Cassie Greco Bio Regents Review o Scientific method- ask question do background research construct hypothesis test with

experiment analyze results and draw conclusions if the hypothesis is true report results if the hypothesis is false report results and think again o This needs to be done to test a hypothesis: for setting up an experiment. o Variable- factors that change o 2 types of variables are dependent and independent. o Independent- the variable that is changed: example: temperature; water in a plant. o Dependent variable- the variable that changes as a result of the independent variable. Examples: plant growth; nutrition. o Cells- all living things have cells. Cells are very small; they grow and respond to their surroundings, and reproduce. They are complex and organized. o Unicellular- only has one cell and it is very small. Example: bacteria. o Multicellular- consists of many ells that and small and large. Example: humans. o Living things reproduce. o Organisms produce new organisms through reproductions. o Asexual- one parent. o Sexual- when you have two parents. o Universal genetic code- DNA that determines the traits for every organism on earth. Very small variations in DNA lead to very large differences in organisms. o Grow and develop- occurs at leas part of lifespan. Some organisms only grow in size, others develop. o Use materials and energy- energy used for development. Material taken is used for energy. Some organisms use photosynthesis while others consume to obtain energy. o Respond to environment- organism detect signals internally and externally and respond accordingly. o Maintain stable environment- homeostasis. o Homeostasis- process by which organisms maintain an internal balance. o Change over time- organisms evolve, basic traits inherited from parents. Do not change. Changes over long periods of time, can be dramatic. o MR.STRANGER o M-etabolism o R-espiration o S-ynthesis o T-ransport o A-ssimulation o N-utrition o G-rowth

o E-xcretion o R-eproduction o Discovery of Cell- Robert Hooke observed a piece of cork using a compound light microscope. Noticed empty chambers and referred to them as cells. These cells contain living matter. Microscopes also used to observe pond water, which contains many tiny organisms. o Cell theory- cells become known as the basic units if life. All living things are composed of cells. They are the basic units of structure and function in living things. Cells are produced from existing cells. o Prokaryotic cells- cells that lack a nucleus. Most are unicellular. Smaller and similar than eukaryotic cells. o Eukaryotic cells- contains a nucleus. Larger and more complex. Genetic material of cell is found in nucleus. o Surface cell wall and cell membranes. o Cell Wall - Found mostly in plant cells. Provides support for the cell. Extracellular structure that surrounds the cell membrane. Main functions are support for the cell and protection for the cell. Allows substances (water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.) to pass into and out of cell. Made from carbohydrates and proteins made by cell. o Cell Membrane - AKA plasma membrane. Outer membrane of the cell. Allows substances into and out of the cell. Contains proteins, which allow for the passage of materials. Proteins are surrounded by a phospholipid bi-layer (lipid bilayer) o Centrioles -Cylindrical organelles that are near the nucleus in pairs. Involved in cellular division o Chloroplasts - Found in plant cells. Contain green chlorophyll. Where photosynthesis takes place o Cytoskeleton Supports cell and provides shape. Aids in movement of materials into and out of cell. o Endoplasmic Reticulum- Tubular network fused to nuclear membrane. Is located from membrane, throughout the cytoplasm. Serves as cells transport system. 2 types: smooth ER and rough ER. Smooth- lacks ribosomes. Rough contains ribosome o Golgi- Protein packaging plant. Found near nucleus. Composed of layers forming a sac. o Lysosome Digests lipids, proteins and carbs. Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal. If lysosome breaks down, cell explodes o Mitochondria- Powerhouse of cell. Generate ATP. Double layered folded membrane. Controls level of water in cell. Forms urea o Ribosomes Protein Factories. Embedded in Rough ER o Vacuoles- Membrane bound sacs for digestion, storage, and waste removal. Contains water solution. Contractile vacuoles for water removal o Chromosomes Usually in the form of chromatin. Contains genetic information. Composed of DNA. Set number for each species o Nuclear envelope-Surrounds nucleus. Contains 2 layers. Contains pores to allow materials into and out of nucleus. o Nucleolus-Contains RNA for protein synthesis

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Head- hydrophilic tail- hydrophobic Cell membranes are selectively permeable. Allows for passage of water and solution. Small molecules pass through large dont. 2 ways substances leave/ enter a cell: passive & active. Types f solutions: isotonic; hypotonic; hypertonic Isotonic: solution concentration of solute is equal.

o Hypotonic solution: starts with more water less solute outside than inside.

o Hypertonic solution: starts with more solute less water outside than inside.

o Diffusion- passive movement of particles goes from HIGH TO LOW concentration. NO ENERGY. Movement continues until concentration of substances is equal (equilibrium) example: gas exchange in lungs. Oxygen from air to blood carbon dioxide from blood to air. o Osmosis- special example of diffusion. The diffusion of water through membrane it is passive NO ENERGY. o Transport through the membrane. o Facilitate diffusion- movement of molecules down a concentration gradient passing through membrane via specific carrier protein. Each protein has its own shape. Only lets one molecule pass through selected by size shape and change. Common molecules include glucose and amino acids. Passive NO ENERGY. o Active transport- transport of a substance across a membrane against its concentration gradient. LOW TO HIGH. This requires energy. Proteins in cell membrane act as the protein carriers. The energy for active transport comes from ATP. o Biochem o Atoms- Very small. Neutral. Consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons = positive charge. Neutrons = neutral charge. Electrons = negative charge o Elements- Pure substance. Consists of only one type of atom. Over 100 known elements. 24 of the 100 exist in the living organism. Examples: Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, etc. o Chemical compounds- Substance formed by chemical combination of two or more elements. Written as chemical formulas. Ex: Water = H2O o Carbon COMPOUNDS- ORGANIC. o Macromolecules- giant molecules made from thousands of smaller molecules. Built by joining smaller molecules together. Organic compounds classified into groups: carbs, lipids, nucleic acid, and proteins. o Carbohydrates- made up of carbon hydrogen and oxygen. Living things use carbs as main energy source. Plants and animals use carbs for structural purposes. Extra sugar is stored as a complex carb aka starch. o Monomers- in starches are sugar molecules. Single sugar molecules = monosaccharides. (Sugar) aka monomer. Ex: glucose, golactose, and

