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CHAPTER

18

INSULATION
Original Authors:

COORDINATION
Revised by :

A. C. Monteith and H. R. Vaughan

A. A. Johnson

NSULATION coordination is the correlation of the insulation of electrical equipment and circuits with the characteristics of protective devices such that the insulation is protected from excessive overvoltages. Thus in a substation the insulation of transformers, circuit breakers, bus supports, etc. should have insulation strength in excess of the voltage levels that can be provided by protective equipment such as lightning arresters and gaps. The determination of the economic relationship between the impulse strength of equipment insulation and protective voltage level provided by protective devices has received and continues to receive a great amount of study. The basic concept of insulation coordination is illustrated in Fig. 1. Curve A is the demonstrated impulse strength of the insulation on a piece of electrical equipment which in operation is exposed to the hazards of lightning surges. Curve B is a protective level afforded by a valve type lightning arrester. Thus any insulation having a withstand voltage strength in excess of the insulation strength of

been made during the past 20 years in improving the design of power systems and equipment with the result that failure of major electrical equipment insulation is rare. The problem of providing insulation properly coordinated with protective devices involves not only guarding the equipment insulation, but also the protection of the devices themselves. To prevent damage to an arrester or a protector tube, each should be applied on a system in such a way that it will discharge t.he excessive voltage safely to ground after which it will cease to carry current to ground. Thus the arrester or tube must protect the equipment insulation and be capable of restoring itself as an insulator against whatever system voltages might exist across it to ground. The voltage to ground is determined for a system of given voltage largely by the method used for system grounding, the maximum voltage to ground usually being during the existence of a phase-to-ground fault. Rod gaps do not seal off after being flashed over and therefore the circuit must be disconnected from the system to clear gap breakdowns.

I. HISTORY
Coordination of insulation was not given serious consideration until after the first World War, mainly because of lack of information on the nature of lightning surges and the surge strength of apparatus insulation. Since concrete data were lacking on the actual surge strength of insulation or the discharge characteristics of protective equipment, early attempts at coordination were rule-of-thumb methods based on experience and individual ideas. The result was that some parts of the station were over-insulated while others were under-insulated. Also, the gradual increasing of line insulation in an attempt to prevent line flashovers subjected the station equipment to more severe surges; and in many cases line flashovers were eliminated at the expense of apparatus failures. Growth of power systems, demands for improved power service, and more economical system operation focused more and more attention on the problems of surge voltages, adequate insulation, and its protection. Thus during the period from about 1918 to 1930 considerable work was done by individual investigators and laboratories in collecting data on natural lightning and in developing insulation testing methods and technique. Although progress was seemingly slow, it resulted in a fair knowledge of the nature of lightning surges and the establishment of universal surge producing and measuring devices. Very little correlation between laboratories was attempted during that period. In 1930, the NEMA-NELA Joint Committee on Insu-

MICROSECONDS Fig. l-Protection of insulation with characteristic of A by protective device with characteristic of B.

Curve A is protected by the protective device of Curve B. To protect insulation from excessive voltages the protective device must have a lower breakdown voltage. The insulation of electrical equipment in a station or substation is subject from time to time to momentary overvoltages that may be caused by system faults, switching surges or lightning surges. Except for special cases, overvoltages caused by system faults or switching do not cause damage to equipment insulation although they may be detrimental to protective devices. Overvoltages caused by lightning are of sufficient magnitude to flashover or breakdown equipment insulation and are therefore the most troublesome and of greatest concern to the manufacturers and operators of electrical equipment. Great strides have
610

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination
TABLE 1-BASIC IMPULSE INSULATIONLEVELS
~Column 1 Column 2 Standard Basic Impulse Level Kv 30* 45* 60* 75* 95* 150 200 250 350 450 550 650 750 900 1050 1300 1550
class equipment. equipment.

611

lation Coordination was formed to consider laboratory testing technique and data, to determine the insulation levels in common use, to establish the insulation strength of all classes of equipment, and to establish insulation levels for various voltage classifications. After ten years of study and collection of data this schedule was fairly well completed. Numerous articles in trade magazines show the results. In a report dated January 19411, the committee, now known as the Joint AIEE-EEI-NEMA Committee on Insulation Coordination, rounded out the program by specifying basic impulse insulation levels for the different voltage classifications. Test specifications for apparatus are prepared on the basis of demonstrating that the insulation strength of the equipment will be equal to or greater than the selected basic level and the protective equipment for the station should be chosen to give the insulation meeting these levels as good protection as economically justified.

Column

Reference
Class Kv 1.2 2.5 50 8.7 15 23 34.6 46 69 92 115 138 161 196 230 287 345
*For

Reduced Insulation Levels In Use-Kv

45t W w 95t 11ot

... ... . ... , ...


. .

. .

.*.

&I
550 650

II. BASIC INSULATION

LEVELS

Several methods of providing coordination between insulation levels in the station and on the line leading into the station 2*3 have been offered. The best method is to establish a definite common level for all the insulation in the station and bring all insulation to or above this level. This limits the problem to three fundamental requirements, namely, the selection of a suitable insulation level, the assurance that the breakdown or flashover strength of all insulation in the station will equal or exceed the selected level, and the application of protective devices that will give the apparatus as good protection as can be justified economically. Data collected from utility systems during the early work on insulation coordination provided existing insulation levels. The data collected (60-cycle wet flashover characteristics measured in terms of equivalent gap spacing) fell within well defined limits. The upper limit corresponded to about ten times E, at the upper end of the curve and to about six times E, at the lower end of the curve, E, being the system voltage-to-neutral. The lower limit lay on a curve about four times E, for systems 46 kv and below and about three times E, for systems 69 kv and above. These data together with impulse characteristics of insulation obtained in the field and laboratory provided a basis for establishing insulation levels. Impulse test levels, in terms of inches of gap, were therefore, selected that represented a medium between the upper and lower limits defined above and that fell within the scope of available protective devices. As laboratory technique improved so that different laboratories were in close agreement on test results, the test levels were expressed in kilovolts corresponding to the test gaps, based on a ly2X40 microsecond positive wave, which is illustrated in Fig. 5(a). The basic levels were expressed on a 50-50 flashover basis, that is, values in kv crest corresponding to gap spacings giving 50 percent flashover and 50 percent full wave when subjected to 1%X40 positive impulse. Recognizing that it was not practical to subject most types of apparatus to a series of flashover tests to demonstrate their insulation levels, a minus tolerance of five percent was allowed in the definition of basic levels to permit a practical test

iii ...

power class tFor

distribution

demonstration of acceptability of equipment. Finally, 19411, the Joint AIEE-EEI-NEMA Comin January, mittee adopted basic insulation levels (Table 1) in terms of withstand voltages according to the following definition:
Basic impulse insulation levels are reference levels expressed

in impulse crest voltage with a standard wave not longer than Apparatus insulation as demon1 x X 40 microsecond wave. strated by suitable tests shall be equal to or greater than the
basic insulation level.

This requires that apparatus conforming to these levels shall have a withstand test value not less than the kv magnitude given in the second column of Table 1. It was also understood that apparatus conforming to these requirements should be capable of withstanding the specified voltage whether the impulse is positive or negative in polarity. Atmospheric conditions at time of test should be taken into consideration. The values in Table 1, column 2 were selected initially as the standard basic impulse insulation levels (BILs) to be applied regardless of -how the system was grounded. Systems ungrounded or grounded so as to allow full displacement of the neutral during line-to-ground faults require lightning arresters based on the full line-to-line voltage of the system. If the system is grounded solidly or so as to limit the line-to-ground voltage during ground faults (X,/X, 5 3) the so called 80-percent arrester can and has been used. Thus in some of the voltage classes of 115 kv and above a number of systems have used, with solid grounding, equipment having insulation with BILs one class lower, as shown in Table 1, column 3. On some solidly-grounded systems where the ratio Xo/Xt is equal to about one or less, the one class lower BIL has

612

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter 18

been used with 75 percent arresters with satisfactory expe rience. As a result of this experience, better overall understanding of the problem, and the economy of reducing BIL in the higher voltage classes, particularly on transformers, the Joint AIEE-EEI-NEMA Committee on Insulation Coordination is studying the possibility of reducing the BIL figures (for X0/X1 5 1.0) to lower values than those shown in Table 1, column 3. Another reason for giving serious consideration to reducing the BIL for solidly-grounded systems is that there are many old transformers in service with insulation levels below that given in Table 1, column 3 which have given twenty or more years of service without failure. Thus, since the first group of BILs was adopted in 1941, the manner in which the system is grounded has been brought into the picture with the result that lower BIL equipment can be protected, thereby enabling systems to be built to do the same job at less cost.

TIME-MICROSECONDS Fig. 2-Coordination of transformer insulation characteristic. with arrester

1. Selection of Basic Impulse Insulation

Level

Curve A-lO%kv station-type SV arrester-maximum voltage for 5000-ampere 10 x 20 current wave. Curve B-Transformer insulation withstand characteristic.

The basic impulse insulation level should be selected which can be protected with a suitable lightning protective device. The best protection is provided by modern type lightning arresters. The spread or margin between the BIL and t)he protective device, allowing for manufacturing tolerances, is an economic consideration that must balance the chances of insulation failure against the cost of greater insulation strength. When using lightning arresters the economic factor may be one of greater risk to the arrester than to the equipment insulation. The arrester can be applied so that it will protect the insulation but may under certain extreme conditions, usually unlikely, be subjected to sustained rms overvoltages against which it cannot recover. Practice has been to apply arresters so that they have an rms voltage rating of at least five percent above the maximum possible rms line-to-neutral voltage under any normal or expected fault condition. The BIL of the equipment insulation must therefore be higher than the maximum expected surge voltage across the selected arrester. To illustrate one method for selecting the BIL of a transformer to be operated on a 13%kv system, assume the transformer is of large capacity and wye connected on the 13%kv side. The transformer is solidly grounded and the impedance ratios at the transformer terminals are such that X0/X1 = 2.0; &/XI = 1.0, RI/X1 = 0.1, R1 = Rz and Xl =X2. For these conditions the maximum voltage to ground at the transformer terminals during any type of system fault for any fault resistance is 74 percent of normal phase-to-phase voltage as obtained from Fig. 29 (b). Allowing five percent for system overvoltage, the arrester rms voltage rating should be (1.05) (74) or 77.7 percent which is (77.7)(138) or 107.2 kv. Thus an arrester of 109 kv, which is the closest standard rating, would be required. Curve A in Fig. 2 is the characteristic of a 109-kv station valve-type arrester for an assumed 10x20 microsecond wave of 5000 amperes and a plus tolerance of 15 percent on the average impulse sparkover and a plus tolerance of 10 percent above the average drop across the arrester. Assuming a 15 percent margin plus 35 kv between the 400 kv and the required BIL of the transformer insu-

lation gives 495 kv. Since this value is under the standard of 550 kv, this value can be applied as shown on Curve B of Fig. 2. Based on the recommended application values for voltage drop across the 109-kv arrester for a 5000ampere surge 388 kv instead of 400 kv can be used, which gives additional margin of protection in 95 percent of the cases. Direct lightning strokes in general have a high rate of voltage rise (1000 to 10 000 kv per microsecond) and high current values (5000 to 200 000 amperes). Such strokes may occur at any point on exposed structures whether they are lines or stations. The severity of the surges on station insulation and protective devices largely depends on whether or not adequate shield wires are placed above the structures to intercept the lightning and conduct it to ground. Without overhead ground wires at stations, direct strokes may damage protective devices, thus leaving equipment insulation without adequate protection. Surges that originats as direct strokes on the line and propagate into a station are by far the most common, but are generally easily by-passed to ground by the lightning-protective device. Overhead ground wires above open-wire circuits reduce the number of strokes that reach the phase conductors as discussed in Chapter 17. The nature of lightning strokes and the propagation of surges are explained in detail in Chaps. 15 and 16. The characteristics of traveling surges at the station depend upon the nature of the direct stroke as it originates on the phase conductors, the distance between origin and station, the insulation and electrical characteristics of the line, and the capacitance of the equipment in the station. The surge is attenuated as it travels by corona loss and skin effect, and is distorted by reflection at the station. The capacitance of the station equipment charged through the inductance of the line from the point where the surge originates to the station has the effect of sloping off the front of the surge wave. The magnitude of the surge voltage that can be impressed on electrical equipment is not determined by the system operating voltage so there is some argument against

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination

613

associating impulse levels directly with operating voltages. However, low-voltage lines are not as highly insulated as higher voltage lines so that lightning surges coming into the station would normally be much less than in a higher voltage station because the high-voltage surges will flash over the line insulation and not reach the station. Also, the lower operating voltage permits the use of protective devices with lower discharge characteristics. The insulation necessary for high operating voltages inherently provides high impulse strength. The impulse levels shown in Table 1, therefore, can be obtained with the corresponding operating voltage class without exceeding reasonable design proportions.

III.

