralization occurs in a palaeochannel incised into granitoid basement {Fig. 5). The sequence consists of granitic and schistose rocks of the Lower Proterozoic b a s e m e n t unconformably overlain by 120 m of fluvio-deltaic to shallow-marine sedimentary rocks o f Cretaceous age, themselves overlain by 30 m of terrestrial Cainozoic sediments (Valsardieu et al., 1981). There are two main zones o f mineralization at depths of 4 5 - - 1 1 0 m , with grade-thickness products of 200--5500 ppm eU.metre. Mineralization is confined to the Cretaceous rocks, mainly in the lower Birdrong Sandstone and an unnamed arkosic unit. There are t w o main aquifers, separated by the impervious Muderong Shale, the uppermost Cretaceous unit. The lower aquifer, which is in contact with the mineralized zones, is confined by the shales, whereas the upper aquifer is not in contact with mineralization and is unconfined. The water-table, the top of the upper, unconfined aquifer, is at 13--19 m. The lower aquifer is confined under pressure and has a piezometric surface some 2--4 m above that o f the upper aquifer. Under natural conditions, there is little interaction between the two aquifers, but numerous drill holes permitted water from the lower to enter the upper aquifer. This flow may have significantly affected the local groundwater regime. (Holes have since been plugged with cement to prevent this leakage.)

Sampling and results

Four traverses of gas sampling holes were drilled across the mineralized palaeochannel, into flanking background areas {Fig. 5). Most holes were 6 m deep, within 6--13 m o f the water-table, and a few to 10--12 m, within 2--8 m of the water-table. Gas sampling was carried o u t in conjunction with groundwater He surveys which established that the He contents of the lower aquifer waters (sampled at 15 m below water-table) increased from 0.04 to 2.5 gl/1 down the mineralized palaeochannel. Upper aquifer waters contained up to 0.48 pl/l He over the northern part of the deposit. Subsequently, it was found that some lower aquifer waters, mostly further down drainage, contained up to 85 pl/1 He. However, only one gas sample, from the supposedly 'background' site CSG30, was above such He-rich waters. Gas sampling was carried out in November 1982 and August 1983 {using metal cylinders for sample storage) and analyzed using the MM8-80 instrument. Overburden gases contained 5.30--5.50 ppm He in November 1982 and 5.32--5.48 ppm in August 1983 {Fig. 6). Data for August 1983 were a mean of duplicate samples, which generally reported within 0.02 ppm. Neither set of data showed any pattern that could be related to the known distribution of mineralization; there was no distinction between mineralized and background areas. The westernmost site on traverse B, hole CSG30, is close to a hole which, although essentially unmineralized, had a groundwater He content of 85 ~1/1. However, this enrichment was n o t

157
5.5
1400S Traverse

A
Nov '82 Aug '83

5.4

---....

absolute concentration, absolute c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,

c o r r e c t e d to constant neon, Aug '83

5.3 5.2 5.5 S Traverse B // 5A ///%\ \

5.3 CSG 30 ~,~ 5.2 5.5

I

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~- M i n e r a l i z a t i o n I
I I

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1800S Traverse C

5.4

5.3 5.2 5.5

3000S Traverse D

5.4

5.3 5.2

600

60'0

40'00
Distance

3o'00
(m)

20'00

Fig. 6. Helium in overburden gas, Manyingee Deposits, Western Australia. reflected in the overburden gas at 6 m, 13 m above water-table, although CSG30 did give the highest value, 5.48 ppm, in August 1983. The deeper ( 1 0 - - 1 2 m) samples in November 1982 mostly had slightly higher He contents than the adjacent 6 m holes, whereas in August 1983 they generally had lower contents. This was the effect o f a slight increase in the He content of the 6 m samples (5 out o f 9 increased) and slight decrease in the deeper samples (8 out o f 9 decreased) between the sampling dates. The cause of these changes is u n k n o w n although it may be related, in some way, to differences in moisture content affecting the rate of equilibration between overburden gas and atmosphere (Currie, 1983). These data do not invalidate the need for deep sampling, rather they illustrate the range of variation. The effect of sample depth can only be

158 tested where there is a genuine anomaly. The depths o f the samples are such that they should all be below that at which changes in barometric

pressure would induce pumping (Kovach, 1945, quoted by Mogro-Campero and Fleischer, 1977). Overburden gas from one hole {CSG38) was monitored over 5 days (10 analyses) and although pressure variations were not great, the changes in He content were very small (5.39--5.43 ppm) and seemingly not related to the pressure changes. The August 1983 samples were also analyzed for neon-20. Normalization o f the He data to constant neon reduced the He concentrations but did not show any distinction between mineralized and background areas. Radon determinations (August 1983) similarly did n o t distinguish mineralized from background areas (Fig. 7). As with helium, deeper samples had less radon than adjacent shallow ones; monitoring over five days showed variations little larger than the 5% precision rated for the instrument, with no apparent relationship between radon and barometric pressure, helium or neon.
1500 [ 1000 I
x

1400S Traverse A

1500 1000 f 500 0

1600S Traverse B

c E o v

x CSG 30 (
x x

1500r

1800S Traverse C

ir ~6m sample depth

1000 I 5001" 0L
I I I

x--12rn sample depth Mineralization

I ~" I

1500[ 1000 [

3000S Traverse D
x

21
60L00

x x

5000 '

4000 , Distance (m)

30'00

2000

Fig. 7. Radon in overburden gas, Manyingee deposits.