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fructose. Multiple sugar molecules= polysaccharides. Many animals store excess sugar aka glycogen. Lipids- not soluble in water. Made from carbon and hydrogen. Categories are fats, oils and waxes. Used to store energy. Parts of biological membranes and waterproof coverings. Made from 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol. Fatty acid chains- can be saturated, unsaturated, or polysaturated. Saturated= no double bonds. Unsaturated= one double bond. Polysaturated= 2 or more double bonds. Nucleic acids- macromolecules. Contain hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus. Assembled from nucleotides. Nucleotides- has 3 parts. 5-carbon sugar phosphate group and nitrogen base. Proteins- macromolecules containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Subunits called amino acids. More than 20 different amino acids exist. Some proteins control the rate of reaction for self-processes. Others form bones and muscles. Others transport substances into and out of cells and help to fight disease. Chemical reactions- process that changes one set of chemicals to another set of chemicals. Some reactions are very fast. Reactants- elements or compounds at the beginning of a chemical reaction. Products- elements or compounds made by a chemical reaction. Every organism needs a source of energy to stay alive. Plants get energy from sun. Animals get energy from consuming plants or other animals. Activation energy- energy needed to get reaction started. Enzymes- certain chemical reasons are too slow or have high activation energies. These reactions are made possible by using enzymes. They are specific and usually only catalyze one chemical reaction. Work in certain ph. levels and certain temperature. Cells contain proteins that turn enzymes on and off as they are needed by the organism. Proteins that act as catalysts. Cells use enzymes to speed up chemical reaction that take place within cell. Catalyst- speeds up rate of reaction. Lower activation energy. The enzyme- substrate complex. Enzymes provide a site where reactants can be brought together to react. This site reduces the energy needed for the reaction. The reactants of these reactions are called substrates. Activate- place where substrate binds to enzyme.

o Cells- specialized. They are given specific jobs that determine the tasks they accomplish. o Tissue- made of a group of cells. Carries out a specific function. Most multicellular organisms have 4 types: muscle, epithelial, nervous, connective. o Organs- groups of tissue working together. Takes are too complicated to be carried out by 1. o Organ systems- group of organs that work together to form a specialized function. 11 major organ systems. Muscularly, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, reproductive, endocrine, skeletal, urinary, lymphatic, nervous, and integumentary. o Smallest to largest: organelle-cell-tissue-organ-organ system- and organism. o Assigning scientific names- 18th century- referring to an organism by its common name was confusing. Common names vary among regions and languages, even in the same country. To eliminate confusion, it was agreed that one single name would be used for each species. Greek and Latin was used to name the organisms o Binomial nomenclature- Carrolus Linnaeus developed a two word naming system called binomial nomenclature. Each species is assigned a two part scientific name. Name is always written in italics. First word is always capitalized and the second is always lowercase. o Example: Grizzly Bear is Ursus arctos. Ursus is the genus name (genus to which the organism belongs). A genus is a group of closely related species o System classification- Taxon A group or level or organization. Linnaeus system uses seven taxonomic categories. Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species o Classification- Species groups of organisms that are identical to each other. Genus group of closely related species. Family genera that share many characteristics. Order broad category of families that share characteristics.

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Class- composed of similar orders. Phylum- different classes with similar characteristics grouped together. Kingdom largest and most inclusive of the taxonomic categories. Waxy Cuticle - Forms a waterproof layer to stop any loss of water. Upper Epidermis - Consisting of epidermal cells. These have no chloroplasts. Palisade cells - These contain lots of chloroplasts, which contain lot of chlorophyll. This is where photosynthesis is carried out. Spongy Mesophyll Layer Air Spaces - allow for diffusion of water vapor etc. Guard Cells - These form stomata (pores), which allow for the diffusion of gases in and out of the plant. Leaf Vein - containing xylem and phloem tubes. Maintenance of water- plants need to regulate water loss and carbon dioxide intake for photosynthesis and other life activities. When plants do not keep enough water in their cells, they wilt and die Stomate- a microscopic hole in a plant leaf that allows gases to enter and leave and water vapor to leave as well. Stomata are the plural of stomate. Guard cells- open and close the stomata. The ability of the guard cell to close during periods of limited water availability for the plant allows the plant to maintain water homeostasis Photosynthesis in overview- Process by which plants and other autotrophs store the energy of sunlight into sugars. Requires sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. Overall equation: 6 CO2 + 6 H20 C6H12O6 + 6 O2. Occurs in the leaves of plants in organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplast Structure- Inner membrane called the thylakoid membrane. Thickened regions called thylakoids. A stack of thylakoids is called a granum. (Plural grana). Stroma is a liquid surrounding the thylakoids. Pigments- Chlorophyll A is the most important photosynthetic pigment. Other pigments called antenna or accessory pigments are also present in the leaf. Chlorophyll B. Carotenoids (orange / red). Xanthophylls (yellow / brown). These pigments are embedded in the membranes of the chloroplast in groups called photosystems. Photosynthesis- Occurs in two main phases. Light reactions. Dark reactions (aka the Calvin Cycle). Light reactions are the photo part of photosynthesis. Pigments absorb light. Dark reactions are the synthesis part of photosynthesis. Trapped energy from the sun is converted to the chemical energy of sugars. Light reactions- Light-dependent reactions occur on the thylakoid membranes. Light and water are required for this process. Energy storage molecules are formed. (ATP and NADPH). Oxygen gas is made as a waste product. Dark reactions- Dark reactions (light-independent) occur in the stroma. Carbon dioxide is fixed into the sugar glucose. ATP and NADPH molecules created during the light reactions power the production of this glucose. Cellular respiration- in the powerhouse of the cell! Mitochondria- uses inner membranes of mitochondria to go through respiration. Respiration equation- C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O what is ATP? ENERGY!!!

o How is ATP used? ATP is used by the organism to digest, transform and transport materials, and also to eliminate waste products o Aerobic- w/o oxygen o Anaerobic- with oxygen o Anaerobic- AKA fermentation. Makes alcohol in yeast and bacteria. Makes lactic acid in animals this is why your muscles are sore during and after exercise. This process makes less ATP and is not as efficient as aerobic respiration. o Respiratory systemo General Information o Passageways allow air to pass directly into tissues of the body. o Air entering must be warmed, moistened and filtered. o Warmed- the capillaries. o Moistened- mucus secreting cells. o Filtered- nose hairs and mucus. o Cilia sweep the trapped particles from the lungs toward pharynx. o The mucus is then swallowed or spit out. o Pathway o Air moves through nose into pharynx. o Pharynx-throat. o The pharynx is the passageway for both air and food. o Air moves from pharynx into the trachea. o Trachea is the windpipe. o A piece of Cartilage covers entrance to the trachea when you swallow. o Cartilage- epiglottis. o At the tip of the trachea is the larynx. o Larynx is the vocal cords. o When muscles pull the vocal cords together, the air moving between them causes vibrations that produce sounds. o From the larynx, air passes through he trachea into two large passageways called bronchi. o Each bronchus leads to one of the lungs. o Within each lung each bronchus divides into smaller bronchi. o Which divide into smaller bronchioles. o The bronchioles divide until they reach a series of dead ends. o Dead ends- alveoli. o Alveoli o They are grouped in clusters. o Clusters aka groups. o A network of capillaries. o Capillaries aka small blood vessels. o Surrounds each alveolus. o This is the site of the gas exchange. o Gas Exchange o Oxygen dissolves in the moisture of the inner surface of the alveoli. o Next they diffuse across capillaries into the blood.