SURGE TESTING

The determination of the impulse strength of the various insulations is generally done by an adaptation of the surge generator devised by Dr. Emil Marx in Germany. It consists essentially of a group of condensers, spark gaps, and resistors so connected that the condensers are charged in parallel from a relatively low-voltage source and discharged in series to give a high voltage across the test piece. The only oscillograph available until quite recently for measuring waves of as short duration as lightning surges was the cathode-ray oscillograph devised by Dufour. This oscillograph was improved by Norinder through the addition of a simple cathode-ray beam control, and today this oscillograph is widely used in this country and others. In

the Norinder device, the wave shape is recorded on the film in its entirety. A typical diagram of impulse-testing equipment is shown in Fig. 3. The capacitors, usually rated 100 kv each, making up the surge generator are charged in parallel through resistors. When the charge on each condenser reaches the predetermined breakdown voltage of the sphere gaps separating the condensers, the sphere gaps flash over thereby connecting all the condensers in series. One terminal of the capacitor bank is normally grounded. The other terminal must be insulated from ground to withstand the full magnitude of the discharge voltage. A voltage impulse of either positive or negative polarity can be obtained by connecting the charging circuit to give the desired polarity. The potential divider shown supplies a reduced voltage to the oscillograph proportional to the test voltage. The shape of the impulse wave applied to the test specimen is determined by the constants (resistance, inductance, and capacitance) of the discharge circuit, some of which are inherent in the capacitors and leads and some of which are added externally. A typical laboratory installation of impulse-testing equipment is shown in Fig. 4.

2. Wave Shape
It became evident in the early stages of surge testing that it would be necessary to standardize on test wave forms in order to establish insulation levels on a common basis. The accepted designation of defining the impulse

h Test ) Specimen $e;Teyta f ic PO/en tial

Nainl Control Panel and hducrlion Regulalon

' ' L-*'Synchronizing Tf ans former

wsn duuons

, . I,,,*

Cahfe Ray Oscilloqfaph

lfi9b frequency OsciUatof

Fig. a--Typical

diagram

of impulse

teeting equipment.

614

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter 18

However, the 1+X40 microsecond wave, either positive or negative, has now been accepted as standard because it simulates the more severe full wave lightning surges and because it can be obtained readily with the surge generator. The effect of lightning surges of shorter duration can be simulated with this wave by chopping at short times.

3. Volt-Time

Curve

4--Typical

impulse inghouse

laboratory. Sharon Works Electric Corpora don.

West-

wave shape is to give the time in microseconds for the impulse to reach crest followed by the time in microseconds for the wave to reach half magnitude. Fig. 5 (a)4. For practical reasons a virtual zero time point is established at O1 and determined by a line drawn through the 0.3E and 0.9E points in the wave front. For example, a 13 X40 microsecond wave would have an Olzl value of 13 microseconds and an 01z4 value of 40 microseconds. In transformer testing where the time to crest is not easily determined, it is taken as two times the interval between the 0.3E and 0.9E points on the wave front, that is 2~~x3. The 1 X5 and 1 X 10 microsecond waves, and other wave shapes, have been used occasionally in testing insulation.

The breakdown voltage of insulation or the flashover voltage of a gap, particularly the latter, will vary with the length of time voltage is applied. The so-called volttime curve is a graph of crest flashover voltages plotted against time to flashover for a series of impulse applications of a given wave shape. The construction of the volt-time curve and the terminology associated with impulse testing are shown in Fig. 5 (b)4. The critical or minimum flashover voltage is t>hecrest voltage of thewave that will just cause flashover on the tail of the wave, that is, it will cause flashover for 50 percent of the applications, and for the other 50 percent of the applications there will be a full wave (no flashover). The figure also shows the relation of the critical withstand voltage. To obtain the magnitude of the voltage, the applied voltage is reduced to just below the disruptive discharge of the test specimen. The rated withstand voltage is the crest value of the impulse wave that the apparatus will stand without disruptive discharge.

4. Effect of Atmospheric

Conditions

The flashover characteristics of insulation in air varies with atmospheric conditions. In general, flashover voltages vary inversely with temperature, directly with bar+ metric pressure, and directly with absolute humidity. Test data obtained under various actual weather conditions are usually corrected to the American standard conditions which are: Temperature, 77F. Barometric pressure, 29.92 inches of mercury Humidity, 0.6085 inches of mercury
FRONT FLASHOVER WAVE FRONT FLASHOVER RANGE

VOLTAGE CREST FLASHOVER

CRITICAL CRITICAL RATED

FLASHOVER WITHSTAND WITHSTANO

--z-v WAVE PLTAQE TAIL FLASHOVER RANGE

n CRITICAL 50% FLASHOVER OF APPLICATIONS

TIME OF CREST TIME OF CRITICAL FLASHOVER TIME RANGE WAVE FRONT FLASHOVER TIME RANGE IMPULSEFLASHOVER

I.--

-TIME

RANGE TIME IN

WAVE

TAIL

FLASHOVER

--y-NO

MICROSECONDS

(a) Fig. 5-Wave (a) illustrating the terminology shape.

(b) (b) Series of impulse waves and definitions associated with impulse voltage testing.

An impulsetesting wave illustrating methods of designating significant characteristics of the wave.

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination

615

ROD OAPS

susP.lNs.
PIN INS. *PP. INS

I)
A B B

c
0 0

0
L t

I6
14 I9

0 SPACING-INCHES

(a) Fig. 7-Impulse Long spacings

SPACING-INCHES (b)

flashover characteristics of standard rod gaps. for 11/z 40 wave at 77F., 30-inch barometric x and 0.6085-inch vapor pressure.

(a) Positive waves. (b) Negative waves.

NINES

OF NfRcuRI-VAPOR

PRESSUM

Fig. 6-Humidity gaps, insulators

correction factors for flashover voltages of and bushings, based on data from several laboratories.

The AIEE-EEI-NEMA Subcommittee on Correlation of Laboratory Data have published a paper giving a summary of recommended standard definitions and methods applying to high-voltage testing4. These recommendations are now generally followed by the industry.

Temperature and barometric pressure are usually combined into a single factor known as relative air density according to the following relation which is unity for standard atmospheric conditions: Relative Air Density = 17.95 XBar. Pressure (inches) 460+Temp. F.

5. Flashover sulators

Characteristics

of Rod Gaps and In-

Because of laboratory differences in test results on apparatus insulation in the early days of impulse testing, the rod gap was selected as a yard stick of insulation strength. Because different types of gaps gave different results, a

The chart shown in Fig. 64 has been accepted, based on an accumulation of test data, as giving correction factors for humidity conditions. The measured test voltage is then corrected by dividing by the relative air density defined above and multiplying by the humidity factor obtained from these curves.
TABLE Z-TENTATIVE AIEE STANDARD ON INSULATION TESTS FOR INDOORAIRSWITCHES,INSULATORUNITSAND Bus SUPPORTS
Withstand Voltage-Kv Impulse 1.5~40 Full Wave (Pas. or Neg. Dry) 45 60 75 95 110 150 200
apparatus on which the 36-95 test

Voltage Rating 2.5 50 7.5 15 L* 15 H 23 34.5


*The 15 L rating is intended level is specified.

Low Freq. 1 Min. Dry 15 19 26 36 50 60 80


to match other

2 SPACING-INCHES (0)

CDAIYINC-IN~HFC (b)

IO

12

Fig. %--Impulse flashover characteristic8 of standard rod gaps. Short spacings for 11/2 40 wave at 77F., 30-inch barometric x and 0.6085-inch vapor pressure. (a) Positive waves. (b) Negative waves.

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination

617

5;400 : b300 2 z

5 200
0 I

I I
II

PQSITIVE

2345678 MICROSECONDS

0 TO FLASHOVER (a)

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 MICROSECONDS TO FLASHOVER (b)

2 3 4 5 6 8 9 IO 7 MlCROSECOhJOS TO FLASHOVER

12

(cl

600

i 500.

\lc

I.L,VOI . L c II 12

MICROSECONDS

TO FLASHOVER (d)

2oooI 1 I 234567 MICROSECONDS

3ooo TO FLASHOVER (e)

I 1 POSITIVE I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO MICROSECONDS TO FLASHOVER -2, (f)

Fig. 13-Impulse

flashover characteristics

of particular types of apparatus insulators at standard air conditions. (c) 23 kv class. (cl) 34.5 kv class.
(e)

on positive and negative 1% x 40 waves

(a) 7.5 kv class. (b) 15 kv class.

(f)

46 kv class. 69 kv class.

so t,hat information on its flashover characteristics is useful. Suspension and apparatus insulators play an important part in the coordination of station equipment, not only in establishing the insulation level but also in determining the magnitude of surges entering the station. Suspension insulators are generally made up of at least three teninch units in a string, spaced 52 inches apart. Apparatus insulators can be either the pedestal type or the so-called post type. A complete r&urn6 of impulse and GO-cycle flashover characteristics of rod gaps and insulators was published by P. H. McAuley6. For convenience some of these data are reproduced in Figs. 7 to 17. Figure 9 is of particular interest in that it shows the effect of mounting and atmospheric conditions on the flashover characteristics of rod gaps. The voltage distribution across strings of standard sus900 t- 800 2 E 700 I ? 600 6 5 500 Y 4oo0 1 ( 2 4 6 0 IO I2 I4 t POSITIVF I6 I8 I 20

pension insulators of various lengths is given in Fig. 18. The data for 10 to 18 insulators were obtained by laboratory tests by Sorensen2526. Table 2 gives data from a Tentative AIEE standard on the GO-cycle and impulse withstand characteristic for indoor air switches, insulator units and bus supports. Table 3 gives similar data for corresponding outdoor insulation.

2 (0)

4 UNITS W

22

MICROSECONDS

TO FLASHOVER

Fig. 15-Impulse units, apparatus

Fig. 14-Im pu 1 se flashover characteristics for 88 kv class, 3-unit column for positive and negative lr/$, x 40 waves at standard air conditions.

flashover characteristics of two to seven insulators, for 11/2 40 waves at standard x air conditions.

(a) Positive waves. (b) Negative waves.

618
320

Insulation

Coordination
900116 1

Chapter 18
I

280

S;700 is v I p 500 6 z i 300 Y ._6 8 IO . 100 0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 I4 I( MICROSECONDS TO FLASHOVER (cl ooorT2 4

240

200

160, MICROSECONDS TO FLASHOVER (a)

MICROSECONDS

TO FLASHOVER (b)

-7-1

i
2 4 MICROSECONDS 320 \ 6 TO FLASHOVER *O 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 6 8 IO I2 I4 MICROSECONDS TO FLASHOVER I

MICROSECONDS 1000

TO FLASHOVER

(d)

(e)

5; 900
ii 0
i700 0 zi -J 500 Y
I I , , 1 POSITIVE 1 I

200

2 4 6 8 MICROSECONDS

IO 12 I4 16 TO FLASHOVER (a)

I8 MICROSECONDS TO FLASHOVER (h)

300

1 I 2 4 6 8 IO I2 I4 MICROSECONDS TO FLASHOVEI (i)

Fig. 16-Impulse

flashover characteristics

of particular sizes of pin type insulators standard air conditions.

for positive and negative 1*/2 40 waves at x

Since the voltage-time curves for various types of insulators are not available from the standards, the curves in Figs. 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 are given even though some

of the insulators shown do not meet the required impulse withstand voltage.

6. Impulse lation

Characteristics

of Transformer

Insu-

t i i ,i i I
2 4

6 8 I( > 2001 0 2 4 6 MICROSECONDS TO FLASHOVER

IO

I2

I4

I6

Fig. 17-Impulse flashover characteristics of line-post insulators for positive and negative 11/z 40 waves at standard air x conditions.

Because a power transformer is usually the most expensive equipment in a station and because its failure may mean a lengthy and costly outage, it is investigated most critically from an insulation standpoint. The impulse level of a transformer can be determined by the breakdown voltage of the major internal insulation (insulation to ground), the breakdown voltage of the minor insulation (insulation between turns and windings), and the flashover voltage of the bushings, or a combination of these. The impulse characteristic of the internal insu-. lation in a transformer differs from flashover in air in two main respects. First of all, the impulse ratio (the ratio of minimum breakdown on impulse to breakdown on 60-

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination

619

PERCENT
INSULATOR NUMBER

WINDING

Fig. 20-Effect of wave front on initial voltage distribution some types of transformer windings.

in

Fig. l&--Power-frequency voltage across each unit in an insulator string starting with insulator No. 1 on the grounded end of the string. Insulator No. 5 in a string of 10 has 7 percent of the total string voltage. (Without grading rings except where noted.)

cycle peak) is higher, being from 2.1 to 2.2 for transformer insulation, whereas, it is 1.5 or less for rod gaps, insulators, bushings, etc. Secondly, the impulse breakdown of transformer insulation does not vary as much with time as seen from a typical volt-time curve, shown in Fig. 19. After three microseconds the breakdown voltage is substantially constant. The insulation stress between turns or between coils in a transformer is dependent largely upon the steepness of the surge wave front. It may be further aggravated by oscillations within the transformer or by a piling up of the surge voltage in a small portion of the winding. (See Fig. 207.) Modern transformers are designed, however, so
180 170 160

that the minor insulation meets all the requirements of applied impulse tests. To demonstrate this, modern transformers usually must be capable of passing a chopped wave test of a higher voltage crest than the full wave test. This chopped wave is produced by Aashover of a gap or bushing in parallel with the transformer insulation. The standard impulse tests for transformers, regulators, and reactors for the different voltage classifications as standardized by the American Standards Association C 57 are as follows: Standard impulse tests consist of two applications of a chopped wave followed by one application of a full wave. Either positive or negative waves may be used. (a) Chopped-Wave Test (1) For this best, the applied voltage wave shall have a crest voltage and time to flashover in accordance with Table 4. (2) The chopped wave shall be obtained by flashover of a suitable air gap.

l\E i i i i 1 .

t i i i i i ~
MICROSECONDS

Fig. 19-Volt-time

curve of typical major insulation formers.

in trans-

Fig. 21-Typical volt-time curve of transformer winding and bushing (heavy solid line represents the overall volt-time curve of transformer, to be used when protecting against lightning surges).