159 The absence o f any relationship between the distributions of helium in overburden gas and mineralization could be due to changes in the hydrological regime, resulting from past escape of waters rich in helium from the lower aquifer, via drill holes, and their replacement b y recharge waters poor in helium. Such an explanation cannot, however, apply to radon, the accumulation of which is restricted by its short half-life, nor may it apply to helium either. The overburden gases from background areas and from mineralization have essentially similar He contents despite a progressive, sixty-fold increase in dissolved helium from 0.04 to 2.5 pl/1 -and despite the introduction close to the sampling sites of these He-charged waters into the upper aquifer (still continuing in places in November 1982). Furthermore, gases from site CSG30, only 13 m above water-table where groundwaters contain 85 pl/l He, are not significantly enriched in helium. It is probable that helium and radon from the mineralization cannot penetrate the Muderong Shale but, if they do, equilibrate or are diluted or decay sufficiently to have no influence on the composition of the overburden gas. MT. WELD CARBONATITE, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Location and description

The Mt. Weld carbonatite is about 25 km SE o f Laverton in the Yilgarn Block o f Western Australia. It has been emplaced in a flexure in the Laverton tectonic zone and may be a Proterozoic continuation of alkalic, undersaturated plutonic activity represented by late Archaean syenites on the margins o f the zone. There is no outcrop in the vicinity of the carbonatite pipe; magnetic, gravity and drilling data indicate it to be a b o u t 4.5 km in diameter. The country rocks, again mostly n o t exposed, include basic volcanic and ultramafic rocks o f the Archaean greenstone sequence and granitoid pebble conglomerates. Carbonatite dykes are also known 4--6 km north, west and southeast o f the intrusion. The carbonatite is k n o w n to be enriched in uranium, thorium and rare earth elements relative to the c o u n t r y rocks. The main pipe is obscured by 20--50 m of heterogeneous transported overburden overlying a zone o f lateritically weathered carbonatite 20--40 m thick. Water-table depth ranges from 11 to 20 m and the groundwater is probably not very active. The area is flat, with a very gentle slope to the southwest towards Lake Carey, a playa 17 km distant. The area is semi-arid, with a generally low rainfall (mean 290 mm p.a.).

Sampling and results

Overburden gas sampling was carried out after it had been found that groundwaters over the carbonatite were considerably enriched in helium. Fourteen gas-sampling sites 6 m deep were drilled close to exploration

160

drill holes with known groundwater contents over the carbonatite. Six holes were drilled into background areas, the holes being located every 2 km away from the carbonatite on a traverse terminating at Granite Well, 11 km to the northwest. Removable caps fitted with gas-sampling taps were placed on the casing used to collar the drill holes, so that head-space gas samples could be collected. Samples of overburden gas, head-space gas and groundwater were collected at the same time, to allow their He contents to be compared. Head-space-gas and overburden-gas samples collected in August 1982 were stored in glass vials and analyzed by helium monitor; those collected in February 1983 were collected in metal cylinders and analyzed by MM8-80. The He c o n t e n t of groundwater sampled at 5 m below water-table over the carbonatite ranged from 0.14 to 13.6 pl/1 He, i.e. from 3 to over 200 the atmosphere equilibrium value of 0.044pl/l (Butt and Gole, 1984). Water collected from the surrounding area contained 0.05--0.98 pill He, with the highest values within 10 km, though n o t all samples within this area were anomalous. Waters from Granite Well, close to background site CS6, contain only 0.06 pl/1 He. There was no correlation between groundwater He contents and the average U content of cuttings from the holes over the carbonatite, nor with the present depth of water in the holes. Helium contents of overburden gases and of head-space gases and groundwaters in adjacent holes are given in Table 4. Overburden gases collected over the carbonatite in August 1982 and February 1983 contained 5.32-5.44 ppm He and 5.25--5.35 ppm He respectively. The higher values found in August 1982 may have been due in part to different sampling and analytical procedures. Overburden gases from the background area contained 5.38--5.48 ppm He in August 1982 and 5.24--5.47 ppm He in February 1983 and are thus equivalent to or slightly higher than those over the carbonatite. The head-space gas samples had similar He contents to the overburden gases. There is thus no apparent relationship between the He contents of the gas samples and those of the corresponding groundwater samples, which show variations in excess of 100-fold. This finding is somewhat surprising as the groundwater is presumably continually degassing due to equilibration with the overburden gas and head-space gas and ultimately with the atmosphere. The exploration holes are only cased 1--3 m below surface, so that exchange with the overburden gas is probably an important control on the He content of the head-space gas. Why the He contents of the overburden gas which, at a maximum, are only 0.10-0.23 ppm higher than ambient, show no discrimination between the carbonatite and the background and do n o t show any sympathetic variation with groundwater He contents, is more puzzling. The overburden-gas samples were collected from 6 m depth, that is 5--14 m above the water-table. Given the size of the carbonatite, with its large area of relatively shallow groundwater containing anomalous He concentrations, it might have been expected that the overburden gas would have contained higher He con-

TABLE 4

Helium contents of overburden and head-space gas and underlying groundwater, Mt. Weld carbonatite August 1982 February 1983 Groundwater He (~1/1)

Sample date:

Sample type ~: Water-table

Overburden gas

Head-space gas

Groundwater 2 Overburden gas

(m)

He (ppm)

He (ppm)

He (~1/1)

He (ppm)

Head-space gas He (ppm)