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Carbon Dioxide in the bloodstream diffuses across membranes into the alveolus. The process of gas exchange is efficient. Air inhaled contains 21% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide. Air exhaled contains less than 15% oxygen and 4% carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin Oxygen carrying protein in blood. It binds with oxygen. Increases carrying capacity of blood 60x. Without hemoglobin you would be 300L of blood. Breathing This is the movement of air into and out of the lungs. Air pressure is responsibleNOT muscles. Lungs are sealed in 2 sacs. (Pleural Membranes) At the bottom of the respiratory cavity is the diaphragm. When you breathe in, the diaphragm contracts and expand the value of the chest cavity. This creates a vacuum like atmosphere because the chest cavity is sealed. Air gets sucked into the lungs. Why Smoking is Bad The upper part of the respiratory system is able to filter dust and dirt that could damage the lungs and the ability to filter. Nicotine, carbon monoxide and tar are 3 of the most dangerous substances in cigarettes. Nicotine-stimulant that increases heart rate and blood pressure. Carbon Monoxide- poisonous gases that blocks transport of oxygen by hemoglobin. Tar- contains compounds that cause cancer. These 3 compounds also paralyze cilia when inhaled in the respiratory system. Without cilia, inhaled particles stick to the walls of respiratory system and enter the lungs. Mucus becomes trapped which explains smokers cough. Also it causes inflammation of the respiratory system, which reduces airflow to alveoli. Diseases Caused by Smoking Chronic Bronchitis- bronchi becomes clogged with mucus and swollen. People have a hard time doing daily tasks. Ex: walking up stairs. Emphysema loss of elasticity in lungs. Makes breathing difficult. People cannot get enough oxygen to the body tissues. Therefore they cannot get rid of the CO2 produced by cellular respiratory. Human Digestive System (10% of test) Digestive System Made up of digestive tract and accessory glands. Digestive tract is 9 meters long. Purpose is to get energy and nutrients out of the food we eat. Digestive Tract Pathway

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This is the pathway that takes the food through the digestive system. Mouth-Esophagus-Stomach-Small Intestine- Large Intestine-rectum-Anus. Accessory Glands Exocrine glands that secrete digestive liquids through ducts into the digestive tract. 3 Main glands are: salivary glands-pancreas-liver. Mouth and Salivary Glands Mouth mechanically and chemically break up the food. Teeth mechanically break up food. Mechanical digestion- breaks down food into smaller pieces to increase surface area so it can be more easily digested. Salivary Glands-produce saliva. Saliva is made up of mostly water, which moistens food making it easier to swallow. Ptyalin and Amylase are 2 digestive enzymes in saliva, which begin the breakdown of starch to simple sugar. Esophagus Is aka gullet or a muscular tube. Peristalsis- waves of muscle contraction that push food through the digestive tract. It takes food from the throat and pushes it down through the neck and into the stomach. This takes 5-10 seconds. Stomach The thick muscles in the stomach wall contract to mash up the food. Chemical digestion of protein begins here. Gastric glands secrete glastic juice, which contains digestive enzymes acids and mucus. Pepsin- begins with protein digestion. Hydrochloric acid- produces acidic environment in stomach so digestive enzymes can work better. Mucus-protects the stomach wall from acids. Digestion here takes 2-6 hours. Small Intestine 6 meters long. Final digestion and nutrient absorption occur here. Takes 5-6 hours. In the beginning mostly digestion is occurring. In the end mostly absorption is occurring. Villi are the small finger like projections that increase surface area of the small intestine, which maximizes absorption. Villi Capillaries- simple sugars. Amino acids, vitamins, and minerals are absorbed into the blood stream. Lateral- fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into these tiny lymphatic vessels. Pancreas

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Produces several digestive enzymes the chemically digest. They break down proteins, fats, and nucleic acids in the small intestine. Chemical Digestion Protein to amino acids Carbs to simple sugars Lipids to fatty acids Nucleic acids to nucleotides Liver Among many other functions in the body it produces bile, which doesnt contain any digestive enzymes. Bile is stored in the gall bladder. Bile emulsifies the fat into smaller globules. This aids in the absorption of fats. Large Intestine For reabsorption 12-24 hours. Rectum and Anus Feces are stored in the rectum until eliminated. Pushed through muscle- the anus. Disorders of the Digestive System Heart burn- painful burning sensation in the center of the chest caused when the stomach acid moves out of the stomach into the esophagus. Caused by over eating or drinking. Peptic Ulcer- holes in wall of stomach caused by acid. For years people thought this was caused by stress and spicy food. Really caused by a bacteria helicobacter pylori. 90% of ulcers cured by antibiotics. Appendicitis- inflammation of the appendix small organ located below colon. No function in humans used for cellulose digestion in some animals. Diarrhea- not enough water absorbed by large intestine. Loss of salts and water can be life threatening. Human Circulatory System (10% of test) We have a closed circulatory system. Blood is pumped through a system of vessels. System consists of heart (pump) blood vessels and blood. The Heart Located near the center of the chest. Hallow Composed almost entirely of muscle. Size of clenched fist. In walls of heart 2 layers of tissue from a sandwich around a thick layer of muscle called myocardium. Contractions of this pump blood through the circulatory system The heart contracts about 73 times per min. Pumps 70 mL of plod with each contraction. Right and left sides of heart separated by septum. Septum-wall prevents mixing of oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood.