620
TABLE ~-STANDARD

Insulation
IMPULSE TESTS FOR TRANSFORMERS,REGULATORS, AND REACTORS Impulse Tests

Coordination

Chapter 18

TABLE ~-STANDARD WITHSTAND TEST VOLTAGES FOR APPARATUS BUSHINGS

lGl-Type Transformers 500 Kva or Less-Oil-Type Instrument TransformersOil-Type Constant-Current Transformers-Step and Induction Voltage Regulators 250 Kva or Less Single-Phase and 750 Kva or Less Three-Phase

(Xl-Type Transformers over


500 Kva - Oil-Type Regulating Transformers Oil-Type Current Limiting Reactors-Step and Induction Voltage Regulators Over 250 Kva Single-Phase and Over 750 Kva Three-Phase
I--

Low Frequency Test RMS Kv (2)

Insulation Classificat ion (1) KV Outdoor Bushings

Impulse Test 1.5~40 MicroEsecond Full Wave Crest Kv (2, 4)

--

--

InLarge Apparatus (5) Small Apparatus


(loor

Outdoor Bushings

Insulation ClassKv

(6)
-

Chopped Wave

Min Time 1 Flash;o KV over in Crest Microseconds - 36 1.0 1 25 54 1.5 69 16 88 110 1.8 175 230 290 400 520 630 750 865 1035 1210 1500 1785 30 30 30 3.0 30 30 3.0 30 30 30 30 3.0

Full Wave - --

Chopped

Wave Min Time to Flashover in Microseconds 1.5 1.5 1.6 18 20 3.0 30 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 30 3.0 3.0 30 3.0 3.0

Full Wave

Min Dry

0 Set 3 Min 1 0 Set 1 Wet Wet Dry -

(7) I 3ush ings Mil Y3) Dry

Inloor (7) 3ushings

)arge (5) APjaratus

jmall

6)
APparatus 30 45 60 75 95 150 200 250 350 450 550 650 750 900 1050 1300 1550

Kv Crest

Kv Crest

Kv Crest

-1.2 2.5 50 8 66 15 25.0 34.5 46.0 69.0 92 115 138 161 196 230 287 345

--

30 45 60 75 95 150 200 250 350 450 550 650 750 900 1050 1300 1550

-54 69 88 110 130 175 230 290 400 520 630 750 865 1035 1210 1500 1785

45 60 75 95 110 150 200 250 350 450 550 650 750 900 1050 1300 1550
(1)

1.2 25 5.0 8.7 15 23 34.5 46 69 92 115 138 161 196 230 287 5 345

ii
27 35 50 70 95 120 175 225 280 335 385 465 545 680 810

ifi 24 30 45 60 80 100 145 190 230 275 315 385 445 555 665

10 15 21 27 35 70 95 120 175 225 280 335 385 465 545 680 810

6 13 20 24 30 60 80 100 145 190 230 275 315 385 445 555 665

.
45 60 75 10(S) 150 200 ... ... ... ... . ... ... ... :.. ... ...

ifi 24 30 50 (8 60 80 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

60 75 95 110 150 200 250 350 450 550 650 750 900 1050 1300 1550

(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Full-Wave Test For this test, the applied voltage wave shall have a crest value in accordance with Table 4. (c) Excitation During Impulse During the impulse test if the transformer is excited at normal voltage and frequency, the impulse shall be timed within 30 electrical degrees of the crest of the normal frequency voltage of opposite polarity. The test values for the different voltage classifications are shown in Table 4. Since the bushing represents a vital portion of the transformer insulation, its impulse flashover must be carefully considered in establishing the transformer insulation levels. The standard withstand voltage tests for apparatus bushings as given in ASA C 76 Standard 1943 are listed in Table 5.

(b)

(7)

Bushings of a given insulation classification are in general recommended for apnaratus having a rating UD to and including the insulation classification of the bushing and may be used for apparatus of a higher voltage rating when adequate for the particular application. All values are withstand test values without negative tolerance. Wet test values are not assigned to indoor bushings. Either positive or negative waves may be used-whichever gives the lower value. Bushings for use in large apparatus are those intended for use in transformers rated above 500 kva, outdoor circuit breakers, and other apparatus of corre.. sponcimg Importance. Bushings for use in small apparatus are those intended for use in transformers rated 500 kva and less and other apparatus of corresponding importance. Bushings for use in indoor apparatus are those- intend$d lor use in indoor type circuit breakers, instrument transformers, and other indoor apparatus except dry-type instrument transformers, air-cooled transformers, air-cooled regulators, and bushings used primarily for mechanical protection of insulated cable kt%ngs quency for small indoor apparatus test of 38 kv and an impulse may be supplied test of 95 kv. to withstand a low fre-

(8)

The volt-time characteristics of the bushings on a transformer differ from the volt-time characteristics of the transformer internal insulation. In general, the bushing will have a higher flashover at short time lags than the transformer internal insulation. At long time lags its flashover may be slightly more or slightly less than the winding breakdown. The impulse strength of the winding is essentially the same for positive or negative waves; whereas the bushing critical flashover may be higher for one polarity than for the other. The manufacturer takes the overall impulse characteristics of a transformer into account when

Chapter

18

Insulatio: n Coordination

621

Fig. 22--Power transformer undergoing impulse test. generator is in building in background.

Surge

rod gap, the protector tube, and the conventional valvetype lightning arrester. Rod Gap-Although the rod gap has the advantage of being extremely simple and rugged, it has two important disadvant,ages from a protective standpoint. First, it does not fulfill one of the requirements of a true protective device in that it \vill not valve off power voltage after it has once been fl;tshetl o\-cr by a surge. The circuit must be deenergizeti tc I clear the flashover arc each time the gap operat tbs. Sec*ond, its breakdown voltage rises more at short time lags than most insulation, Tvhich means that a rclativelyr short gap is required to provide protection against, surges leaving steep wave fronts. It ~vould thus have a low flashover at long t imo lags that would result in numerous flasl~ovt~rs \vith consequent outages resulting from minor lightning surges or severe s\vitching surges. The rod gap is, t l~crcforc, gtnerally used only for back-up protection or on circuits \vhcrc the outages with short gaps can 1~1 tJolcratecl or compcnsatcd for by high-speed reclosing of the clrcllit energizing breaker. Modifications of t)hc rod gap, such as the fused gap and The fuse gap control gap, havrb been used occasionally. is simply a rod g:~p \vith a fuse in series with it to interrupt the powc~~ Iollow current caused by the flashover. It, therefore, h:~,s the same surge protective characteristic

giving its withstand voltage characteristic. A transformer undergoing an impulse test is illustrated in Fig. 22.

7. Impulse Characteristics ratus

of Other Station Appa-

In addition to power transformers, the outdoor station generally Las instrument transformers, circuit breakers, disconnect switches, and bus insulators exposed to lightning surges. Some stations lvill also inclrlde reactors and regulating equipment. All of this equipment now meets the l)asic iml)ulse insulation levels listed in Table 1. The standard lvithstand impulse tests for instrument transformers, regulators, and reactors are shown in Table 3, rcferretl to above for transformers. The withstand impulse tests for outdoor circuit breakers, disconnect switches, anal bus insulators are the same as those listed in 1al)le 5 for outdoor bushings.

IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES


The purpose of a protective device is to limit the surge voltage that, rnay be applied to the apparatus it protects anal by-pass the srirgc to ground. It must, \vithstand continuously t hchrated pan-cr voltage for Tvhich it is designed. The rat io of the maximum surge voltage it \\.illpermit on discllarge to the maximum crest po\ver voltage it will wit,hst and follon-ing discharge, called the protective ratio, is, thrrcfore, a mcnsure of its protective ability. Of great importanc*tt also is its ability to discharge severe surge currents, citlrer of high magnitude or long duration, without injury. There are three general types of lightning-protective devices, each ha\,ing its field of application; namely, the
~34.5 KV-

I loo\1 I : I
0 Q II. I 4 / 6

23KV

, I 1 1 I
8 IO 12

I
13.8 KV -

14

16

18

MICROSECONDS

Fig.

23-Impulse characteristics of transmission type protector tubes for qrounded-neutral circuits.

622

Insulation
TABLE ~--INDUSTRY PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTION EXPULSION-TYPE LIGHTNING ARRESTERS

Coordination

Chapter 18

Front of Wave Impulse Sparkover Rated Voltage of KV** Arrester Rate of Rise* Kv Kv per -- --~ Microsec. hIin hvg -~ 23 33 25 3 32 50 6 50 48 71 75 9 84 63 12 100 77 / 191 125 15

Max 45 70 97 94 114

Average Critical Impulse Sparkover 1 5x40 Microsec. Wave Kv** 29 41 53 61 70

*lOO kv per microsecond per 12 kv of :trrwtc~r rating. **Impulse of polarity giving hi&r sparhover voltage.

as the plain rod gap and, although it prevents a circuit outage upon flashover, it requires the replacement and maintenance of fuses. Also, to be effective it requires proper coordination between the fuse blowing time and adjacent relay timing. The control gapg, consisting of a double gap arrangement to approach a sphere gap characteristic, has a somewhat better volt-time characteristic than the rod gap. It can be used with or without fuses, and although it is applicable for back-up or secondary protection, it is usually considered in the same class as the rod gaps, as far as major protection is concerned. Protector Tube-The transmission type protector tube has a volt-time characttlristic, Fig. 23, somewhat better than the rod gap and has the ability to interrupt power voltage after flashover. It is, therefore, used extensively to prevent flashover of transmission line insulators, disCONNECTOR LINE WATER-TIGHT JOINT FOR

CONDUCTOR

SERIES WET PORCELAIN PROCESS HOUSING __I MAKING GAP

GAPS UP

ELEMENT

SOLDER-SEALED (METAL WET LAIN TO PROCESS TUBE

----PORCE-

PORCELAIN)

POROUS MAKING VALVE

BLOCKS UP ELEMENT

evfl*

Fig. 25-l Typical

oscillograms lightning

of current arresters.

discharge

tests in

(4 Standard 10x20
FOUNDATION BASE /

GROUND CONNECTION NOT VISIBLE

TERMINAL (IN ) BACK

Fig. W---Sectional

view of station-type

lightning

arrester.

microsecond current surge applied to 12 kv station type arwster. (b) Arrester voltage during discharge of current surge shown in (a). cc> Current and voltage of 3 kv station type arrester discharging a 5X 10 microsecond current surge having a crest in excess of 100 000 amperes.

Chapter 18
TABLE ~-PERFORMANCE

Insulation

Coordination
LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
on 10x 20 hlicrosccond 10,000 Ampcrcs Current Wave** 20,000 Amperes

623

CHARACTERISTICS OF VALVE-TYPE

Arrester Type and Rated Voltage-Kv

Front of Wave Impulse Sparkover

Discharge

Voltage-Kv

5,000 Amperes

Rate of Rise* Kv per P sec.

Kv**
Avg.

Max.

Avg.

Max.

Avg.

Max.

Avg.

Max.

Distribution 3 6 9 12 15 Lins 20 25 30 37 40 50 60 73 Station 3 6 9 12 15 20 25 30 37 40 50 60 73 97 109 121 145 169 196 242

25 50 75

100 125

18 34 48 61 73

23 45 62 77 91

23 45 62 77 91

14 26 39 49 61

17
34 51 62 77

17 34 51 62 77

16 30 44 55 69

20 38 57 69 87

20 38 57 69 87

18 34 51 62 79

23 44 66 78 99

23 44 66 78 99

167
208 250 308 333 417 500 608

75 93 110 136 147 183 220 267

90

111 132 163 176


220 264 320

85 105 125 154 167 208 250 302

83

101 121 149 161


202 242 297

96 116 139 172 185 232 278 342

91

92

111 133 164


177 225 267 328

111 135 164 177


222 271 328

106 128 155 189 204 255 312 378

102 122 149 181 195 245 300 361

101 121 149 181 196


243 298 360

116 139 172 208 225 280 344 414

111 133 164 199 216


268 328 396

25 50 75

100 125 167


208 250 308 333 417 500 608 808 908 1008 1208 1408 1633 2017

13 23 35 43 53 72 89 106 131 136 178 214 261 345 388 430 515 602 691 860

15 26 39 50 61 83 102 122 151 157 205 246 300 397 446 495 592 693 796 988

15 26 39 48 59 80 98 117 144 150 196 236 288 380 427 474 566 663 760 945

10
20 30 40 50 67 83

11
22 33 44 55 74 92

11
22 32 43 54 72 89 107 133 143 179 214 262 325 388 430 520 605 691 860

11 22 33 44 54 72 90 108 132 144 179 217 262 349 394 438 523 610 698 872

13 25 37 48 60 80 99 119 146 159 197 239 288 384 434 482 575 672 768 960

12 23 35 47 58 77 96 115

12 24 35 47 59 78

14 27 39 52 65 86

13 26 38 51 63 84 107 126 155 164 205 250 303 403 453 502 602 702 803 1004
the

100 124 134 167


200 245 323 363 403 487 566 647 806

110 137 148 184


220 270 356 400 444 536 624 713 887

141 154 191


231 279 372 420 467 558 650 744 931

100 118 145 153 191


234 283 377 424 470 564 658 755 940

110 130 160 169 211


258 313 415 467 517 622 725 832 1035

*lOO kv per microsecond per 12 kv of arrester rating. **Impulse of polarity giving higher sparkover voltage.

t9.57, of the arrrsters value in this column.

manufartured \\ill have For distribution arresters

charartcaristirs not use the maximum

exceeding values.