5.45 5.39 5.34 5.45 5.49

4.25 14.70 5.35 1.15

0.16 5.51 5.41 5.44 5.29 0.26 2.64

Carbonatite P4 P6 P9 P 11 RC 18 RC 20 RC 25 RC 27 RC 28 RC 29 RC 32 RC 36 RC 37 RC 38 13.5 19.0 14.2 18.0 16.0 11.2 13.3 15.5 19.8 19.8 16.9 13.1 12.7 15.8 5.43 5.50 5.42 5.44 5.38 5.32 5.32 5.37 5.38 5.40 5.36 5.35 5.41 5.35 5.42 5.35 5.44 5.44 5.32 3.45 1.18 13.50 0.30 0.87 7.36 0.44 1.81 0.12 0.99 0.63 0.35 1.63 2.17 5.33 5.30 5.35 5.34 5.32 5.35 5.31 5.25 5.31 5.30 5.31 5.35 5.33 5.33

Background 1 2 3 4 5 6 (Granite Well) 15.0 5.40 5.38 5.40 5.48 5.43 5.43

0.06

5.36 5.34 5.47 5.27 5.24 5.29

August 1982, analysis by helium monitor, gas samples stored in glass vials. February 1983, analysis by MM8-80, gas samples stored in metal cylinders. 2Samples collected 5 m below water-table except for RC 28 at 3 m below water-table.

162 tents t h a n t h o s e f o u n d . T w o possible e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r the l o w o v e r b u r d e n gas c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and the lack o f a c o r r e l a t i o n with t h e g r o u n d w a t e r are: (a) T h a t e q u i l i b r a t i o n b e t w e e n the o v e r b u r d e n gas and t h e a t m o s p h e r e is far m o r e rapid t h a n t h a t b e t w e e n the o v e r b u r d e n gas and the groundwater. If this is so for o v e r b u r d e n gas at 6-m d e p t h , t h e n it has i m p o r t a n t implications f o r t h e use o f soil and o v e r b u r d e n gases in e x p l o r a t i o n . (b) T h a t the He-rich g r o u n d w a t e r s are in a lower, c o n f i n e d aquifer and t h a t shallower waters have low He c o n t e n t s . This would be analogous t o the situation at Manyingee b u t t h e r e are n o hydrological d a t a f r o m Mt. Weld to c o n f i r m or d e n y this possibility. If it is t h e case, h o w e v e r , t h e r e are again i m p o r t a n t implications c o n c e r n i n g t h e use o f helium as a pathf i n d e r f o r b u r i e d deposits. ENEABBA HEAVY MINERAL SANDS, WESTERN AUSTRALIA S o m e b u r i e d strands at Eneabba, 250 k m n o r t h o f Perth, c o n t a i n o v e r 70% heavy minerals, including over 40% zircon (Australian Minerals Consolidated, pers. c o m m u n . , 1980). Zircon c o n c e n t r a t e s c o n t a i n 1050 p p m U, and m o n a z i t e c o n c e n t r a t e s 3 0 0 p p m Th. Such strands m a y t h u s contain 3 0 0 - - 5 0 0 p p m U + T h overall and r e p r e s e n t a m o d e r a t e source o f helium. T h e strands are overlain b y 1 5 - - 2 0 m o f u n c o n s o l i d a t e d s a n d y overburden. Sample tubes were set at 6-m d e p t h at 25-m intervals o n 3 traverses 50 m apart across one strand. A f u r t h e r traverse, 5 k m distant, with similar o v e r b u r d e n , slope and drainage b u t w i t h o u t heavy minerals provided b a c k g r o u n d data. T h e results (Table 5) s h o w t h a t although m o s t samples had above ambient He c o n t e n t s , with m a x i m a o f 5 . 2 9 - - 5 . 3 2 p p m , t h e r e was n o p a t t e r n related to the l o c a t i o n o f m e strand, n o r any d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the test and b a c k g r o u n d sites. Thus, although t h e sands r e p r e s e n t a low-grade, b u t significant He source, t h e y d o n o t give rise t o d e t e c t a b l e e n r i c h m e n t s in o v e r b u r d e n gases o n l y 10--15 m above t h e m . T h e h e l i u m t h a t is geneTABLE 5 Helium in overburden gases over a heavy mineral strand and a background area, Eneabba 10.12.80 He (ppm) ~ Mineral strands (N = 17) Background (N = 15) Range Mean (SD) Range Mean (SD) 5.24--5.32 5.27 (0.03) -4.9.81 He {ppm)' 5.24--5.31 5.28 (0.02) -3.3.83 He (ppm) 2 5.24--5.31 5.28 (0.02) 5.21--5.30 5.27 (0.03)

' Samples stored in glass vials; analysis by helium monitor. 2 Samples stored in metal cylinders; analysis by MM8-80.

163

rated must either be retained within the host minerals or be lost to the atmosphere without accumulating, due to the porous nature of the overburden. The data do, however, give an indication o f background variations of helium over relatively small areas which have essentially unchanging aspect, slope, drainage, overburden and vegetation.
DISCUSSION