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R.R.L.L.L.B. RAtrium. RVentricle. Lungs. LAtrium LVentricle. Body Heart Beat Composed of individual fibers. Atrium and ventricles contracts as a unit. It begins with a group of cardiac muscle cells in the right atrium known as sinoatrial node (sa node.) SA node paces the heartbeat. Aka pacemaker. Impulse spreads from pacemaker to atria. From atria signal is sent to atrioventricular node and then to bundle of fibers in ventricle. When ventricle contracts blood flows out. Blood Vessels As blood moves through system it moves through 3 typed of blood. Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins. Arteries Large vessels carry blood from heart to tissue of body. Carries oxygen rich blood with exception of pulmonary arteries. Thick walls need to withstand pressure produced when heart pushes blood into them. Capillaries Smallest blood vessels. Walls are one cell thick and narrow. Important for bringing nutrients and absorbing CO2 and other waste products. Veins Once blood passed through the capillary system it must be returned to the heart. Done by veins. Walls contain connective tissue and smooth muscle. Largest veins contain one-way valves that keep blood flowing toward the heart. Many found near skeletal muscles. When muscles contract, blood is forces it thorough veins. Disorders of Circulatory System Atherosclerosisis fatty deposits (plaque) in walls of arteries Deposits can obstruct flow of blood, which can raise blood pressure. Increase risk of blood clots. If clot breaks free it can obstruct flow to tissues and heart attack is due to this. Coronary arteries may become blocked; Heart muscle begins to die due to lack of O2. Stroke- is when blood clot may be leading to brain. Brain cells are starved of oxygen and nutrients. Loss of function may occur. Can cause paralysis, loss of speech or death. Blood Is composed of plasma and blood cells. Types of cells are: red and white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma Straw colored.

o 90% water 10% dissolved gasses, salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, wastes and proteins. o Red Blood Cells o Most numerous types. o Transport oxygen, and get color from hemoglobin. o Disk shaped made in red bone marrow. o Circulate for 120 days. o White Blood Cells o Guard against infection, parasites, and bacteria. o They increase when body is fighting. o Lymphocytes produce antibodies. Which fight against pathogens and remember them. o Platelets o Aid in body clotting. o Small fragments. o Stick to edges of broken blood cell and secrete clotting factor help from clot. o Blood Clotting Problems o Itemophelia-genetic disorder disrupts clotting. Very careful to avoid injury. Treated by injecting extracts that contain missing clotting factor. o Excretory System: o General every cell in the body produces metabolic wastes, such as excess salts, carbon dioxide and urea (a toxic compound produced when amino acids are used for energy.) The process by which these metabolic wastes are eliminated is known as excretion. The skin lungs and kidneys make up the excretory system. o The Kidneys Main organs of the excretory system. Located on either side of the spinal columns near the lower back. Each kidney is about the size of a clenched fist. A tube called ureter causes urine to the bladder from the kidney. o Kidney Function Waste filled blood enters the kidney (via renal artery.) As blood travels through urea, excess water and other wastes are collected as urine. Clean filtered blood is returned to the body via the renal vein. o Kidney Structure 2 distinct regions. Inner part: renal medulla outer part: renal cortex o Nephrons Functional units of the kidneys called nephrons. Each is a small individual processing unit. About 1 million per kidney. Nephrons located in the renal cortex. Each nephron has its own blood supply consisting of an arteriole, a venule, and a network of capillaries. Blood enters through arteriole. Blood is filtered as it passes through the capillaries. Waste products collected in a duct, leading to a ureter. Clean blood leaves the nephron through the venule. o Filtration Blood enters the nephron and flows into the glomerulus. Glomerulus- small

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network of capillaries in the upper end of the nephron. Encased by a cup shaped structure called the Bowmans capsule. Fluid flows from the bloods into Bowmans Capsule (aka filtration.) Materials filtered from the blood are called filtrate (contains water, urea, glucose, salts, amino acids, and vitamins.) Some particles such as plasma proteins, cells and platelets are too large to pass through capillary walls so they stay in the blood. Reabsorption and Secretion Kidneys filter entire volume of blood every 45 mins. Not all filtrate is secreted. Most material removed from the blood at Bowmans Capsule returns to blood via reabsorption. Nutrients (amino acids and glucose) are removed from filtrate by active transport. Water follows these materials by osmosis and about 99% of water that enters Bowmans capsule is reabsorbed into blood. Material that remains after reabsorption, called urine, is emptied into a collecting duct. Urine is concentrated in loop of henle (water is conserved and urine is minimized. Purified blood is returned to circulation. Urine is collected in the urinary bladder. Urine is stored until it is released from the body through urethra. Disorders of the excretory system Gout- caused by increased levels of uric acid. Crystallizes and deposits in joints tendons and tissues. May be caused by sugar, alcohol, dairy and seafood. Sweat- release of water and salts from the body through sweats glands. Function is to regulate body temperature. Increase in body temperature= sweating. Sweat evaporates, pulling heat from the body. The Immune System Vocabulary Antigens- molecules on outer surfaces of cells that immune system recognizes as part of the body or an outside invader. GOOD OR BAD. Pathogens- organisms that invade the body and cause disease. BAD. Antibodies- proteins produced by immune system, either attacks invading pathogens or marks them from killing. GOOD Histamines- a chemical that is released as the immune systems response to an allergy. Antihistamines- a substance that reduces the effects of histamines and the symptoms they cause. Vaccine- substances made of weakened pathogens to protect the body from future invasion of the pathogen. Microbes- microscopic organism. Immunity- destroys pathogens before they cause disease. Passive Immunity- antibodies were acquired from outside source (injection would be temporary, or from mother to embryo.) Active immunity- development of antibodies in response to an antigen (can be caused by vaccine.) Factors that Upset homeostasis 1- viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other parasites may infect plants and animals and interfere with normal life functions. 2- sometimes the immune system attacks something harmless inside the body, even the bodies own cells. Allergic reactions: caused by bodys immune