connect switches, and bus insulators. It is also used on transmission-line towers adjacent to a station to reduce the magnitude of surges coming in on the line and t,hus relieve the duty on the station arresters. The tube is not at the present time considered adequate protection for transformer insulation, except for distribution type ratings 15 kv and below. Its application on circuits above 15 kv requires certain limitations in system short-circuit currents and recovery voltage rates. The protector-tube principle is used extensively for expulsion type arresters in the distribution classifications

15 kv and below. Industry performance characteristics of distribution expulsion-type lightning arresters are given in Table 6. Valve-Type Arresters-The conventional valvetype lightning arrester, a typical example of which is shown in Fig. 24, provides the highest degree of protection of all protective devices. Its essentially flat volt-time characteristic makes it ideally suited for the protection of transformer insulation in the higher voltage classes where the margin between operating voltage and surge strength is relatively low. If properly applied, its discharge voltage

624

Insulation
TABLE ~-INSULATION TESTS FOR LIGHTNING ARRESTERS (Withstand Test Voltages)

Coordination

Chapter 18

Station-type ArrestersE Arsestei voltage Rating Kv (1) 1 Min Dry 2.5 5 8.7 15 23 34.5 46 69 92 115 138 161 196 230
(1)

Insulation Classification Kv

All ratings Line and Distributiontype Arresters rated 20 Kv and above 60-Cycle rest Voltage Rms Kv (2)

/ 1 Line and Distributiontype Arresters rated below 20 Kv

Impulse Impulse 60-Cycle Test rest Voltage Test 1.5x40 /La Rms Kv (2) 1.5x40 j&3 Full Wave Full Wave Crest Kv 1 Min LO Set Crest Kv 10 Set (2, 3) (2, 3) Wet Wet Dry 20 24 30 45 60 80 100 145 190 230 275 315 385 445 60 75 95 110 150 200 250 350 450 550 650 750 900 1050 15 21 27 35 13 20 24 30 .. .. .. .. .* .. .. .. .. 45 60 75 95 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

3 6 9 15 25 37 50 73 97 121 145 169 196 242

21 27 35 50 70 95 120 175 225 280 335 385 465 545

second test wave. In addition, they are given an insulation test in accordance with Table 8, which is from ASA C 62 Standard dated April 1944. The valve-type lightning arrester is usually made up of two elements, a gap element capable of withstanding power voltage and a valve element capable of suppressing the current following the discharge of the surge. The breakdown of the gap, which is affected somewhat by the rate of voltage rise, determines the initial discharge voltage of the arrester. The voltage drop across the valve element, which depends upon the rate of rise and magnitude of surge current discharged determines the arrester voltage during discharge. Typical oscillograms of arrester current discharge tests are shown in Fig. 25. The protective ratio of a modern lightning arrester is substantially constant through its range of voltage ratings which means that the gap break-down voltage and the maximum surge discharge voltage for a given surge condition are approximately proportional to the voltage rating of the arrester. The curves of Fig. 26 show how the gap breakdown varies with rate of voltage rise, and the curves of Fig. 27 show how the discharge voltage varies with the magnitude and rate of rise of surge current for typical line type and station type arresters. From these curves, expressing the gap breakdown and discharge voltage, each in terms of kv per kv of arrester rating, it is possible to determine readily the protective characteristics of any rating arrester for an expected surge condition.

2) 3)

Where application is to be made of an arrester having a lower voltage rating than the rated voltage of the circuit on which it is to be used such as on grounded neutral circuits, the insulation test shall be that specified for the insulation class one step lower than the rated circuit voltage. All values are withstand test voltages without negative tolerance. Either positive or negative polarity waves may be used-whichever gives the lower value.

remains below the breakdown strength of the transformer insulation, even at short time lags. Experience with actual lightning discharges and laboratory tests have demonstrated the ability of the modern lightning arrester to discharge surges commensurate with direct strokes of lightning. Lightning arresters for a-c power circuits are rated according to the maximum line-to-ground circuit voltage they will withstand. There are three classes available; namely, the station type with voltage ratings ranging from 3 to 242 kv, the line type, for 20 to 73 kv, and distribution type, 3 to 15kv. The characteristics of these arresters are given in Table 7. Station-type arresters, as distinguished by their heavier construction, better protective characteristics, and higher discharge-current capacity are used for the protection of substation and power transformers. Line-type arresters are used for the protection of distribution transformers, small power transformers, and sometimes small substations. Distribution type arresters are intended primarily for pole mounting in distribution circuits for the protection of distribution transformers up to and including the 15.0-kv classification. Modern station-type arresters are designed to discharge not less than 100 000 amperes; line and distribution types not less than 65 000 amperes, each with a 5X 10 micro-

0~~ 0 I
W. 26-Average

MICROSECONDS

impulse gap breakdown type arresters.

of station-

and lineper kv of per kv of per kv of

(a) Represents rate of rise of 5 kv per microsecond


arrester rating. (b) Represents rate of rise of 10 kv per microsecond arrester rating. (c) Represents rate of rise of 20 kv per microsecond arrester rating.

Chapter

18

Insulation

Coordination

625

ICURVE
e

xp/x,
I

I 0 MAXIMUM

I 0

*0

gi 2 0.90 z 25

mm-* VALUE

I GIVING

VOLTAGE

o~8~,oo

-80

-60
X04

-40

-20

Fig. 28-Maximum line-to-ground voltage at fault for isolated-neutral systems during fault.

location

W 22

Values shown are maximum values for single line-to-ground fault. For double line-to-ground fault the voltages are less for ratios of Xo/XI between - co and -2. X0 = zero-sequence capacitive reactance and X1 = positive-sequence subtransient reactance.

SURGE

CURRENT W

IN AMPERES

Fig. 27-Average discharge voltage characteristics of typical lightning arresters. (Numbers on curves represent rate of rise of current in amperes per microsecond.) (a) Line type. (b)

Station type.

For example, suppose it is desired to determine the gap breakdown voltage and maximum discharge voltage of a 73 kv, station-type arrester for a surge wave front rising at a rate of 500 kv per microsecond, and a discharge current of 2000 amperes with a maximum rate of rise of 2500 amperes per microsecond. A voltage rise of 500 kv per microsecond with a 73 kv arrester, represents a voltage rise of :;=6.85 k v per microsecond per kv of arrester rating.

From Fig. 26, the gap breakdown voltage would be 3.6 X 73 = 263 kv, at 0.5 microseconds. The maximum discharge voltage from Fig. 27 (b) would be 3.2X73 = 234 kv. V. APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES

8. Selection of Arrester Rating


A valve type lightning arrester begins to discharge at a definite value of overvoltage in accordance with the curve of Fig. 26, and valves off at a lower voltage, corresponding to the maximum permissible voltage rating of the arrester. If the power voltage is above the valve-off voltage, the arrester may continue to discharge power current until it is destroyed. Although modern lightning arresters will discharge with-

out injury any lightning surge except the most severe direct strokes originating close to the arrester, it is not practical or economical to design them to discharge power current for any appreciable time. A lightning discharge may reach thousands of amperes, but the time is short, being measured in microseconds, so that the energy that is absorbed by the arrester is small compared to the energy that would have to be absorbed with a few amperes power flow for even a few cycles. The first consideration in applying an arrester should, therefore, be the maximum line-to-ground dynamic voltage to which the arrester may be subjected for any condition of system operation or fault. High operating voltage may exist on the far end of long, high voltage, unloaded transmission lines because of charging current flowing through the line reactance. It can also be caused by the sudden loss of load on water-wheel generators. It is sometimes possible to rearrange the switching scheme to eliminate or at least minimize the possibility of overvoltages from these sources. These factors, however, must be taken into account in the application of lightning arresters. The maximum rms line-to-ground voltage during a system fault can be calculated by the methods of Chap 14, taking into account the constants of the system, the type of fault, and the fault resistance. The selection of the arrester rating should, where possible, be based on such calculation. Where the fault voltages are not determined more accurately by calculation, Fig. 2812 and Fig. 2912, can be used as guides in selecting the arrester rating. The curves of Fig. 28 show the maximum line-to-ground voltage during fault for isolated-neutral systems as a function of the ratio of zero-sequence capacitive reactance, X0, to positive-sequence inductive reactance, X1. In Fig. 29, applying to grounded neutral systems, the ratio of

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter

18

I I

II

/I

/I

X,/Xl
(a) Voltage conditions neglecting positivesequence resistance-R1 = Rz = 0. and negative(c) Voltage conditions

X04

for R1=Rt=0.2

X1.

Fig. 29-Maximum line-to-ground voltage at fault location for grounded-neutral system under any fault condition. N&e: Numbers on curves indicate maximum line-to-ground fault voltage of any phase for any type of fault in percent of unfaulted line-to-line voltage for area bounded by curve and axes. When using the curves all impedance values must be on the same kva base or in ohms on same voltage base. For all curves R. = zero-sequence resistance, X, = zero-sequence inductive reactance, X, =positive-sequence subtransient reactance; X2 = negative-sequence reactance, x1=x2. The effect of fault resistance was taken into account. The fault resistance which gives the maximum voltage to ground on any phase was the value used. The discontinuity of the curves is caused mainly by the effect of fault resistance.

t i i i100i i i i / n

I / 3
XOxI

IA I 1 4 5

I 6

(b) Voltage conditions

for RI = Rz =O.l

X1.

zero-sequence resistance, R. to X1, is plotted against X,/X,, for several different values of maximum line-toground fault voltages, ranging from 65 to 100 percent of line voltage and for three values of RI/XI, namely 0, 0.1 and 0.2. The area below each curve represents the region in which the maximum fault voltage is below the value indicated on the curve. The curves represent the maximum voltage at the fault location. A fault at the arrester will generally subject the arrester to a higher voltage than a fault at some other point in the system. However, this condition does not always exist, and should be checked. For example a fault near the source of a radial feeder circuit grounded at the source only through a neutral Kl x0 resistor or reactor might have a larger value of -, or -, x1 x1

626

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter

18

(a) Voltage conditions neglecting positivesequence resistanceRl = Rz = O.

and

negative-

(c)

Voltage conditions

for R, =IL=O.2

Xl.

Fig. 29Maximum line-to-ground voltage at fault location for grounded-neutral system under any fault condition. Note: Numbers on curves indicate maximum line-to-ground fault voltage of any phase for any type of fault in percent of unfaulted line-to-line voltage for area bounded by curve and axes. When using the rurves all impedance values must be on the same kva base or in ohms on same voltage base. For all curves

Ro = zero-sequence resistance, XO = zero-sequence inductive reactance, Xl= positive-sequence subtransient reactance Xz = negative-sequence reactance,

X,=X2.
The effect of fault resistance was taken into account. The fault resistance which gives the maximum voltage to ground on any phase was the value used. The discontinuity of the curves is caused mainly by the effect of fault resistance.

(b) Voltage conditions

for R,= R, =0.1 X,.

zero-sequence resistance, RO to Xl, is plotted against XO/X1, for several different values of maximum line-toground fault voltages, ranging from 65 to 100 percent of line voltage and for three values of Z?l/X1, namely O, 0.1 and 0.2. The area below each curve represents the region in which the maximum fault voltage is below the value indicated on the curve. The curves represent the maximum voltage at the fault location. A fault at the arrester will generally subject the arrester to a higher voltage than a fault at some other point in the system. However, this condition does not always exist, and should be checked. For example a fault near the source of a radial feeder circuit grounded at the source only through a neutral 1/0 xc) resistor or reactor might have a larger value of , or ,

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination

627

and therefore produce a higher voltage on an arrester located at the end of the feeder than a fault at the arrester location. In applying arresters, it is customary to make an allowance for operation at a voltage in excess of that usually considered as normal. This is usually five percent. For example, an arrester rated at 105 percent of normal lineto-line voltage is used where the line-to-ground voltage is expected to reach normal line-to-line voltage during fault. Likewise, on a solidly grounded neutral system where the maximum line-to-ground voltage during fault is expected not to exceed 80 percent of line voltage, an arrester rated at about 84 percent of normal line-to-line voltage has been used generally. The line-to-ground voltage for fault conditions where X,/X, ratio is near 1.0 or less may allow the use of arresters with less than 84 percent of line-to-line voltage. There are a number of isolated-neutral systems on which arresters rated at 105 percent of nominal line-to-line voltage have proven satisfactory over a period of years. However, there are also systems of this type where it has been necessary to use arresters of a higher rating to prevent This is indicated in Fig. 28, which excessive failures. shows that if fault resistance is included, the fault voltage may exceed 105 percent of normal line-to-line voltage. Calculation should be made to determine the maximum fault voltages. The overvoltages encountered on systems grounded through ground-fault neutralizers are less than on isolated neutral systems, provided the ground-fault neutralizer is properly tuned. Arresters rated to withstand maximum line voltage, usually 105 percent of normal circuit voltage, are, therefore, considered safe for application on these systems. There is some risk of damage to the arrester if the ground-fault neutralizer is not properly tuned. Switching operations on these systems may also produce high voltages to ground. However, it is generally not feasible to select arresters of sufficiently high rating to eliminate all risk of arrester damage from these causes. It has been common practice to apply arresters rated at 105 percent of circuit voltage to systems grounded through impedance, and arresters rated at 84 percent of circuit voltage (80 percent of 105 percent rating) to systems considered solidly grounded. Experience has shown that such applications are generally safe against over-voltage at time of fault. However, as indicated by Fig. 29, the possible line-to-ground voltages during faults on systems vary through a wide range, depending upon the ratio of system constants. Arresters rated at some voltage between 75 and 105 percent of circuit voltage may, therefore, be better suited from an overall standpoint. As indicated by Fig. 29 (a, b, c), the maximum voltage to ground varies with the ratios of &/X1, X0/X1 and RI/X,. Thus the voltage to ground can be determined for a given system if the impedance constants are accurately known. In some cases, particularly for the higher voltage systems, where the X,/X, and IZo/X, ratios are 1.0 or less, arresters less than 84 percent of line-to-line voltage can be used, thus allowing the application of transformer insulation with a minimum acceptable impulse insulation level.