Review of previous work

Orientation surveys testing the potential of helium in exploration for uranium, hydrocarbon and geothermal resources have been reported, mainly from the U.S.A. Many such surveys have been conducted b y sampling shallow (to 1 m depth) soil gases b y hammered probe, removed immediately after sampling. Pogorski and Quirt (1979) also tried fixed collectors (perforated copper tube) left to equilibrate for several days, b u t discontinued their use in favour o f probe sampling. Researchers from the U.S. Geological Survey have described a number of soil gas surveys, with analyses conducted in the field. In each case, the anomalies detected were very subtle, with helium concentrations in soil gases mostly being 5.27--5.34 ppm, compared to the ambient of 5.24 ppm He; a few higher values 5.43--5.65 ppm were recorded in the Ambrosia Lake district, New Mexico (Brady and Rice, 1977; Reimer et al., 1979b), where U mineralization occurs at depths exceeding 185 m, b u t these appear to be exceptional. In some instances, the He anomalies were displaced laterally from the position of the mineralization and it was presumed that this was due to groundwater flow (Reimer and Otton, 1976; Reimer and Bowles, 1979). Similar mechanisms were put forward to explain the distribution of helium in soil gases for an area with complex hydrology in the Edgemont uranium district, S. Dakota and Wyoming (Bowles et al., 1980), where high values (maximum 5.34 ppm) appear to coincide with zones of artesian discharge. Anomalous soil-gas He contents were also considered to be related to faulting (Reimer and Adkisson, 1977; Reimer et al., 1979a), possibly with higher values being found where faulting is associated with U mineralization. However, U mineralization did n o t always have an associated He anomaly, for example at the Marysville uranium mines, Utah (Reimer, 1979). At the Lamprecht o r e b o d y in Texas, uranium is in sandstones overlain b y 70--90 m of gently dipping clays and cemented sandstones; Reimer et al. (1979a) showed that a He anomaly (5.27--5.30 ppm) was present only over part of the orebody. Elsewhere, below-ambient concentrations were found and it was suggested that these were the result o f dilution b y other gases, disturbance by farming or mining, or structural or lithological conditions (e.g. presence of faults bringing diluting (?) gases, or near-surface caliche development). Anomaly magnitudes were reported to vary with time -- at the Red

164

Desert site in Wyoming, mean He concentrations in summer (July) were 5.255 + 0.009 ppm, compared to a mean winter value o f 5.241 + 0.011 p p m (accuracy given b y authors -- Reimer and Bowles, 1979). The distribution shown by the summer sampling was considered to be significantly related to mineralization, whereas the winter samples were thought to have been distorted by the diluting and drying effects of high winds. The soft-moisture regime was also considered to have influenced the results o f other surveys (Reimer and Otton, 1976; Reimer and Adkisson, 1977) with rather higher values occurring where the soil was damp. A similar conclusion was drawn by Martin and Berquist (1977), as reported by Zaikowski and Roberts {1981). The latter questioned the finding and suggested that it may be due to the p o o r resolution o f the small mass spectrometers being used for analysis, which may detect a contribution from hydrogen released by the dissociation of water. Alternatively, it may be due to differential flow rates of major gases, including water vapour, through the constantpressure inlet, as discussed above. Studies over three uranium deposits have been described in detail by Pogorski and Quirt (1979), with the same data re-evaluated and supplemented by Pacer and Czarnecki (1980). Both groups applied correction procedures to their data. Pogorski and Quirt (1979) corrected for depth of sampling by unspecified means, though inspection o f the data shows that it is not linear, as supposed by Pacer and Czarnecki (1980). The latter authors tried a correction based on argon-36, an inert non-radiogenic gas of similar atmospheric abundance to helium. By assuming the 36Ar content to be constant, a He/36Ar normalization should eliminate any effects of dilution or enhancement due to biological activity in the soil. Their results suggested this to be ineffective. Pogorski and Quirt (1979) also surveyed the Red Desert research site under summer and winter conditions. Mineralization here is in flat-lying sediments, overlain b y 125--140 m of barren rock. The area is of low relief, with sandy softs; the climate is semi-arid, but both surveys were carried out during rainy periods. Probe-sampled soil gases were reported to contain 4.98--5.39 p p m He (-= 5.22) in summer; corrected, these were 4.98-5.44 ppm He (x-= 5.23). The higher values generally occurred in the vicinity of mineralization and outliers were tentatively attributed to hitherto u n k n o w n mineralization. In cold and wet conditions in winter, a similar but weaker response was obtained. The gas survey o f the same site by Reimer and Bowles (1979) yielded an equivalent range o f values, including a lower response in winter. However, a disturbing feature is the p o o r correspondence between the distribution patterns shown by the t w o studies; Pogorski and Quirt (1979) report the anomaly above the mineralization whereas Reimer and Bowles (1979) show it displaced. At the Copper Mountain site in Wyoming, uranium mineralization occurs at 60--90 m below rock and overburden in a rugged, semi-arid area with only shallow soils. The area was surveyed in a rainy period. Uncor-