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response to usually harmless environmental substances. Autoimmune diseases: immune system may attack some of the bodys cells. Transplanted organs that contain cells unrecognized by the body can be attacked. 3- Gene mutations in a cell can result in uncontrolled cells divisions, called cancer. Exposure to certain chemical and radiation increases risk of cancer. 4- other doctors which may show up right away or not for many years include: toxic substances poor nutrition organ malfunction personal behavior Immune System White blood cells- some of them engulf invaders others produce antibodies that attack them or mark them for killing. Some specialized WBCs will remain, able to fight off invaders of the same kind. This is how organisms become immune to an invader those WBCs already have antibodies. Vaccinations use weakened microbes to stimulate the immune system to react. This reaction prepares the body to fight invasions by the same microbes. Immune System Some viral diseases such as AIDS damage the immune system leaving the body unable to deal with multiple infectious agents and cancerous cells. The Lymphatic System Network of vessels that works with circulatory system. As blood circulates some plasma leaks out of capillaries and surround the cells (intercellular fluid.) The blood needs some of this fluid lack so it uses a network of vessels to collect the lost plasma. This network of vessels makes the lymphatic system. One fluid inside this system is known as lymph. These vessels connect and become larger. This system is released to the immune system. Along the vessels are enlargements called lymph nodes. Nodes act as filters trapping bacteria and other microorganisms; they become swollen (swollen glands.) Fighting infectious Diseases research allows for developments in diagnosing preventing treating controlling and curing diseases of plants and animals. Antibiotics- compounds that kill bacteria without harming cells. Work by interfering with cellular processes of microorganisms. Penicillin was first discovered (Fleming.) Streptomycin- disrupts the ribosomes of the bacteria. Nervous system Nearly all-multicellular organisms have communication systems. Specialized cells carry messages from one cell to another so that communication throughout the body is smooth and efficient. In humans, these cells are in the nervous system. The nervous system controls and coordinates functions throughout the body and responds to internal and external stimuli. Neurons

o Messages carried by the nervous system are electrical signals called impulses. called neurons. o

The cells that transmit these impulses are

Neurons can be classified into three types: 1. Sensory neurons carry impulses from the sense organs to the spinal cord and brain. 2. Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain and the spinal cord to muscles and glands 3. Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons and carry impulses between them.
Cell Body The largest part of a typical neuron is the cell body. The cell body contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm. This is the place where most of the metabolic activity in the neuron takes place.

o o Dendrites o Spreading out from the cell body are short, branched extensions called dendrites. o Dendrites carry impulses from the environment or from other neurons toward the cell body. o Axon o The long fiber that carries impulses away from the cell body is called the axon. o The axon ends in a series of small swellings called axon terminals.

Neurons may have a large number of dendrites, but usually only has one axon. In most animals, axons and dendrites are clustered into bundles of fibers called nerves. Some nerves contain only a few neurons, but many others have hundreds to thousand of neurons. o o o In some neurons, an insulating membrane known as the myelin sheath surrounds the axon. o The myelin sheath that surrounds an axon leaves many gaps, called nodes, where the axon is exposed. o As an impulse moves along the axon, it jumps from one node to the next, which increases the speed at which the impulse travels. o The nerve impulse o Nerve impulses are electrical. o Think about electricity moving through a metal wire. o Lets start by looking at a neuron at rest (not carrying an impulse). o Resting potential o A neuron has an electrical potential across its cell membrane of about 70 millivolts. o The cell produces a voltage roughly equal to one twentieth of a flashlight battery. o Where does this voltage come from? o The potential, or voltage, comes from actions of the cell membrane pump, which is powered by the energy of ATP? o This pump consists of a membrane protein that forces sodium ions out of the cell and pumps potassium ions in. o This process, which involves active transport, ends with the cytoplasm of the neuron containing for potassium ions and fewer sodium ions then the surrounding medium. o Potassium ions leak out across the cell membrane more easily than sodium ions leak in. This creates a negative charge on the inside of the cell membrane. o The charge difference is known as the resting potential of the neuron. o The moving impulse o Think about a ripple passing along the surface of a pond. o The impulse causes a movement of ions across the cell membrane.

o An impulse begins when a neuron is stimulated by another neuron or by the environment. o Once the impulse begins, it travels rapidly down the axon away from the cell body and toward the axon terminals. o An impulse is a sudden reversal of the membrane potential. o What causes the reversal of the membrane potential? o The cell membrane of a neuron contains thousands of protein channels that allow ions to pass through. o In many cases, these channels are closed. o As the impulse travels down the axon, the sodium gates open which allow positively charges sodium ions to flow inside the membrane. The inside of the membrane becomes more positive than the outside. o The reversal of charges is called an action potential. o As the impulse passes, potassium gates open allowing potassium ions to flow out. o This restores the resting potential so the neuron is again negatively charged on the inside of the cell membrane and positively charged on the outside. o An impulse at any point on the membrane causes an impulse at the next point along the membrane. o Think about a line of dominoes falling. As each domino falls it causes the next

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domino in line to fall. Threshold The strength of an impulse is always the same. The stimulus must be strong enough to cause the impulse to happen. The minimum level of a stimulus required to activate a neuron on called the threshold. Any stimulus that is stronger than the threshold will produce an impulse. Any stimulus weaker than the threshold will produce no impulse.

The synapse At the end of the neuron, the impulse reaches the axon terminal. This is usually the place where the neuron makes contact with another cell. The neuron may pass the impulse along to the second cell. For example: motor neurons pass their impulses to muscle cells. The location at which an impulse is transferred to another cell is called the synapse. o A small gap separates the axon terminal from the dendrite of the adjacent cell. o The terminals contain tiny sacs, or vesicles, filled with neurotransmitters. o Neurotransmitters are chemicals used by a neuron to transmit an impulse across a synapse to another cell. o When an action potential arrives at an axon terminal, the sacs release neurotransmitters into the gap between the two adjacent cells. o The neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap and attach themselves to receptors on the membrane of the adjacent cell. o This stimulus causes positive sodium ions to rush across the cell membrane, which stimulates the second cell. o If the stimulus exceeds the cells threshold, a new impulse begins. o The neurotransmitters are only bound to the receptors for a second before they are released from the cell surface. o They may then be broken down by enzymes, or may be taken up and recycled by the axon terminal. o Divisions of the nervous system o Neurons join together to form a complex network called the nervous system. o The human nervous system is separated into two major divisions: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. o The central nervous system is the control center of the body. o The central nervous system relays messages, processes information, and analyzes information. o The peripheral nervous system receives information from the environment and relays commands from the CNS to organs and glands. o The central nervous system o Consists of: o The brain and the spinal cord. o The skull and the vertebrae in the spinal column protect the brain and spinal cord. o Both the brain and spinal cord are wrapped in three layers of connective tissue known as meninges. o Between two of the three layers is a space filled with cerebrospinal fluid. o Cerebrospinal fluid bathes the brain and spinal cord and acts as a shock absorber. o The fluid also allows for the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the blood and nervous tissue. o The Brain o