The 84-percent arrester can be applied safely on systems whose constants are within the range indicated by the 80-percent curve of Fig. 29 provided the impulse insulation level of the equipment is protected. As a general guide to arrester application, with full insulation on the protected equipment, the 84 percent arrester rating is satisfactory if the following conditions exist. 1. The ratio of the zero-sequence resistance, Ro, to the positive-sequence subtransient reactance, X1, as viewed from the point of arrester location is one or less. 2. The ratio of zero-sequence reactance, X0, to positivesequence reactance, X1, as viewed from the point of arrester location does not exceed three under any condition of operation. 3. The arrester cannot remain energized from ungrounded sources of power after the grounded neutral sources of power have been disconnected to clear a fault. 4. The system neutral is grounded at every source of supply of short-circuit current. If the fault is to the arrester ground, then the resistance of the arrester ground should be included as part of the zero-sequence resistance of the system. When this is done, the curves of Fig. 29 also apply to the arrester at that fault location. In addition to high arrester voltages resulting from system faults, high momentary or peak voltages may also be caused by any of the following: 1. Switching surges may reach several times normal line-to-ground voltage with certain combinations of system constants. 2. High harmonic voltages to ground may exist during fault conditions on lightly loaded lines energized from generators with damper windings for which Xp/Xd is too great. See Chap. 6. 3. Arcing grounds or the accumulation of static charges from dust particles in the air on ungrounded systems may cause repetitive discharges through the arrester that exceed its thermal capacity. It is not considered feasible to apply arresters rated sufficiently high to withstand the overvoltages that might be produced by any of the above. However, the possibility of damage to the arrester from these causes should be considered in making the application. It is sometimes possible to make minor modifications to the system equipment or operation that will greatly alleviate these sources of trouble. Where there is doubt as to the arrester rating, the maximum line-to-ground voltages should be calculated by the methods of Chap. 14.

9. Coordination of Protective ratus Insulation

Devices with Appa-

The margin that should exist between the BIL of the insulation to be protected and the maximum voltage that can appear across a lightning arrester is a much-discussed question. The answer is difficult because it depends on many factors. The breakdown voltage of the arrester is affected by the rate of voltage rise and the discharge voltage by the rate of rise of the surge current and the magnitude

628

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter 18

of the surge current. The distance between the arrester location and the protected insulation affects the voltage imposed on insulation due to reflections. The severity of the surge depends upon how well the station is shielded, the insulation level of the station structure, and the incoming line insulation. A typical problem is reviewed later to give one way of applying a suitable margin. Direct strokes to an arrester should be eliminated, where possible, by proper shielding because the current in a direct stroke may be in excess of that for which the arrester is designed. Where shielding is impractical, the arrester should protect the insulation within the range of directstroke surge currents within the capability of the arrester. Currents in excess of the arrester rating may damage or ruin the arrester. For a traveling wave coming into a dead-end station, the discharge current in the arrester is determined by the maximum voltage that the line insulation can pass, by the surge impedance of the line, and the voltage characteristic of the arrester, according to the following relation: 2E-E, a=I z where I, -arrester current E -magnitude of incoming surge voltage E,-arrester terminal voltage Z -surge impedance of the line

Suppose it is desired to protect the 138-kv substation shown schematically in Fig. 30 against traveling waves. The system at this point is grounded so as to allow a basic impulse insulation level of 550 kv. The major equipment consists of a power transformer, circuit breakers, disconnect switches mounted on four apparatus insulator units, and bus insulation consisting of 12 suspension insulators. The line insulation consists of nine suspension insulators. The arrester is located close to the transformer. Adequate shielding is provided over the substation and the incoming transmission lines. The line insulation of nine insulators permits a traveling wave of 860-kv crest (13 X40) and rate of rise of 1000 kv per microsecond to enter the station. This rate of rise represents 8.25 kv per microsecond per kv of arrester rating for the required 121-kv arrester. From Fig. 26 the average arrester-gap breakdown is 3.6X 121 or 435 kv at 0.5 microsecond, which, with a 15 percent, plus tolerance, becomes 500 kv. Assuming a line surge impedance of 400 ohms, the magnitude of the arrester current is about 3200 amperes determined as follows:
I a-

-2

(860000)-435000 400

= 3200 amperes.

The rate of rise of current would be approximately 2 (1 000 000) 400 = 5000 amps/microsecond.

From Fig. 27(b) the discharge voltage for a current of 3200 amperes and a rate of rise of 5000 amperes is 3.45 x 121 or 418 kv. Adding the manufacturing tolerance of plus 10 percent gives 460 kv as the discharge voltage provided by the 121-kv arrester for the assumed conditions. Since the rate of rise has been taken into consideration in establishing this protective level of 460 kv, no additional margin need be added. There is, however, a difference of 550 minus 460 or 90 kv between the protective level and the BIL of 550 kv of the transformer insulation. Suppose a direct stroke at the station discharges through the arrester a current of 50 000 amperes, rising to crest in three microseconds, with a nominal rate of rise of 20 000 The discharge voltage from amperes per microsecond. Fig. 27 (b) is 4.55X121 = 550 kv for a 121-kv arrester which with plus 10 percent is 605 kv or 55 kv in excess of the insulation BIL.

10. Location

and Connection

of Protective

Devices

Fig. 30Coordination of insulation in a 138kv substation 11/2 40 microsecond positive wave. x (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

for

Transformer with 550 kv BIL. Line insulation of 9 suspension units. Disconnect switches on 4 apparatus insulators. Bus insulation of 10 suspension units. Maximum 1% x 40 wave permitted by Iine insulation. Discharge of 121-kv arrester for maximum 1% x 40 full wave.

The protective device should be placed as close as possible to the apparatus it is to protect, particularly if an overhead line dead ends in a station or terminates at a transformer. A traveling wave coming into the station is limited in magnitude at the arrester location to the discharge voltage of the arrester. However, a wave with the same rate of voltage rise as the original wave and with a magnitude equal to the arrester discharge voltage travels on to the station terminus where it reflects to twice its value if the line dead ends or to almost twice its value if the line terminates in a transformer. The voltage at the transformer builds up at a rate twice t,hat of the original wave until it reaches a maximum value of twice

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination

629

the magnitude of the arrester voltage or to whatever voltage magnitude can build up during the time the reflected wave travels back to the lightning arrester and a negative reflected wave travels from the lightning arrester back to the transformer. Likewise, apparatus, such as a disconnect switch, located ahead of the arrester is subject to the incoming surge until the arrester discharges and its negative reflected wave returns to the switch. To illustrate the effect of arrester location consider the 138-kv station shown schematically in Fig. 31 with the arrester located 100 circuit feet beyond the disconnect switch and 100 circuit feet ahead of the transformer. Consider a traveling wave having a rate of voltage rise of 1000 kv per microsecond entering the station and an arrester which limits the voltage to 400 kv. In 0.1 microsecond after the wave reaches the switch it reaches the lightning arrester and 0.1 microsecond later, or at the end of 0.2 microsecond, it reaches the transformer where it reflects and builds up at a rate of 2000 kv per microsecond. At the end of 0.4 microsecond after the wave first reached the switch, the incoming wave and the reflected wave from the transformer would total to 400 kv at the arrester. As shown in Fig. 31, the voltages at the switch and at the transformer would also be 400 kv. The reflected wave from the transformer has just reached the switch. The voltage at the arrester remains at 400 kv until the crest of the incoming wave is reached but the voltages at the switch and transformer continue to rise at 2000 kv per microsecond until the reflected negative waves from the arrester reaches the switch and transformer at the end of 0.5 microsecond. Successive reflections occur until the wave spends itself by discharging through the arrester. As shown in Fig. 31, the voltages at the switch and transformer resulting from the first reflection reaches 600 kv, or 50 percent more than t,he arrester discharge voltage. The maximum voltage at the terminus of a line or at a transformer at the end of a line beyond an arrester as a

Fig. 32Maximum voltage due to first reflection of traveling wave as function of distance from arrester and steepness of wave front. *Voltage at P may reach crest of incoming surge as maximum. Voltage at T may reach twice arrester voltage as maximum.

result of the first reflection of a traveling expressed mathematically, as follows13:

wave, may be

up to a maximum of 2 ear where e, = arrester discharge voltage de - = rate of rise of wave front in kv per ms. dt L = distance between arrester and line terminus in feet.

Fig. 31Voltages at 138 kv substation resulting from first reflection Of traveling surge having 1000 kv per microsecond wave front.

(a) At disconnect switch located 100 feet ahead of arrester.


(b) At arrester.

(C) At transformer located 100 feet beyond arrester.

The same expression can also be used to determine the voltage at a point on a line ahead of an arrester due to a traveling wave. In this case, the voltage can reach as a maximum the crest of the traveling wave if the distance to the arrester is great enough or if the rate of rise of the wave front is sufficiently high. The curves of Fig. 32 show the voltage in excess of the arrester voltage as a function of distance from the arrester for rates of rise of wave front of 100. 500. and 1000 kv per

630

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter 18

microsecond. The curves can be used to determine the actual voltage at a point ahead of an arrester or at a line terminus beyond an arrester by adding to the curve value the discharge voltage of the particular arrester involved. For example, the maximum voltages obtained at the switch and transformer in Fig. 31, by plotting the volttime curves, could be taken from the 1000 kv per microsecond curve of Fig. 32. For a distance of 100 feet, and a wave front that rises at the rate of 1000 kv per microsecond, the voltage in excess of the arrester voltage is 200 kv. This added to the arrester discharge voltage, assumed to be 400 kv, gives 600 kv as the maximum voltage after the first reflection. In addition to the reflected wave phenomena, it is quite possible that still higher peak voltages would exist at the apparatus as a result of oscillations caused by the induct-

tive device is mounted directly on the transformer. This is illustrated in the installation view, Fig. 33, of a CSP transformer which has the protective devices, secondary circuit) breaker, and metering equipment built integral with the transformer14. With the line side of the arresters connected directly to the transformer terminals and the arrester ground connected directly to the transformer tank, the voltage between the winding and core is definitely limited to the discharge voltage of the arrester. To provide protecion to an extended station an arrester should be located directly ahead of the disconnect switch where the line enters the station and another arrester located directly adjacent to or on the transformer. A modification of this scheme, which is sometimes used, is to locate protector tubes at the entrance to the station and conventional station type arresters at the transformer terminals. The protector tubes generally protect the switch and will limit the magnitude of surges entering the station.

11. Direct Stroke Protection


Wherever it is possible for direct strokes of lightning to strike the line at or near the station, there is a possibility of excedingly high rates of surge-voltage rise and large magnitude of surge-current discharge. If the stroke is severe enough, the margin of protection provided by the protective device may be inadequate. The installation may, therefore, justify shielding the station and the incoming lines far enough out to limit the severity of surges that can come into the station, particularly in the higher voltage classifications, 69 kv and above. This can be done by properly placed masts or overhead ground wires. The number of direct strokes per year to an unshielded substat ion, based on accumulated records of direct strokes to tall objects, can be approximated by the expression1s

(rv+700)(L+700)9 __________--(5280)2

Fig. 33Installation view of CSP power transformer with protective devices, secondary circuit breaker, and metering equipment built integral with transformer.

ance of the line between the arrester and the apparatus, and the capacitance of the apparatus. Furthermore, the voltage drops in the lead from the line to the arrester and in the lead from the arrester to ground, which are affected by rate of rise of surge current, add to the drop across the arrester. Any difference in ground potential between the apparatus ground and the arrester ground also adds to the voltage impressed across the apparatus insulation. In view of the above factors, it is important, particularly in stations where direct strokes may originate close to the station, that the protective devices be located close to the apparatus they are to protect, that the leads to the devices be kept as short and direct as possible, and that the arrester and apparatus grounds be interconnected and as low in resistance as possible, preferably one ohm or less. The ultimate in this respect is reached when the protec-

Fig. 34Typical

schemes of station protection.

(a) Arrester at station with no direct stroke shielding. (b) Arrester at station with shielding against direct strokes. (c) Arrester at station with protector tubes extending out s mile.

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination

631

where IV and L are the width and length, respectively, in feet, of the substation. From this estimate of strokes to an exposed substation, which is about one stroke every four and one-half years to a 100 feet square substation, it can be reasoned that reducing the exposure to 0.1 percent would practically eliminate the possibility of a stroke to a station. The curves of Fig. 351s were, therefore, constructed from extensive laboratory test data to show the configurations of masts or overhead ground wires necessary to reduce the exposure of an object to 0.1 percent. The curves are plotted to show the height (L) of the shielding

Fig. 36-Areas

protected by multiple masts for point exposures of 0.1 percent.

(a) Two masts with values of z and s taken from Fig. 35 (a) and (c). (b) Two masts separated by half the distance of those in (a). (c) Three masts with (b) points obtained from Fig. 35 (c) for mid-point between two masts. (d) Four masts with (b) points obtained from Fig. 35 (c) for mid-point between two masts.

Fig.

35Configuration of shielding object with respect protected object for 0.1 percent exposure.

to

(a) One shielding mast. Dotted lines for one exposed object of height (d). Full lines for ring of exposed objects of height (d). (b) One horizontal ground wire. (c) Two masts or two ground wires. Full lines for horizontal wires.