165 rected, soil gases contained 4.38--5.38 ppm (~" = 5.23) and, corrected 3.72-5.66 p p m ( ~ = 5.28). The pattern of anomalous values is 'spotty' and unrelated to that of mineralization; however, faulting and ore distribution are complex and sampling did n o t extend into truly background areas, hence a full assessment is n o t possible. A similar problem occurred at the Spokane Mountain site in Washington, a humid, forested area o f high relief. Sampling again t o o k place in wet conditions; uncorrected, soil gases contain 4.90--5.39 p p m He (~-= 5.23) and, corrected, t h e y contain 4.60--5.56 p p m He (-= 5.26). The He distribution does n o t show patterns interpretable in terms of the known position o f ore or faulting -- b u t sampling did not enter truly background areas. Helium surveys have also utilized soils themselves, collected by auger to as much as 1 m depth and placing the sample, usually with some air, in containers which are then sealed. After equilibration, the head-space gas in the containers is analyzed and the He content o f the soil calculated using a variety of additional parameters, including soil mass, moisture, density and porosity, volumes o f head-space gas and concentrations o f diluting gases (e.g. N2, alkanes). Pogorski and Quirt (1979) and Pogorski and Pogorski (1982) report detailed studies, on local and sub-regional scales respectively, o f the use of soil sampling for soil-gas He determinations. The results are given in uncorrected and corrected forms, b u t only the latter are quoted here. The correction procedures are, however, not specified. At the Red Desert site, sampling close to the deposit in summer gave corrected He contents of 5.56--9.14 p p m (-2 6.48); the patterns seem to indicate the presence -= of mineralization. In winter, a more subdued response was obtained, b u t nevertheless anomalous values still occurred over the deposit. However, the regional survey gave more equivocal results. The t w o samples on the regional grid over mineralization were b o t h anomalous (6.95 and 9.00 p p m He) relative to a very local background { 5 . 2 0 - 6 . 3 7 ppm) b u t axe insignificant in terms of the regional background (~-= 6.76 p p m He), which increases strongly to the south. A b o u t 25% of the surveyed area had He contents exceeding 7 . 8 2 p p m , with many samples having 1 0 - - 1 2 p p m , none o f which relate to U mineralization. The location o f the deposit itself could be revealed by contouring, or by extracting residuals after trendsurface analysis, but it is a weak feature, overshadowed b y other 'anomalies'. Surveys at Copper Mountain showed He contents o f 4.09--12.86 ppm He (~-= 6.97). As with samples collected b y probe, the distribution is spotty and the patterns do not indicate the location o f mineralization. The results suggest the whole area to be patchily anomalous, possibly with leakage along faults. However, rather different data were obtained on a regional survey, which showed several anomalies; the one closest to the mineralization was in valley soils, and was explained in terms o f 'downslope displacement' by an unspecified mechanism.

166 At Spokane Mountain, the distribution of high values again could not be related to the location of mineralization. Pogorski and Quirt (1979) suggest that in part, the He anomaly follows a major fault. Concentrations here are 3.30--10.04 ppm He (~-= 5.86), the low values being ascribed to dilution by biogenic gases and the helium being 'flushed out' of the soil by rain. The use of the minus 30-mesh (600 pm) fraction of soils from 0--8 cm depth is reported by Hinkle and Kilburn (1979) and Hinkle and Dilbert (1984). Remarkably high excess He concentrations of 2.6--18.6 ppm in pore gases are claimed to occur near the North Silver Bell porphyry copper deposit, related to faulting and fracturing associated with mineralization (Hinkle and Dilbert, 1984). Assessment o f helium surveys Soil and overburden gases. The authors of the papers reviewed above generally make positive claims about the effectiveness o f He soil-gas surveys in uranium exploration. Certainly, above ambient concentrations o f helium are reported in the vicinity o f mineralization and, in some instances, show patterns that could be related to its location. However, anomaly contrasts are very low, particularly for the samples collected by probe, and the patterns are very patchy and sometimes transient. Mostly, the surveys have not been extended far enough into background areas. Where they have, other above-ambient values have mostly been tentatively ascribed to hitherto u n k n o w n mineralization (e.g. Reimer and Rice, 1977; Reimer, 1979), rather than to background variation. However, results from Australia described herein would suggest that these conclusions be treated with caution. The adequacy o f the samples is d o u b t e d and there is a possible analytical error, so that the variations observed may be fortuitous and unrelated to the presence of mineralization. The Angela, Mulga R o c k and Mt. Weld deposits are excellent test sites for the use of overburden-gas sampling. However, only on one occasion (April, 1981) did the He distribution at Angela seem to reflect the known presence of mineralization clearly and even then only over part of it, with a wide range of overlap between mineralized and background areas. At the other deposits, there are no credible He anomalies in overburden gas, even though at Mulga R o c k there is a significant Rn anomaly and at Mt. Weld, He concentrations in groundwater are anomalous. A change in groundwater conditions at Manyingee may have affected results there, b u t nevertheless there is no significant anomaly, even where groundwaters contain over 80 pill He. Since helium must be generated by the mineralization, a He flux must be present; the intensity will be proportional to the concentration o f uranium and the state of radiometric equilibrium. In overburden and soil gases, the helium degassing from uranium mineralization and from ura-

167 nium and thorium in the c o u n t r y rocks sustains and adds to the effectively constant atmospheric abundance o f 5.24 ppm. In terms o f a total concentration thickness product, the additional uranium and hence helium contributed by mineralization above that b y country rocks is not very great, but nevertheless anomalous He concentrations might be expected. That t h e y are not found, however, or are only very restricted in extent and magnitude even at 6 m depth, must be due to thorough, rapid equilibration with the atmosphere. Considerable variability exists in He concentrations, in 'background' areas, so that high values cannot be ascribed unequivocally or uncritically to mineralization. In addition, the marked variation in He contents from a given site over time and the sometimes equivocal results from different sampling depths add further uncertainty. If the presence of moisture in the upper horizons of the overburden can lead to increased concentration of helium, then further difficulties arise. Topographic position and soil composition would influence moisture acquisition and retention, thereby affecting the choice of sampling depths and having quantitatively unpredictable effects on measured He contents. These factors may have, in part, been responsible for some o f the variability observed in different surveys in Australia and elsewhere. The effect of microbial activity on the bulk composition of soil gas and the resultant residual variation in inert gas concentrations cannot be ignored. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and methane may be consumed and]or produced, with activity stimulated b y changes in moisture status. Accordingly, neon-20 or argon-36 determinations should be used to correct the He data. This procedure was found to reduce or eliminate many helium excesses at the Mulga R o c k and Manyingee prospects and to be necessary in interpreting a He anomaly associated with a natural gas microseep at Gingin, Western Australia, as being mostly due to microbial activity (Gole and Butt, in press}. Overburden gases in permeable overburden were found to have background concentrations o f 5 . 2 4 - - 5 . 3 2 p p m He (Mulga Rock, Eneabba) whereas those in less permeable, clay-rich overburden had 5.30--5.50 ppm (Manyingee, Mt. Weld). The origins o f this difference and the variability -- in effect, measurement o f the degree of equilibration with the atmosphere -- are not obvious, b u t are related to factors such as soil type, moisture content, microbial activity and sample depth. However, these controlling parameters are difficult to quantify in terms of He dispersion, and arbitrary attempts at correction {e.g. Pogorski and Quirt, 1979) are likely to be either ineffective or misleading. A conclusion from this research is that it is improbable that reliable samples can be obtained from less than 3 m depth, below the maximum influence of equilibration and barometric pumping. The importance of sample depth is borne out by the Rn survey over the Mulga R o c k prospect, where abundances and contrasts were much greater at approximately 5 m than 1 m. The effectiveness of radon compared to helium here is probably due to its lower diffusibility, a far more sensitive analytical procedure and very low background.