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The brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons. The neurons in the brain are mainly interneurons. The brain has a mass of about 1.4 kilograms.

o o The Cerebrum o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o The cerebrum is the largest and most prominent region of the human brain. It is responsible for the voluntary (conscious) activities of the body. It is the site of intelligence, learning and judgment. A deep groove separates the cerebrum into the right and left hemispheres. A band of tissue called the corpus callosum connects these two hemispheres. Folds and grooves on the cerebrum increase surface area. Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into lobes. Each half of the cerebrum deals with the opposite side of the body. The opposite brain controls sensations and movements. The cerebrum consists of two surfaces. The outer surface is called the cerebral cortex and consists of grey matter. Gray matter is densely packed nerve cell bodies. The cerebral cortex processes information from the sense organs and controls body movements. The inner surface of the cerebrum consists of white matter. White matter is bundles of axons with myelin sheaths. The myelin sheaths give the white matter its color. The cerebellum Its the second largest region of the brain. Located at the back of the skull. Center for coordination and balance of the muscles so the body can move smoothly and efficiently. The Brain Stem The brain stem connects the brain and spinal cord. Its located just below the cerebellum and includes two regions, the pons and the medulla oblongata. Each of these regions regulates the flow of information between the brain and the rest of the body. The brain stem controls things like blood pressure, heart rate, breathing and swallowing. The thalamus and hypothalamus They are found between the brain stem and the cerebrum. The thalamus receives messages from the sense organs. It relays the message to the proper region of the cerebrum. The hypothalamus is just below the thalamus.

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It is the control center for recognition and analysis. It controls things like hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, and body temperature. The spinal cord Its the main communication link between the brain and the rest of the body. Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves branch out from the spinal cord, connecting the brain to the body. Certain information, such as reflexes, is processed directly in the spinal cord. A reflex is a quick, automatic response to a stimulus. Sneezing is an example of a reflex. A reflex allows your body to respond to danger without spending time or thinking about it. The peripheral nervous system The PNS lies outside of the CNS. It consists of all the nerves and associated cells not part of the brain and spinal cord. Included are the cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and ganglia (collections of nerve cell bodies). The PNS can be divided into two divisions: the sensory division and the motor division. The sensory division of the PNS transmits impulses from sense organs to the CNS. The motor division transmits impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands. The motor division is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system Regulates activities that are under conscious control, such as movement of skeletal muscles. Motor neurons of the somatic nervous system are used every time you move. Some somatic nerves are involved with reflexes and can act with or without conscious control. If you step on a tack your leg may recoil before you feel the pain. This happens because receptors in your skin stimulate sensory neurons, which carry an impulse to your spinal cord. Before the information is relayed to your brain a group of neurons in your spinal cord activates the appropriate motor neurons. The autonomic nervous system Regulates activities that are automatic, or involuntary. Nerves of the ANS control functions not under conscious control. For example, heartbeat is controlled by the ANS. The two parts of the Autonomic Nervous System are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Most organs are under control of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. These two systems have opposite effects on the same organs. Heart rate is increased by the sympathetic nervous system and decreased by the parasympathetic nervous system.

o The two systems are comparable to a car. One is the gas pedal and one is the break. o Disorders of the nervous system o Polio viral. Disruption in motor neurons. Cause muscle weakness and paralysis. o Stroke clot in cranial artery deoxygenation of part of brain. Can result in inability to move limbs disrupt speech. Can cause blindness. o Meningitis inflammation of protective covering of brain and spinal cord. Symptoms headache, stiff neck, light sensitivity, vomiting. Treated with antibiotics. Can lead to deafness, epilepsy cognitive difficulties. o Cerebral palsy non-progressive, non-contagious motor disease. Can develop from development to age 3. Leads to problems with communication, movement, and sight. Involves interruption between cortex and other parts of brain/ body. o The skeletal system o Functions o Support o Protection (internal organs) o Allows for movement o Stores mineral reserves o Site of blood cell formation o General o 2 main parts of skeleton: axial and appendicular o Axial o Supports central axis of body o Consists of skull, vertebral column and ribs o Appendicular o Consists of arms, legs, pelvis and shoulder area o Structure o Bones are living! o Made of a network of cells and protein fibers that are surrounded by calcium salts. o Bones surrounded by tough CT (periostium) o Blood vessels pass through periostium and carry O2 and nutrients to bone. o Structure o Below periostium is compact bone o Bone is not solid. o Running through bone is a network of canals (Haversian canals). o Haversian canals contain blood vessels and nerves. o Structure o Inside of compact bone is spongy bone. o Found on the ends of long bones and in middle of short, flat bones. o Not really soft and spongy. o Strong

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Structure Bones contain soft tissue (bone marrow) 2 types: red and yellow Yellow is made of fat cells Red produces RBCs, some WBCs and platelets. Bone Development Cartilage replaced by bone during the process of ossification (bone formation). Cells that have names starting with osteo are bone cells. Osteoblasts create bone, osteocytes maintain cellular activities of bones, osteoclasts break down bones. Bone Formation Osteoblasts secrete mineral deposits that replace cartilage in developing bones. When osteoblasts become surrounded by bone tissue they turn into osteocytes. Bone Formation Long bones have growth plates at either end. The growth of cartilage at these plates causes bones to lengthen. Bone eventually replaces the new cartilage. Growth plate eventually becomes ossified as well. Bone Formation Occurs when a bone is broken. Osteoclasts remove damaged bone tissue Osteoblasts make new bone tissue Types of Joints Joints Connect bones to other bones Permit movement without damaging each other Some allow extensive movement Others allows no movement at all Depending on the type of movement joints are classified as immoveable, slightly moveable or freely moveable. Immoveable Joints Called fixed joints No movement Bones are interlocked or fused and held by CT. Ex: place where bones of skull meet Slightly Moveable Allow for small amounts of movement Bones are separated from each other Ex: Joints between vertebrae Freely Moveable Joint Permit movement in one or more directions Ball and socket joint (circular movement) Hinge joint (back and forth movement) Pivot joint (one bone rotates around another) Saddle Joint (one bone slides in 2 directions) Ball and Socket