Dotted

lines for masts.

masts or ground wires above the protected object as a function of the horizontal separation (X) and the height (d) of the protected object. The dotted-line curves, Fig. 35 (a), showing the necessary configuration of a single mast protecting a single object, apply to an exposed structure having a single prominent projection or several projections in a limited region, such as a set of disconnects. The full-line curves, applying to a ring of objects, should be used if the live parts to be shielded are generally distributed at a given height. The configuration of the mast should be based on the most remote object. The required configurations of a single horizontal ground wire are given in Fig. 35 (b). The dotted-line and the full-line curves of Fig. 35 (c) apply, respectively, to two masts and to two horizontal ground wires. The diagrams of Fig. 3615 illustrate the area that can be protected by two or more shielding masts. The crosshatched area of Fig. 36 (a) is the area protected by two masts for given values of d and y, where the radii i of the semi-circles are taken directly from Fig. 35 (a), and the separation distance S from Fig. 35 (c). If the distance between masts is decreased, the protected area is at least equal to the area obtained by superposing the areas of Fig. 36 (a). For example, if the distance between masts is halved, the resultant protected area is somewhat as shown in Fig. 36 (b). On this basis, to form an approximate idea of the width of the overlap between masts, first obtain a value of y from Fig. 35 (c), corresponding to twice the actual distance between the masts. The width of overlap is then equal to the value of 2, obtained from Fig. 35 (a), that correspond to this y. This undoubtedly gives a conservative width of substation that can be protected by two masts. For three masts located at the points of an equilateral triangle or for four masts located at the points of a square,

632

Insulation

Coordination 3.

Chapter

18

the protected areas are as shown in Figs. 36 (c) and (d). The height of the shielding mast should be so chosen that the b points provide 0.1 percent exposure as obtained from Fig. 35 (c) for the midpoint between two masts. The x radii are obtained from the data for a single mast. The curves of Fig. 35 apply to stations located in regions of relatively flat terrain and low resistivity, where the effective ground plane is essentially at the earths surface. High values of earth resistivity lowers the ground plane, which results in less effective shielding for a given configuration. However, most stations are, or if not, should be, provided with low-resistance grounding systems for lightning-arrester grounds, which can also serve as shielding grounds. Where the soil resistivity is high the effective ground plane can be raised to the earths, surface by laying counterpoise wires from the shielding masts to distances of two or three times their height. However, in most cases, it is probably more economical to increase the height of the masts. For application of the curves to hillside locations, the dimensions (h) (the shielding mast height) and (d) (the height of the protected object) should be measured perpendicular to the earths surface. The distance (x) between the object and shielding mast should be measured along the earths surface. The lines coming into the station can be effectively shielded against direct strokes by overhead ground wires as outlined in Chap. 17. A direct stroke on a line more than 3 mile out from the station is limited in severity at the station by the surge impedance and insulation of the line and to some extent by the shunt capacity of the station equipment. Shielding of the station and the lines approximately 4 mile out from the station, as illustrated in Fig. 34 (b), is, therefore, a desirable supplement to the lightning arrester located at the station. Where overhead ground wires on the incoming lines are not practical due to existing construction, additional protection of the station equipment against direct strokes on the lines near the station can be obtained by equipping each line with protector tubes at the entrance structure of the station and at each tower for a distance of approximately 3 mile out from the station, see Fig. 34 (c). However, shielding the station is the only way to eliminate direct strokes to the station itself.

Modern type lightning arresters applied properly protect station apparatus conforming to basic insulation levels against traveling surges. On systems having a solidly grounded neutral reduced rating arresters can be applied. Full-rated arresters are required generally on ungrounded neutral systems or systems grounded through impedance. The possibilities of system overvoltages should be investigated carefully in determining the minimum rating arrester that can be applied economically. 4. For effectively grounded systems insulation levels one class below the standard have given satisfactory service using reduced rated arresters particularly at voltages 115 kv and above. 5. Consideration should be given to shielding stations against direct lightning strokes. Where shielding is not practical, additional protection can be provided by installing protector tubes at the entrance to the station and at each transmission-line tower for a distance of 3 mile from the station.

VI. PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS


The distribution transformer with its protective devices is in effect a miniature substation constituting the final voltage transformation between the generating station and the individual customers premises. Because the distribution transformer is small in size and comparative cost, and because it is usually pole mounted, often in out-of-the-way locations, its protective devices must be inexpensive, small in size and weight, simple, and reliable. The failures of early type distribution arresters and the large amount of lightning data obtained on distribution circuits furnish proof that the protective devices must also have the ability to withstand severe lightning discharges.

13. General Considerations


Distribution circuits are generally overhead construction and are, therefore, subject to lightning disturbances, the nature of which are discussed in detail in Chap. 16. Data collected over a period of years with surge-crest devices indicate that the majority of surge-current discharges on distribution circuits are relatively low in magnitude, less than 5000 amperes, but occasionally a discharge may exceed 100 000 amperes. More recent data collected with the fulchronograph show that some of the surge-current discharges that are moderate in magnitude may be long in duration, of the order of several thousand microseconds. See Chap. 16. Experience has shown that lightning disturbances are more severe on rural circuits than on urban circuits, probably for two reasons. First, rural circuits are generally more exposed to lightning and, therefore, receive many more direct strokes. Second, because distribution transformers are less frequent on rural circuits-the drainage of long-duration surges through grounded transformer windings is less16. These general conclusions have been borne out by operating experience with distribution lightning arresters. The failure rate of early arresters, attributed to lightning, that

12. Summary of Considerations Applying to Protection of High-Voltage Equipment


The following points can be generally concluded in the application of protective devices to high-voltage systems, 22 kv and above. 1. Rod-gaps do not protect apparatus insulation against surges of steep wave front unless the spacing is so low that the gap is subject to numerous flashovers from minor surges. 2. Protector tubes are not considered suitable for the protection of apparatus insulation although they are effective in preventing transmission-line flashovers and in decreasing the severity of surges from direct strokes near the station. The application of protector tubes involves certain limitations in system shortcircuit and recovery voltage characteristics.

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination

633

21

were designed before high surge-current testing facilities were available was comparatively high. Later arresters, designed and tested to withstand high surge currents of about 100 microseconds duration have a good operating record on urban circuits. However, when these arresters were applied more extensively to rural circuits with sparsely located transformers, the failure rate increased. Modern arresters, designed with more emphasis on ability to discharge surges of long duration, have acquitted themselves well on rural circuits. Most distribution transformers are pole mounted, one at a location, and are used to step the voltage down from a single-phase primary circuit (2300 to 13 200 volts) to a single-phase, three-wire, secondary circuit at utilization voltage, usually 120/240 volts. Occasionally they are used in three-phase banks to supply three-phase, low-voltage power. The primary circuits, whether single or threephase, may be from a source having either a grounded or If the neutral is ungrounded the ungrounded neutral. single-phase primary consists of two of the ungrounded phase conductors, which means that the two primary terminals of the distribution transformer must be equally protected. If the neutral is grounded, the single-phase primary circuit will usually consist of one phase wire and the The neutral conductor is usually neutral conductor. grounded, so that only one high voltage terminal of the distribution transformer need be provided with protective equipment. The secondary will usually be three-wire, with the mid-point grounded. A three-phase bank of distribution transformers may be connected delta delta, star delta, or delta star. With the delta delta connection, the secondary can have no common neutral. Sometimes, either one phase or the mid-point of one of the phases of the secondary is grounded. The star delta and delta delta connection are alike as far as the secondary delta connection is concerned. The primary neutral might or might not be grounded. The delta star connection usually has the common neutral of the star connected secondary grounded. In addition to surge protection, the distribution transformer usually includes protection against internal shortcircuit and secondary short-circuit or overloads consisting either of high-voltage fuses mounted external to the transformer, or high-voltage fuse links and a secondary circuit breaker mounted inside of and included as a part of the transformer. The distribution transformer, like larger power transformers contains three groups of insulation subject to voltage stress, which should be considered in the protective scheme, namely : 1. The insulation between the high-voltage winding and the core or tank. 2. The insulation between the low-voltage winding and the core or tank. 3. The insulation between the high- and low-voltage windings. There are, however, two conditions that make the protection of distribution transformers and high-voltage power transformers differ. These are the difference in the ratios of surge strength to operating voltage and the relative effects of locating and connecting the protective devices.

The distribution transformer (2400 to 13 200 volts) has a much higher ratio of surge strength to operating voltage, as Table 1 shows. As an example, the ratio of the basic insulation level to the peak of the 60-cycle voltage classi45 12.75, for 2500 volt equipment, as fication is -w= 2.5 X 42 650 -----== 3.33, for 13%kv equipment. For this against is* x 42 reason, it is permissible for the protective device in the low-voltage ratings to have a higher protective ratio than that required at higher voltages. The effect of the location and connection of the protective devices is more pronounced with distribution transformers. Because lightning discharges on distribution circuits and on high-voltage transmission circuits are about equal in magnitude, the actual surge-voltage drops in the leads to the protective devices and through the ground connections of the two circuits are about equal. While these voltage drops may be only a portion of the discharge voltage of the protective device in the higher voltages, they may be several times the discharge voltage of the lowvoltage protective device. It is extremely important, therefore, that protective devices on distribution circuits be located and connected properly with respect to the apparatus they are to protect.

14. Methods of Connecting

Protective

Devices

Three schemes of connecting protective devices to protect distribution transformers against lightning surges are commonly known : 1. Separate connection method. 2. Interconnection method. 3. Three-point protection method.

Separate Connection Method-This method of protection, universally used until about 1932, is illustrated in Fig. 37. Protective devices are connected between the pri-

Fig. 37Separate

connection method of protecting phase transformers.

single-

mary conductors near the transformer and a driven ground at the pole. The secondary neutral is usually grounded separately. With this connection, the protective devices are connected in series with a relatively long ground lead which has considerable inductance and is usually connected to a driven ground, the resistance of which may be high. The voltage, therefore, between the primary winding and ground is not only the discharge voltage of the arrester but also the impedance drop of the ground lead and ground

634

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter

18

Fig. 38Interconnection (a) Straight interconnection. (b) Interconnection with protective

method

of protecting (c)

single-phase

transformers.

ground at transformer.

Interconnection with protective ground at transformer and insulating gap in interconnection.

connection, which may be several times the discharge voltage of the arrester. Failure or flashover of the transformer insulation may occur even though the actual surge voltage across the arrester is only a fraction of the transformer breakdown voltage. When this happens, the surge generally passes through to the secondary ground connection. The surge is usually followed by a flow of dynamic current until the primary fuse blows. Interconnection MethodThe straight interconnection consists of connecting the protective devices from the primary lines directly to the secondary neutral as illustrated in Fig. 38 (a). The surge voltage that can exist between the primary winding and the secondary is definitely limited to the discharge voltage of the protective devices. The potential of the core and tank, because of their electrostatic coupling to the secondary winding, normally rises along with the primary and secondary windings during a surge discharge and thus limits the voltage between the windings and core. This connection is an improvement over the conventional connection because it eliminates the factor of voltage drop in the arrester ground lead. Operating experience supports this conclusion17. Two decided disadvantages prevent universal application of this scheme of connection. First, the protection between windings and core or tank depends upon the tank rising in potential with the windings. Actually, practical conditions might keep this from happening. The resistance to ground of the wood pole on which the transformer is mounted may be low enough to supply the small charging current required to keep the tank at ground potential. Also, as it rises in potential, the tank may flashover to a nearby guy wire or other grounded object. Either condition results in the application of the full potential of the surge between the windings and tank until the insulation breaks down or the secondary flashes over to the tank. The second disadvantage of this connection is that it directs the entire primary surge voltage into the secondaries, which is undesirable, particularly if the resistance of the secondary grounds is not low. This restriction makes the straight interconnection in general unapplicable to rural circuits or other circuits that might not have the secondaries effectively grounded. A modification of the straight interconnection is shown in Fig. 38 (b). Here, a ground is made at the arrester location also. The protection provided the transformer insulation depends upon the tank being insulated from

ground, or, if not, upon the magnitude of voltage drop in the arrester ground lead and connection. The arrester ground is in parallel with the secondary ground so that the complete surge is not directed to the secondary. The direct tie between the arrester ground and secondary is undesirable unless the secondary is effectively grounded, again making the connection generally unapplicable to rural circuits. Another modification that eliminates the permanent tie between the arrester ground and secondary neutral is shown in Fig. 38 (c). An isolating gap, having low flashover, breaks the direct tie. A rise in potential between windings during a surge discharge breaks down the gap and limits the voltage between windings to the arrester The protection of the transformer discharge voltage. insulation to the core or tank still depends upon the tank being insulated from ground, or, if not, upon the voltage drop in the arrester ground lead and connection being low. Three-Point Protection Method-This scheme, illustrated in Fig. 39 (a), definitely limits the voltage across the three groups of insulation in the transformer independently of ground connections or resistances. The protective devices connected between the high-voltage lines and tank definitely limit the voltage between those parts to the discharge voltage of the protective device. Likewise, the protective device between the secondary and tank (usually a gap for 480 volts and below) limits the voltage between those parts to the breakdown voltage of the device. With the voltage between the high-voltage winding and core or tank and the voltage between the lowvoltage winding and core or tank definitely limited, the voltage between the two windings is also limited. Referring to Fig. 39 (a), a surge coming in over a primary lead raises the potential of the primary winding to the breakdown of the protective device that discharges to ground. If the arrester-ground impedance is high or if there is no ground at that point, the potential of the highvoltage winding rises above that of the core and tank until the gap TG breaks down and limits the voltage between the winding and tank to the discharge voltage of the arrester plus the gap. If the voltage between the tank and secondary exceeds the breakdown of the gap TN, the gap operates and discharges to the secondary ground. The gaps, TG and TN, while they definitely isolate the tank from the primary and secondary ground connection dur-

Chapter

18

Insulation

Coordination protection to the three groups of insulation in the transformer independently of the arrester or secondary grounding conditions, whether the tank is insulated or not, or whether the surge originates on the primary or secondary. Variations in the methods of connecting the protective devices to obtain three-point protection are shown in (b), (c), (d), and (e) of Fig. 39.