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Groundwater--overburden-gas relationships. An unexpected aspect of the results is the lack of correlation between groundwater and overburden-gas He contents. Helium released from a source below water-table must migrate through the groundwater before entering the overburden gas and ultimately being released to the atmosphere. This is illustrated b y the high He contents of some head-space gases over water in some cased drill holes at Angela. Thus, it might be expected that there would be a correlation between groundwater and overburden-gas He contents and that migration of HeCharged groundwater could displace any gas anomaly. Such a mechanism has been suggested to explain the lateral displacement of supposed soil-gas anomalies from mineralization (Reimer and Otton, 1976; Reimer and Bowles, 1979), and the occurrence of anomalous values in areas of groundwater discharge (Reimer, 1979; Bowles et al., 1980). However, the poor correlations imply that dispersion via groundwater does not significantly affect overburden-gas He concentrations. At Mt. Weld and Manyingee, overburden gases and groundwaters were sampled from closely adjacent sites. However, although both have anomalous concentrations of helium in groundwater, there are no corresponding overburden-gas anomalies. At Manyingee, the presence o f t w o aquifers can explain the poor correlation but at Mt. Weld this situation does not appear to prevail. Here, groundwater concentrations range from 0.14 to 13.6 pl/1 He and overburden gas from 5.32 to 5.44 ppm He, without any correlation. Detailed studies across the overburden-gas--groundwater interface were n o t warranted by reason o f cost, but some gas samples were collected within 6 m o f the water-table at Mt. Weld and 2--8 m at Manyingee. Similarly p o o r correlations are given by the data o f Reimer and Rice (1977) and Bowles et al. (1980), which show that soil gas contents are low where groundwaters are enriched, and vice versa. Assuming that the waters sampled are indeed the source for helium in overburden gas, then it appears that equilibration between water and gas must be slow, relative to that between gas and the atmosphere. This being so, the validity of gas sampling at any depth is questionable when the helium being sought has become dispersed in groundwater, even if concentrations of dissolved helium are considerably in excess of the atmospheric equilibrium value. Furthermore, groundwater may be a source of false anomalies, since very high dissolved He concentrations (10->1000~1/1) unrelated to mineralization are not u n c o m m o n (Butt and Gole, 1984; B o t t o m l e y et al., 1984; Butt et al., 1984). Possibly, significant He anomalies may only be expected when there has been predominantly vertical migration from the source along faults and fractures. This suggestion may explain the very limited extent of He anomalies in soil gases (0.5 m depth) around h o t springs in Colorado found by Roberts et al. (1975). Here, at a hot spring (40C), a maximum concentration of 1000 ppm He was found in an anomalous area of only 15 25 m, defined by the 5.40 ppm He contour. Similarly, close to a

169

warm spring (26C), the maximum value was 100 p p m He, in an area 50 125 m delineated by the 5.40 ppm He contour. These values contrast with a background of 5.20 ppm in the surrounding area. These results suggest that lateral dispersion of helium from the conduit carrying the thermal waters is very limited, although the decline may be overemphasized by the shallow sampling depth.
Soils as sample media. Softs were not considered as sample media for He determinations, because of perceived difficulties in collecting adequate, deep samples without subjecting them to undue contamination or equilibration with the atmosphere. Other workers, however, have considered that uncontaminated samples could be collected (Pogorski and Quirt, 1979) and even that helium could be retained during sieving (Hinkle and Dilbert, 1984). They reason that helium held in crumb (or micro-) pores is protected by water-films from diurnal variations to which inter-crumb (or macro-) pores are subjected. It is of concern that in the studies o f Pogorski and Quirt (1979), there is little correlation between the results of soil and soil-gas sampling. At Red Desert, there is some 'visual correlation' at the local level -- i.e. the anomalies are in the same general area -- b u t calculation o f a correlation coefficient between samples from the same site shows there to be no relationship. This finding contrasts somewhat with that of Roberts (1981) who, using the same techniques for oil and gas exploration, found a good correlation between the patterns obtained by the two techniques when the soils were damp enough to maintain integrity as core or in auger cuttings. Pacer and Czarnecki (1980) concluded from Pogorski and Quirt's (1979) data that "these helium techniques are each measuring a different helium fraction in the near-surface soil, or are n o t accurately measuring helium at all'. However, it is not possible to assess the comparison of the results from the t w o types of survey because the data from the soil samples are subjected to a correction procedure that, for proprietary reasons, is n o t disclosed. In part, this correction includes a normal analytical recalculation for sample mass and volume, b u t also includes corrections for other parameters, some unspecified. That concentrations as high as 12 ppm are thereby calculated suggests that some false assumptions may have been made and that the final value is a result of 'correcting' for factors that do not, in fact, influence the He content. The m e t h o d o l o g y by which Hinkle and Dilbert (1984) estimated similarly high micropore concentrations (to 23.8 p p m He) is also open to question (Butt et al., 1985), due to the possibility of biological activity after sampling and to assumptions made in the estimation of pore volumes. The contention that helium is accumulated by micropores is not supported by measurements independent of these calculations. Indeed, the high diffusibility of helium suggests that migration into and out of the