15. Protection

of Three-Phase

Transformer

Ranks

The shortcomings of the separate connection method of protection apply equally well to the protection of threephase transformers or three-phase transformer banks on distribution circuits. The interconnection method is generally not applicable because there is no secondary neutral unless the secondary is connected in star. Sometimes one phase of the secondary or the midpoint of one of the phases is grounded as shown by the broken lines of Fig. 40. The three-point scheme of protection, illustrated in Fig. 40, is applicable to any winding connection. A pro-

Fig. 40Three-point protection applied to three-phase tribution transformers.

dis-

Fig. 39Three-point (a) Three-point (b) Three-point


(C)

protection

method.

tective device is connected between each primary phase winding and tank either directly or through an isolating gap. Iikewise, a protective device (air gap or coordinated secondary bushing for 480 volts and below) is connected between each secondary phase lead and the tank. The tanks of all transformers in the bank are tied together. With this connection, the windings of all transformers are protected irrespective of grounding conditions or whether the surge originates on the primary or secondary circuit.

protection protection

with insulating gaps. simplified circuit.


Three-point protection with single insulating gap.

16. Surge Voltages in Secondary Circuits


on four-

(d) Three-point protection of single-phase transformer wire, grounded-neutral circuit. (e) Three-point protection with insulated tank.

ing normal operation, do not greatly add to the surge voltage impressed across the winding insulation. The three-point scheme of protection thus provides definite

Overhead secondary circuits arc, to some extent, subject to lightning surges originating on the secondary. They can also experience surges passing from the primary The separate conncection, Fig. 37, into the secondary. isolates the primary from the secondary. However, when the transformer fails or flashed over as a result of a prithe surge passes directly on to a phase wire mary surge, or neutral of the secondary circuit. The primary-system

636

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter 18

voltage is also impressed on the secondary until the primary fuse blows. The straight interconnection directs all the primary surge on to the secondary neutral. With the modified interconnection shown in Fig. 38 (b) or with the three-point scheme of protection, some of the surge may pass on to the secondary neutral, depending upon how effectively the primary protective devices are grounded. Experience has shown that damage caused by surges on secondary house circuits is negligible. Where long exposures and relatively high secondary insulation may result in damage, protection should be provided by low-voltage protective devices located at the house entrance, and connected between the phase wires and neutral, which is usually grounded. All grounds on the customers premises should be connected together. In case the secondary is not grounded in the customers premises, such as may be the case with a three-phase, four-wire delta circuit, the danger of damage is greater than with the usual house circuit. Where the hazard is considered serious, it can be eliminated by connecting a protector between each phase wire and ground at the house entrance, or preferably right at the apparatus to be protected. Three-phase, 440-volt circuits sometimes extend a considerable distance overhead to motor circuits, thus constituting a hazard to the motors and associated starting equipment. They can be protected by connecting a lowvoltage protective device between each phase wire and the frame of the apparatus, which should be grounded. Protectors connected to the secondary at the transformer will generally not provide adequate protection to the load apparatus.

are often located in remote locations, it is important to avoid as many fuse replacements as possible. For that reason and because of the somewhat questionable protection obtained for surges of steep wave front, plain air gaps or fused gaps are not extensively used to protect distribution transformers. Protector Tubes-The distribution-type protector tube, introduced about 1931, consists essentially of a small air gap, a diffuser tube, and sometimes a resistor, all connected in series. The series gap is just enough to insulate the tube from normal power voltage, thus eliminating a continuous voltage stress across the diffuser tube. The purpose of the series resistor when used is to limit to approximately 500 amperes the one-half cycle of power

17. Protective formers

Devices

for Distribution

Trans-

Fig. 41Volt-time breakdown characteristics of one type of distribution type protector tubes.

Three general classes of devices are used for the protection of distribution transformers just as for the protection of high-voltage substations, namely, the plain air gap, the protector tube, and the conventional valve-type lightning arrester. However, the lower operating voltages, the higher ratio between insulation breakdown voltage and operating voltage, and the requirement that the device be small in size and cost, make the design and application of protective devices somewhat different for distribution transformers than for higher voltage equipment. Plain Air Gap-Plain air gaps or fused gaps are sometimes used to protect distribution transformers. The relatively high insulation strength of the transformer makes it possible to provide a fair degree of protection to the transformer against lightning surges without having to decrease the gap spacing to a value where numerous flashovers occur as a result of minor surges. However, the device will not restore power voltage (above 480 volts) after a discharge without momentarily deenergizing the circuit, which usually results in the blowing of a fuse, either at the transformer, or at a sectionalizing point on the line. The gap spacings associated with low operating voltages are necessarily low so that unless the gap is enclosed or protected, numerous flashovers can occur as a result of birds or foreign objects bridging the gap. Double gaps of various constructions are sometimes used to minimize this trouble. Since distribution transformers

current that may follow the surge discharge, thus making the application of the tube independent of the system short-circuit current. The gap breakdown characteristics of the different voltage ratings of a typical type of protector tube are shown in Fig. 41. After the gap breaks down, the discharge voltage is equal to the arc drop in the tube plus the drop across the series resistor, if one is used. The series resistor is generally provided with a shunt gap that limits the voltage across the resistor to about 30 kv. If the lightning surge is of sufficient current magnitude to build up a resistance drop of 30 kv across the resistor the shunt gap flashes over and takes the resistor out of the discharge circuit in which case the discharge voltage is the arc drop through the tube. Surge currents high enough to cause the shunt gap to flash over, produce sufficient deionizing action in the diffuser tube to cut off after the discharge without the one-half cycle of power-follow current. Although the gap breakdown voltage of the protector tube is higher than that of a corresponding valve-type lightning arrester, particularly at short time lags, the tube adequately protects modern distribution transformers rated 13 800 volts and below if connected properly. Laboratory tests and operating experience have demonstrated the ability of a tube to discharge severe strokes of lightning. This characteristic together with its ability to

Chapter

18

Insulation

Coordination

637

More recent data obtained with high crest magnitude. the fulchronograph have shown that the distribution-type arrester should also be capable of discharging surge currents of long duration. Valve-type lightning arresters are now available that will handle either surges of high crest magnitude or long duration. Surge-Proof and CSP Transformers-The surgeproof distribution transformer, containing, as a part of the transformer, devices for complete surge protection, was introduced in 1932. An expulsion tube arrester, known as the De-ion arrester was connected between each primary terminal and tank. These arresters and the coordinated low-voltage bushings of these transformers together provided the three-point method of surge protection which for the first time gave the means for completely protecting all three major insulations. These surge-proof transformers still required external fuse cutouts to disconnect the transformer from the line in case of secondary overload or short circuit or internal failure. Blowing of these fuses and sometimes failure of
Fig. 42Gap breakdown characteristics of typical distribution type arresters for 11/z 40 microsecond voltage wave. x

withstand high momentary system voltage makes especially well suited for application on rural circuits.

it

Conventional

Valve-Type

Lightning

Arresters-

The valve-type lightning arrester is the device most generally used for the protection of conventional distribution transformers, that is, transformers requiring separately mounted protective devices. The curves of Fig. 42 and Fig. 43, show respectively the gap breakdown characteristics and the discharge characteristics of typical modern distribution-type arresters. Operating experience of several years has demonstrated the ability of conventional valve-type arresters to provide a high degree of protection to distribution transformers. Modern construction has eliminated the mechanical difficulties experienced with early designs, which resulted in a relatively high failure rate and occasional radio-interference complaints. Field measurements of surge-crest magnitudes together with laboratory tests led to later designs having the ability to discharge surge currents of

Fig. 44Circuit

diagram

of CSP transformer.

If practice is to ground tanks, remove tank discharge gap and connect tank directly to ground.

Fig. 43Discharge voltage characteristics of typical distribution type arresters for 10 x 20 microsecond current wave.

the cutout constituted a large share of the trouble experienced with distribution transformers caused by lightning surges. Fuses cannot always be depended on to give adequate overload and short-circuit protection. Also, the mounting of cutouts necessarily adds to the cost and complication of installation of the transformer. The completely self-protecting (CSP) distribution transformer, introduced in 1933, overcame these difficulties. Like its predecessor, it contained complete lightning protection, provided by high-voltage De-ion arresters and lowvoltage coordinated bushings arranged to give three-point protection, as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig. 44. In addition, an internal circuit breaker connected between the low-voltage windings and low-voltage terminals protected the transformer against overload or secondary

638

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter

18

breakers instead of one. These are interconnected within the transformer so as to sectionalize the low-voltage circuits in case of faults or overloads. The CSP transformer is completely assembled in the factory thus making it possible to surge test the combined transformer and protective equipment. Proof of coordination of the insulation of each CSP transformer is now given by applying to each assembled unit a surge test equivalent to a direct stroke of 1ightningO.

VII. SURGE PROTECTION FOR ROTATING MACHINES


The insulation on the windings of rotating machines, such as large or small motors, a-c generators, and synchronous condensers, is held to a minimum because of limited space. Also, since the insulation is not immersed in oil, its surge strength is not much greater than the peak of the GO-cycle voltage breakdown. Special measures are, therefore, necessary to protect such equipment when it is connected to a sysFig. 45Sectional view of CSP transformer for operation on tem subject to the hazards of lightning-surge grounded-neutral circuit. voltages. Likewise, the method of grounding effects the overvoltages, during fault conditions and switching, which may be impressed on rotatshort circuits. Finally, protection to the high-voltage ing machines; these phenomena are discussed in Chapters feeders from internal transformer failures was given by 14 and 19. internal protective links connected between the highThe stress on the major insulation of any machine, that voltage winding and bushing. The internal breaker and protective links perform all of the functions of the fuse, so is, the insulation between the winding and frame, is dethat with these transformers no external protective de- termined mainly by the magnitude of the surge voltage to ground, whereas the stress on the turn insulation is vices are required. Those transformers have now almost more a function of the rate of rise of surge voltage as the entirely superseded the surge-proof design. surge penetrates the winding2122. Protection of a rotatThe bimetallic tripping element of the breaker, which is actuated by both load current and oil temperature, is ing machine, therefore, requires limiting the surge voltage magnitude at the machine terminals and sloping the wave calibrated to follow closely the permissible thermal loadfront of tht: incoming surge. time characteristics of the transformer windings and proThe effect of sloping the wave front is illustrated in vides loading on the basis of copper temperature. Fig. 46. The curves of Fig. 46 (a) show the relative voltA sectional view of a CSP transformer with two cover bushings and De-ion arresters is illustrated in Fig. 45. Of special interest is the emergency control now supplied on these transformers. This device takes care of the occasional situation where the breaker cannot be kept closed after having been tripped by overload, because the overload persists or motor starting currents are high. If it is imperative that service be restored, even at the risk of some loss of transformer life, the breaker setting may be elevated by means of the external emergency control handle to permit additional overloads. The necessity for the use of this device usually indicates that the load growth has exceeded the capacity of the transformer so that the unit should be replaced as soon as possible by a larger one. Recent developments include the extension of the CSP principle to include three-phase distribution transformers and both single- and three-phase completely self-protectFig. 46Distribution of surge voltage in generator winding. ing transformers for banked secondary operation (CSPRs). The latter contain all of the protective features of the CSP (a) Without rotating machine protection. transformers, and, in addition, they are supplied with two (b) With rotating machine protection.

Chapter 18

Insulation Coordination

639

ages to ground of the line terminal and two intermediate points in a phase winding of a machine without protection for an incoming surge-rising to crest in one-half microsecond. The differences in voltages at the various points in the winding result in high stresses between turns. The curves of Fig. 46 (b) show how the stresses between turns are decreased by sloping the wave front so that the surge at the machine terminals reaches crest in twelve microseconds. Limiting the surge voltage to ground sufficiently to protect the major insulation usually requires a special lightning arrester, having a low protective ratio, connected between each machine terminal and grounded

frame. Where more than one machine is connected to a common bus, one arrester connected between each phase of the bus and ground generally is adequate if the machine frames are connected to a low-resistance ground common with the arrester ground. Sloping of the surge wave front is accomplished by letting the surge, after passing through a series impedance, charge a shunt capacitor connected to the machine terminals.

18. Line Surge Impedance

and Capacitor

Method

Fig. 47Line surge impedance and capacitor tecting rotating machines.

method

of pro-

(a) Single machine connected to overhead line. (b) Two or more machines connected to common bus. (c) Machine connected through short cable to overhead lines. For simplicity, protective devices arc shown on one phase only. Each phase however must have the same protective apparatus installed. *For circuits below 2300 volts. **For circuits 2300 volts and above. ***Cable lengths up to 1000feet are considered short cables in this type of application. If the cable is over 2500 ftlet long and the machine is connected directly to it, it is satisfactory to omit the capacitor at machine terminals. In t,his case the capacity effect of the cable is approximately equivalent to the capacitor.