170 pores in response to partial pressure differences would be rapid so that at most the He content of the micropore gas may represent a mean of the fluctuations shown by macropore gas. CONCLUSIONS The results from Angela, Manyingee, Mulga Rock, Eneabba and Mt. Weld offer no convincing evidence that determination of the He content of overburden gas has value as an exploration technique. The most promising response was at Angela, where conditions are close to ideal, with mineralization at 60--100 m depth in porous but consolidated sediments. However, even here, the anomaly was very small and variable, and the contrast very low, so that in exploration, it could easily be missed or not recognised. Although there is a possible trend o f increasing absolute and normalized helium over part of the mineralization at Mulga Rock, this is neither statistically significant nor of value in exploration. In the other prospects, no anomalies were found that can be related to the presence of mineralization despite groundwaters at Mt. Weld and Manyingee being enriched in helium. Although geological settings may not be ideal at Manyingee (impervious shale overlying mineralization) or Mulga Rock (shallow with a porous overburden) these nevertheless represent important blind and buried exploration targets o f the type it had been hoped that He surveys might detect. These failures suggest inadequacies in the concept. Samples as shallow as 1.0 m were not taken in these studies, but it is evident that concentrations and contrasts decreased when sampling depths were reduced from 6 m to 3 m or less, as a result o f equilibration with the atmosphere. Consequently, it can be inferred that still shallower samples might be even closer to equilibrium and hence reduce concentrations and contrasts further. This is certainly true for radon in sandy terrain at Mulga Rock, where samples from ~ 1 m had concentrations only 5% of those at 5--6 m. Additionally, in arid areas, desiccation cracks 0.5--1 m deep or more can be present, promoting ready interchange with the atmosphere. It is possible, however, that where conditions are humid and soils have high moisture contents, such interchange might be less, due to pores being filled by water or swelling clays (Currie, 1983). Nevertheless, although shallower sampling might thereby be possible, exchange within the top metre will still be considerable. If deep overburden gases (6 m depth) as described here detect no He anomaly, then it is surprising that elsewhere shallow soil gases (~1 m) can be effective. The contrasts reported in such samples are often very low (i.e. maxima of 5.30--5.34 against ambient background of 5.24 ppm) and He concentrations may be influenced by barometric pumping, varying sampling depths and soil permeabilities, atmospheric contamination during sampling and, perhaps, analytical error. Background variations are

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not sufficiently well known either, hence ascribing significance to increases of no more than 2% may n o t be justified. The possibility that micropores in the soils are protected from atmospheric equilibration and m a y have higher He contents than the larger macropores was not tested directly. However, the deeply buried tubes used should have been as well protected yet there was no evidence for high concentrations. No mechanism is known that could permit such micropores to accumulate helium, as has been suggested; slow equilibration may, however, buffer them against fluctuations so that high as well as low values relative to the macropores would be expected. Gases in shallow soil samples a r e subject to the same degree o f equilibration with the atmosphere as the free soil gas, and hence would n o t be expected to yield better results. Experience for the studies r e p o r t e d here and elsewhere (Butt and Gole, 1984) and b y other workers (Roberts et al., 1977; Jones and Drodz, 1983) suggests that He dispersion has a strong vertical component, with little lateral spread. Useful results may thus only be expected when migration is confined to narrow conduits, such as faults -- for example associated with geothermal or hydrocarbon resources. If gas sampling is to be employed, samples should be collected from as deep as possible, water-table permitting, certainly from below 3 m, preferably at 6 m, and perhaps even deeper in areas o f very porous overburden. Helium data should be corrected b y using neon-20 or argon-36.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dr. D.L. Swingler gave considerable assistance in developing suitable analytical systems, with instrumental modifications and developments made b y Mr. R.G. Couper and Mr. T.J. Harrison. The research was dependent initially on the contributions of Dr. R.L. Deutscher and Dr. J.A. Angus, and subsequently Mr. M.K.W. Hart and Mr. M. Spurge. Uranerz Australia Ltd., PNC Exploration (Australia) Pty. Ltd., Total Australia Ltd., Union Oil Development Corporation and Australian Minerals Consolidated are thanked for permitting access to the Angela, Mulga Rock, Manyingee, Mt. Weld and Eneabba deposits respectively, and for providing geological information and logistic support in the field. Financial assistance for the research was awarded b y the National Energy Research Developm e n t and Demonstration Council and the Western Australian Mining and Petroleum Research Institute. Figures were drafted b y Mrs. A. Lawford and Mr. C.R. Steel and the manuscript t y p e d by Mrs. I. Piercy. Dr. R.E. Smith is thanked for commenting on a draft o f the manuscript.