In this scheme of protection, a special arrester is installed at the machine terminal to limit the magnitude of the voltage impressed on its windings. The sloping of the surge is accomplished by a capacitor charged through the surge impedance and reactance of the line. See Fig. 47. To limit the voltage that determines the charging rate of the capacitor, a lightning arrester or protector tube is placed on each overhead line far enough ahead of the machine so that the arrester will discharge before the voltage impressed on it is modified by reflections from the capacitor. This distance will depend upon the slope of the incoming surge. The farther out the arrester is located, the less will be the stress on the machine winding for surges originating beyond the arrester, but the greater will be the possibility of a surge originating between the line arrester and the station. A distance of 1500 to 2000 feet is a good compromise between the possibilities of a stroke within this area and the effect of distance on the charging rate of the capacitor. The rate of rise of the surge reaching the machine i; also a function of the amount of capacitance used. The maximum permissible rate of rise depends upon the velocity of propagation of the surge in the machine winding, the number of turns per coil, the turn length and the turn insulation. A study of many cases has indicated that the maximum rate of rise should be limited to a value such that, if the terminal voltage continues to rise, it will not equal the test voltage of the machine in less than 10 microseconds. Considering a minimum practical line surge impedance and a practical machine surge impedance, this requires at, least $ microfarad of capacitance. It is independent of rated circuit voltage because the machine test voltage and the voltage limited by the line arrester are proportional to rated circuit voltage. However, in the construction of capacitors there is a limit to the minimum capacitance that can be obtained economically on a standard unit. For example, the standard G900-volt unit contains i microfarad, whereas the 13 800-volt unit contains only : microfarad. In an ungrounded machine, because of the possibility of reflections from the neutral point, the voltage may double at the neutral. To limit the voltage at the neutral as recommended, it is necessary to hold the rate of rise of the surge entering the machines to 4 the recommended value, by using at least f, instead of 9 microfarad. In Table 9 are given the recommended capacitances for various voltage (*lasses from 650 to 13 800 volts. For 11 500 and 13 800-volt classes, two standard i-microfarad units are recommended for ungrounded machines, whereas $ microfarad is sufficient for a grounded machine. Below 11 500

640

Insulation

Coordination

Chapter 18

TABLE 9RECOMMENDED CAPACITANCE VALUES FOR LINE SURGE IMPEDANCE METHOD OF PROTECTING ROTATING MACHINES

19. Choke Coil and Capacitor Method


The most complete protection of rotating machines connected directly to overhead lines is obtained when lightning arresters are used to limit the magnitude of the incoming surge, and lumped inductance and capacitance are used to limit the slope of the incoming surge. With this scheme of protection, the machine is given full protection for all surges, even for direct strokes to the overhead line close to the station. Special lightning arresters are paralleled with the required amount of capacitance and tied to the generator terminals or station bus. See Fig. 48. A standard arrester is applied on the line side of the choke coil to limit the

volts, the standard unit contains 3 microfarad so no increase is required for ungrounded machines. In some applications it may be expedient to use an arrester from the neutral point of the machine to ground. For all machines larger than 1000 kva, special station type arresters should be used at the generator terminals. For machines of less than 1000 kva station type arresters may not, be justified economically. Special line-type arresters can be used. In all cases, standard line-type arresters or protector tubes are placed out on every overhead line entering the station at generator voltage. For 2300-volt circuits and above, these arresters should be located approximately 1500 feet from the station. For voltages below 600 volts, these arresters can be located within 500 feet of the station. The possibility of a lightning stroke to the line near the station can be minimized by overhead ground wires placed over this part of the line as indicated in Fig. 47 (b). Their spacing and location, with respect to the phase wires, is important and the application requires special study. There is a limit, however, to what can be done with ground wires. It should be stressed that the lightning strokes terminating on low-voltage circuits are just as severe as those terminating on high-voltage circuits. Therefore, to get good protection with overhead ground wires, the equivalent of a high-voltage line, with large spacing and increased surge insulation from line wires to ground conductors should be used for the first 1500 or 2000 feet from the station. Properly applied ground wires then are expensive on low-voltage circuits, especially if considerable money has to be spent to decrease the ground resistance. In many cases, it is more economical to use the choke-coil scheme of surge protection. If the machine is connected to the overhead line through a short cable, Fig. 47 (c), the protection at the machine should be the same as discussed above. In addition there should be a set of line-type arresters on the line 1500 to 2000 feet from the cable pothead and another set at the cable pothead. If several cables are connected to the bus or machine and their total length exceeds 2500 feet the cable capacity acts to slope the wave front, and the capacitor can be omitted at the machine.

Fig. 48Choke coil and capacitor method of protecting rotating machines.

voltage that determines the charging rate of the capacitor. The rate of rise of the terminal voltage depends upon both the amount of inductance and amount of capacitance used. The values that should be used to limit the rate of rise to the maximum permissible value are given in Table 10. A study has shown that the minimum capacitance to use in conjunction with a 175-microhenry choke is 4
TABLE 10RECOMMENDED CAPACITANCE VALUES FOR CHOKE COIL AND CAPACITOR METHOD OF PROTECTING ROTATING
MACHINES

Chapter 18

Insulation

Coordination

641

microfarad for grounded machines. If the inductance is increased to 350 microhenries, a microfarad would be sufficient. For all machines above 1000 kva, special station-type arresters should be used at the generator terminals-whereas below 1000 kva special line type arresters can be used. In all cases, standard line or station-type arresters are located on the line side of the choke coil. Station-type arresters are recommended, but, where it is not felt that they can be justified, line-type arresters can be used; the degree of protection expected will dictate the arrester to use. This scheme is more expensive, but gives decidedly more reliable protection because the area close to the station is fully protected.

minal of the machine. A standard lightning arrester is, of course, required on the line side of the transformer to protect the transformer. See Fig. 49. When the machine is connected to an overhead line both direct and through transformers, the special arresters and capacitors should be applied at each machine terminal the same as when the machine is connected to the overhead line only. Standard line-type arresters should be located from 1500 to 2000 feet out on the directconnected line. Standard station type arresters should be installed on the high side of the transformer. See Fig. 50.

20. Machines Connected Through Transformers

to Overhead

Lines

21. Machines Connected to Overhead Lines Through Feeder Regulators or Current Limiting Reactors
If the machine is connected a feeder regulator or current tion should be the same as nected to the overhead line. to the overhead line through limiting reactor, the protecfor a machine directly conIn addition, a standard line-

Experience with machines connected to overhead lines through transformers has indicated that damage to the machines from lightning surges on the overhead lines is rare if adequate arrester protection is provided on the high-voltage side of the transformer. However, surges coming in over an overhead line may produce high voltages on the low-voltage side of the transformer, even if

Fig. 51Protection of rotating machines connected current limiting reactor or feeder voltage regulator head lines.

through to over-

Fig. 49Protection of rotating power transformers

machines connected to overhead lines.

through

(A reactor, when present, is equivalent approximately to the effect of using a choke coil. Arrester A may be omitted if the current limiting reactor has an inductance of over 350 microhenries.)

the high side is adequately protected with arresters. The surge is transmitted through the transformer by both electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling. The electrostatic coupling depends upon the transformer capacitances between windings and to ground, and is independent of reactance and turns ratio. The electromagnetic coupling depends upon the turns ratio, reactance and size of the transformer, as well as the bank connection, that is, whether star-delta, star-star, etc. Where additional protection to the rotating equipment is desired, it can be obtained by connecting a special arrester and one standard capacitor unit to each phase ter-

type arrester should be added on the line side of the regulator or reactor. See Fig. 51. If the inductance of the current limiting reactor is greater than 350 microhenries, the arrester on the line can be omitted.

22. Characteristics

of Special Lightning

Arresters

Fig. 50Protection of rotating machines connected direct to and through transformers to overhead lines.

Special low-breakdown lightning arresters for connection in parallel with capacitors at the machine terminals (or at the bus if two or more machines are connected to a common bus) are available in either the station type or line type. The characteristics of typical arresters of both types are shown in Table 11. The station type arresters have a somewhat lower breakdown voltage, a lower discharge voltage at high surge currents, and a higher surgecurrent discharge capacity. For the best protection, station-type arresters should be applied to machines of all ratings. However, it is recognized that applications involving small sized machines may not economically justify the most expensive protection. For that reason, line-type arresters are generally applied on machines 1000 kva and below, and station-type arresters on machines larger than 1000 kva. Either arrester must be applied on the basis that the power voltage from line to ground across the arrester

642

Insulation

Coordination
5. 6. 7.

Chapter 18

TABLE 11PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS SPECIAL LIGHTOF NING ARRESTERSFOR SURGE PROTECTION OF ROTATING

8. 9. 10.

11.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

under any normal or fault condition does not exceed the arrester phase-leg rating.

19. 20.

VIII.

SUMMARY

The problem of coordinating the insulation of electrical equipment has progressed through years of research from a subject only vaguely underst,ood to a sound engineering practice based on well defined principles and known facts. Basic insulation levels have now been established that fix the lower limits of insulation surge strength to definite values that can be demonstrated by standardized test methods. Protective devices are available that will provide a high degree of protection to insulation meeting the basic levels. Effective schemes have been devised for protecting insulation that requires special consideration. This progress was made possible only by cooperation between the manufacturers and users of electrical equipment in obtaining invaluable information on the nature of lightning and its effects on equipment in service. Continued cooperation will undoubtedly produce additional information that will make possible further improvements to the methods of coordinating insulation.

21.

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

29.

REFERENCES
1. Standard Basic Impulse Insulation Levels, A Report of the Joint Committee on Coordination of Insulation A.I.E.E., E.E.I. and N.E.M.A. E.E.I. Publication No. H-8, N.E.M.A. Publication No. 109, A.I.E.E. Transactions, 1941. 2. A.I.E.E. Lightning Reference Book 1918-1935. 3. Coordination Session Toronto Convention 1930. Seven Papers A.I.E.E. Transactions 1930. 4. Recommendations for High-Voltage Testing, E.E.I.-N.E.M.A. Subcommittee Report, A.Z.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 59, page 598.

30.

31.

32.

Flashover Voltages of Insulators and Gaps, A.I.E.E. Subcommittee Report, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 53, page 882. Flashover Characteristics of Insulation, P. H. McAuley, EZectric Journal, July 1938. Protection of Power Transformers Against Lightning Surges, A.I.E.E. Committee on Electrical Machinery, Transformer Subcommittee, Technical Paper 41-79. Report on Apparatus Bushings, A.I.E.E. Joint Committee on Bushings, Technical Paper 41-76. The Control Gap for Lightning Protection, Ralph Higgins and H. I,. Rorden, A.I.E.E. Transactions, 1936, page 1029. Line Type Lightning Arrester Performance Characteristics, A.I.E.E. Lightning Arrester Subcommittee, Technical Paper 41-138. Station-Type Lightning-Arrester Performance Characteristics, A.I.E.E. Lightning Arrester Subcommittee, Electrical Engineering, June 1940. Selection of Lightning Arrester Ratings, R. D. Evans and Edward Beck, Westinghouse Engineer, February 1942. A Traveling Wave Primer, Edward Beck, Electric Journal, March 1932 to October 1932 inclusive. Transmission Tapped for Distribution by New Unit, George S. Van Antwerp and H. S. Warford, Electrical World, 1938. Shielding of Substations, C. F. Wagner, G. D. McCann and C. M. Lear. A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 61. Lightning and Lightning Protection in Distribution Systems, R. C. Bergvall and Edward Beck, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 59. Distribution Transformer Lightning-Protection Practice, L. G. Smith, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 57. Surge Proof Distribution Transformers, J. K. Hodnette, Electric Journal, February 1932. Surge Protection for Distribution Transformers, J. K. Hodnette; Electric Journal, March 1936. Direct-Stroke Protection of Distribution Transformers, H. V. Putman, Electric Journal, February 1937. Protection of Rotating A. C. Machines Against Traveling Wave Voltages Due to Lightning, W. J. Rudge, Jr., R. M. Wieseman and W. W. Lewis, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 52. Surge Protection for Rotating Machines, J. F. Calvert, A. C. Monteith, and E. Beck, Electric Journal, March 1933. Application of Arresters and the Selection of Insulation Levels, J. H. Foote and J. R. North, Electrical Engineering, June 1937. Application of Station-Type Lightning Arresters, A. C. Monteith and W. G. Roman, Electric Journal, March 1938. The Insulator String, R. W. Sorensen, A.I.E.E. Transactions, 1934, Vol. 53. Failure of Disk Insulators on High Tension Transmission Systems, H. D. Panton, A.I.E.E. Transactions, 1922, Vol. 41. Transmission of Electric Power at Extra High Voltages, Philip Sporn, A. C. Monteith, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 66, 1947. Corona Considerations on High-Voltage Lines and Design Featurns of Tidd 500-kv Test Lines, C. F. Wagner, Anthony Wagner, E. L. Peterson, I. W. Gross, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 66, 1947. Transformers and Lightning Arresters-Tidd 500-kv Test Lines, F. A. Lane, J. K. Hodnette, P. L. Bellaschi, Edward Beck, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 66, 1947. Flashover Characteristics of Rod Gaps and Insulators, A.I.E.E. Committee. Electrical Engineering (A.I.E.E. Transactions), Vol. 56, June 1937, pages 712-14. Lightning Performance of 200-kv Transmission Lines-II, A.I.E.E. Committee. A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 65, 1946, pages 70-5. The Characteristics and Performance in Service of High-Voltage Porcelain Insulators, J. S. Forrest, Journal, Institution of Electrical Engineers (London, England), Vol. 89, part II, No. 7, February 1942, pages 60-80.

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