172 REFERENCES Bottomley, D.J., Ross, J.D. and Clarke, W.B., 1984. Helium and neon isotope geochemistry of some groundwaters from the Canadian Precambrian Shield. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 48: 1973--1985. Bowles, C.G., Reimer, G.M., Been, J.M. and Murray, D.G., 1980. Helium investigations in the Edgemont Uranium District, Southern Black Hills, South Dakota and Wyoming. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. 80-1077, 30 pp. Brady, B.T. and Rice, R.S., 1977. Helium determinations as an exploration technique at the Ambrosia Lake Uranium District, McKinley County, New Mexico. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. 77-669, 8 pp. Butt, C.R.M. and Gole, M.J., 1984. Helium determinations in mineral exploration. Aust. Dep. Resources and Energy, Rep. No. N E R D D P / E G / 8 4 / 2 7 1 , 3 5 1 pp. Butt, C.R.M., Hart, M.K.W. and Gole, M.J., 1985. Gases and trace elements in soils at the North Silver Bell Deposit, Pima County, Arizona: Discussion. J. Geochem. Explor., 24: 129--134. Currie, J.A., 1983. Gas diffusion through soil crumbs: the effects of wetting and swelling. J. Soil Sci., 34: 217--232. Gole, M.J. and Butt, C.R.M., in press. A biogenic--thermogenic near-surface gas anomaly over the Gingin and Bootine gas fields, Western Australia. Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Hart, M.K.W., Gole, M.J. and Butt, C.R.M., 1985. Possible errors in helium analyses o f soil gases by mass spectrometers having constant pressure inlet systems. J. Geochem. Explor., 24: 121--128. Hinkle, M.E. and Dilbert, C.A., 1984. Gases and trace elements in soils at North Silver Bell Deposit, Pima County, Arizona. J. Geochem. Explor., 20: 323--336. Hinkle, M.E. and Kilburn, J.E., 1979. The use of vacutalner tubes for collection of soil samples for helium analysis. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. 79-1441, 23 pp. Jones, V.T. and Drodz, R.J., 1983. Predictions o f oil or gas potential by near-surface geochemistry. Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol., 67: 932---952. Kovach, E.M., 1945. Meteorological influences upon the radon content of soil-gas. EOS Trans. AGU, 26: 241. Martin, J.P. and Berquist, L.E., 1977. Study of the applicability o f 3He/4He ratio for uranium prospecting. U.S. Dep. Energy, Open File Rep. GJBX-58(77), 95 pp. Mogro-Campero, A. and Fleischer, R.L., 1977. Subterrestrial fluid convection: a hypothesis for long-distance migration of radon within the earth. Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett., 34: 321--325. Pacer, J.C. and Czarnecki, R.F., 1980. Principles and characteristics of surface radon and helium-techniques used in uranium exploration. U.S. Dep. Energy, Rep. GJBX177(80), 63 pp. Pogorski, L.A. and Pogorski, S.R., 1982. The effect of the physical properties of the overburden on helium emanometry. U.S. Dep. Energy, Open File Rep. GJBX-114(82), 191 pp. Pogorski, L.A. and Quirt, G.S., 1979. Helium emanometry as an indicator of deeply buried uranium deposits. U.S. Dep. Energy, Open File Rep. GJBX-22(80), 362 pp. Reimer, G.M., 1979. Reconnaissance survey of helium in soil gas in the eastern half of the Richfield, Utah 1 2 Quadrangle. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. 79-1686, 7 pp. Reimer, G.M. and Adkisson, C.W., 1977. Reconnaissance survey of the helium content of the soil gas in Black Hawk, Eldorado Springs, Evergreen, Golden, Morrison, Ralston Buttes, and Squaw Pass Quadrangles, Colorado. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. 77-464, 11 pp.

173 Reimer, G.M. and Bowles, C.G., 1979. Soil-gas helium concentrations in the vicinity of a uranium deposit, Red Desert, Wyoming. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. 79-975, 9 pp. Reimer, G.M. and Otton, J.K., 1976. Helium in soil gas and well water in the vicinity of a uranium deposit, Weld County, Colorado. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. 76-699, 10 pp. Reimer, G.M. and Rice, R.S., 1977. Linear traverse studies of helium and radon in soil gas as a guide for uranium exploration, central Weld County, Colorado. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. 77-589, 10 pp. Reimer, G.M., Denton, E.H., Friedman, I. and Otton, J.K., 1979a. Recent developments in uranium exploration using the U.S. Geological Survey's mobile helium detector. J. Geochem. Explor., 11: 1--12. Reimer, G.M., Bowles, C.G:, Murray, D.G. and Been, J.M., 1979b. Helium in soft-gas and helium/radon in groundwater in the vicinity of a South Texas uranium roll-type deposit. U.S. Geol. Surv., Open File Rep. 79-1625, 10 pp. Roberts, A.A., 1981. Helium emanometry in exploring for hydrocarbons: Part If. In: B.M. Gottlieb (Editor), Unconventional Methods in Exploration for Petroleum and Natural Gas II. SMU Press, Dallas, Texas, pp. 136--149. Roberts, A.A., Friedman, I., Donovan, T.J. and Denton, E.H., 1975. Helium survey, a possible technique for locating geothermal reservoirs. Geophys. Res. Lett., 2: 209-210. Swingler, D.L., 1971. A small magnetic analyser mass spectrometer with a velocity filter for residual gas analysis. Vacuum, 21 : 121--125. Valsardieu, C.A., Harrop, D.W. and Morabito, J., 1981. Discovery of uranium mineralization in the Manyingee channel, Onslow region o f Western Australia. Proc. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall., 279: 5--17. Zaikowski, A. and Roberts, E.H., 1981. Importance o f resolution for helium detectors used in uranium exploration. U.S. Dep. Energy, Open File Rep. GJBX-38(81), 19 pp.