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Hinge Joint Pivot Joint Saddle Joint Structure of Joints Freely moveable joints Ends of bone covered in cartilage for protection Joints surrounded by capsule that holds bones together but still allows movement 2 layers: one forms ligaments (CT that hold bones together), the other forms synovial fluid (lubrication for bones) Structure of Joints Sometimes-small sacs of fluid form. Reduces friction and acts as shock absorber. When tissue is damaged, body responds through inflammation. Arthritis is inflammation of one or more joints. The muscular system Types 3 types of muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth and cardiac. Skeletal Muscle Attached to bones Responsible for voluntary movements Has striations Controlled by CNS Consist of muscle fibers, connective tissues, blood vessels and nerves. Smooth Muscles Not under voluntary control Spindle shaped cells Found in hollow structures such as stomach, blood vessels and small and large intestines. Smooth Muscles Responsible for: Moving food through digestive tract Controlling blood flow Decreasing size of pupils in bright light Most functions without nervous system stimulation. Cardiac Muscles Found ONLY in heart Striated cells that are smaller than most Muscle Contraction Skeletal muscle striations caused by alternating bands of thick and thin filaments Thick filaments have myosin Thin filaments have actin Muscle Contraction A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide over the thick filaments To contract:

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Myosin filament forms a cross bridge with the actin filament. The actin filament is pulled and the distance decreases When the cross bridge detaches the muscle relaxes. How Muscles and Bones Interact Skeletal muscles joined to bones by CT called tendons Tendons make bones act as levers by pulling them. The joint is the fixed part around which the lever moves. Muscles provide force needed Muscular disorders Strains, cramps, and tendinitis. Pancreas digestive organ whose secretions help break down food. Also releases hormones into blood made of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans. Cells release insulin and glucagon. These help to keep blood glucose level stable. Insulin stimulates cells in liver and muscle to remove sugar from blood and store it as glycogen. Glucagon stimulates liver to break down glycogen and release glucose back into blood. o Type 1- develops before 15. Little or no secretion of insulin. Must have strict diet and receive insulin injections. o Reproduction o o Asexual vs. Sexual o Asexual= o Done by single celled organisms o Ex: Amoebas o Sexual=2 cells from different parents combine to make one organism o Done by plants, animals o Ex: maple trees, giraffes o Sexual Development o Gonads are the male and female reproductive structures that contain hormones o Ex: Ovaries and Testes o Gonads do not become active until puberty o =Sexual maturation; when reproductive system becomes fully functional o Male Reproductive System o FSH and testosterone stimulate the development of sperm o Sperm are one-celled organisms that carry genetic information of the father o Male Reproductive System o 2-6 milliliters of semen contain more than 200-600 million sperm o The chances of one sperm fertilizing one egg, if one is available is very good o Male Reproductive System o Main Structures that deliver sperm: o Testes: make sperm o Epididymis: where mature sperm are stored o Vas deferens: sperm travel through here o Urethra: exit way for sperm/urine o Penis: where urethra passes through

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See handout Female Reproductive System Ovulation=egg release When follicle has matured, egg is released Egg is swept from ovary into one of the Fallopian tubes Egg moves in fluid in tubes and is pushed by cilia in tubes Egg can become fertilized in tube After a few days, egg is passed into Uterus Lining of uterus is ready to receive fertilized egg and nurture development of embryo Female Reproductive System FSH and LH stimulate cells in ovaries to produce estrogen Follicles are the clusters of cells that surround a single egg Follicles help an egg mature for release into the reproductive tract Females are born with 400,000 immature eggs (primary follicles) and do not produce any more eggs in her lifetime. Only 400 of the eggs will actually be released. Menstrual Cycle Occurs after puberty Regulated by hormones FSH, Estrogen, LH, Progesterone Controlled by negative feedback of endocrine system and reproductive system On a monthly (28 day) cycle Menstrual Cycle 4 stages 1. Follicular phase: Hormones cause follicle to develop into maturity Estrogen makes lining in uterus thicken to receive a possibly fertilized egg Development of egg takes 10 days in this cycle Menstrual Cycle 2. Ovulation phase: Flood of FSH and LH are released and cause follicle to rupture releases egg to fallopian tubes Shortest phase in cycle (approx. 3-4 days) 3. Luteal Phase Follicle turns yellow (corpus luteum) and releases estrogen and progesterone to stimulate cell growth and tissue development in lining of uterus Chances for fertilization are greatest during first 2 days of luteal phase This phase is 10-14 days after completion of last menstrual cycle

Menstruation o If fertilization does not occur, within 2-3 days of ovulation, egg will pass through uterus without implantation o Follicle will break down and release less estrogen and progesterone o Lining of uterine wall will detach and with blood and unfertilized egg, will pass through vagina o Menstruation lasts 3-7 days

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First day of menstruation begins new cycle Early Development Fertilization=sperm and egg joining Zygote=the fertilized egg Embryo=when fertilized egg had divided into 2 or more cells, to form a ball of cells Ball of cells will attach itself to uterine wall and continue to divide and differentiate Placenta=connection b/w mother and embryo; the embryos organ of respiration, nourishment and excretion Early Development Twins Fraternal twins= when 2 sperm fertilize two eggs Identical twins= when 1 zygote splits into two Mitosis Asexual Reproduction Reproduction in which all genetic material comes from one parent. Types of Asexual Reproduction Binary fission involves an equal division of both the organisms cytoplasm and nucleus to form two identical organisms (amoeba) Budding involves one parent dividing its nucleus (genetic material) equally, but cytoplasm unequally (yeast) Sporulation (spore formation) is reproduction involving specialized single cells coming from one parent (mold spores) Cloning is the production of identical genetic copies. Cell Cycle Part of the cell cycle (describes the different stages a cell goes through) 3 main stages: Interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis Mitosis Mitosis is the method used for cell division and reproduction in cells not involved in sexual reproduction. This process starts with one replication (copying of the chromosome material) and one division of the chromosome material. This results in the chromosome numbers in the two cells produced being the same as in the parent cell Results of Mitosis The same chromosome number is retained from generation to generation. Each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the chromosomes of the parent cell. (Clones) Stages of Mitosis Stages of Mitosis During Interphase, the cell replicates its DNA Mitosis is the division of the nucleus One copy of DNA is given to each new cell There are four phases of Mitosis:

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

o Prophase o The DNA condenses and coils into Chromatids. The DNA doubled during Interphase, so there are 2 copies of each Chromatid. o The 2 copies are held together by a Centromere and form a Chromosome. o Metaphase o Each chromosome attaches to a spindle fiber at its centromere o Chromosomes line up across the center of the cell o The centromere holds both of the chromatids together o Anaphase o The centromeres split and the two chromatids separate as the spindles pull them apart. o The spindles pull the chromatids to opposite ends of the cell. o The ends begin to pull apart and the cell becomes stretched out. o Telophase o Chromosomes stretch out and lose their rod-like appearance. o New nuclear membranes begin to form around each region of chromosomes. o Cytokinesis o Cells actually split apart. o The cell membrane squeezes together o Cytoplasm divides and the organelles are distributed into each daughter cell. o End of the cell cycle. From here the cells go into Interphase. o Meiosis o General o Lets start with a fruit fly which has 8 chromosomes o 4 of the chromosomes came from the flys father and 4 came from the flys mother. o These two sets of chromosomes are known as homologous, which means that each chromosome from the male has a corresponding chromosome from the female. o Fruit Flies Continued o A cell containing BOTH SETS of homologous chromosomes is known as diploid (meaning two sets) o The number of chromosomes in a diploid cell is represented as 2N. o Since the diploid number in a fruit fly is 8, we write 2N=8. o Gametes o Gametes are sex cells. o Gametes contain ONLY a single set of chromosomes o Called haploid cells. o The fruit fly is written as N=4, meaning the haploid number is 4 o Phases of Meiosis o Meiosis process of division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell.

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2 stages: 1st is Meiosis I and the 2nd is Meiosis 2 Meiosis I Each chromosome is replicated Cell begins to divide in a way that looks like mitosis Each chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome to form a tetrad Portions of tetrads are exchanged during crossing over The chromosomes separate and 2 new cells form. Meiosis II The 2 cells produced by meiosis I enter a 2nd division. Neither goes through replication before entering meiosis II During metaphase II, the chromosomes line up in the center of each cell In anaphase II, the chromatids separate Meiosis II Each of the four cells contains half of the number of chromosomes This is the haploid number (N) DNA and DNA Replication Whats It Made Of? Made of nucleotides Each nucleotide has 3 parts: A 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose) A phosphate group A nitrogenous base (adenine(A), guanine(G), cytosine(C) or thyamine (T) ) A and G are purines C and T are pyrimidines The Structure Double helix (twisted ladder) The rungs are made of nitrogenous bases C always binds with G A always binds with T Where is it Found? Found in the nucleus of every cell Situated in chromosomes Number of chromosomes varies between species DNA Replication Structure allows us to understand how it can be copied Discovered by Watson and Crick Each strand of DNA has all the information needed to construct other half Strands are complimentary to each other (can be used to make each other) How Does it Happen Bonded nucleotides separated by DNA helicase This unzips the DNA in either direction DNA polymerase adds the correct base pair to either strand in opposite directions Mutations What are they? Occasionally cells make mistakes when copying their DNA.

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Results in inserting incorrect base into sequence or skipping a base. Changes affect genetic information Gene mutations result from changes in single gene Chromosomal mutations involve whole chromosomes (multiple genes) Gene Mutations Majority include just one nucleotide, some do involve several nucleotides. Point mutation-mutation affecting only one nucleotide Occur at single point on DNA sequence. Gene Mutations Some point mutations substitute one nucleotide for another. This changes the amino acid being coded for. Gene Mutations Sometimes a nucleotide is inserted or deleted- called frame shift mutations. The reading frame is shifted in either direction. This affects every amino acid following the insertion or deletion. This can alter proteins to the point that they dont function Chromosomal Mutations Involves changes in number or structure of chromosomes. May change the locations of genes on chromosomes and even the number of copies of some genes. Chromosomal Mutations 4 types: Deletion- loss of all or part of chromosome Duplication segment of chromosome is repeated Inversion- when part of chromosome becomes oriented in reverse of usual direction. Translocation- when part of the chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome. Evolution Natural Selection The evolutionary process that selects the variations of organisms best suited for a particular environment. Provides scientific explanation for the fossil record as well as molecular/structural similarities among organisms. How closely organisms are related can be estimated from DNA similarities Natural Selection The graph shows: All of the primates had a common ancestor Humans and chimps have the greatest similarity in DNA (they are evolutionary the closest) Theory of Natural Selection First suggested by Charles Darwin Controlled by nature rather than by people Individuals that survive are able to reproduce and pass genetic information to the next generation. Organisms not successful in the environment die.

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Types of Natural Selection Overproduction: within a population more offspring born than can survive. Competition: size of population remains constant due to limited resources Types of Natural Selection Survival of the Fittest: individuals who survive are best adapted due to variations that fit with the environment. Genetic variability mainly due to mutation and genetic recombination Variation increases the chance that some members will survive under changed environmental conditions. Types of Natural Selection Reproduction: Best adapted individuals survive and reproduce (favorable variations passed on) Speciation: As time and generations continue, adaptations are passed and new species evolve from a common ancestor. What is an Adaptation? Variation, which assists an organism or species in survival. Adaptations include: structural changes, behaviors, or physiology that enhances survival and reproductive success in an environment. Other Concepts to Understand Some characteristics give individuals an advantage over others in surviving and reproducing. Advantages offspring are more likely to survive and reproduce Behaviors evolve through evolution-behaviors ensure reproductive success. Modern Examples of Natural Selection Peppered Moth: Two varieties existed (dark and light) Light colored moth hid on birch tree bark to avoid being eaten by birds. As industrialization and coal burning increased the environment in England became dirtier Dark colored moth blended into trees Light colored moths easily seen and eaten by birds Peppered Moth Modern Examples of Natural Selection Insects resistant to insecticides: Insecticides kill insects not resistant Insects that are resistant live and reproduce Insecticide acts as a selecting agent Modern Examples of Natural Selection Bacterial resistance to antibiotics Bacteria not resistant are killed by it Resistant bacteria live to reproduce Acts as a selecting agent Evolution and Extinction Changes often occur like growth of a bush. Some branches survive from beginning with little change, some die out, others branch repeatedly (giving rise to more complex organisms).

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Called cladogram or phylogenetic tree Fossil Record Remains of organisms are preserved Relative Dating of Sedimentary Rock and Fossils Upper strata contains younger fossils (more complex organisms) Lower strata has older fossils (simpler life forms) Tendency for increasing complexity amongst organisms. Variation Sources of variation: Exchange and recombining of genes during meiosis and fertilization Mutations are random changes in the genes or DNA of sex cells-may result in new gene combinations creating variation Mutations Only mutations occurring in sex cells can be passed on to offspring. Mutations are the source for genetic variation Sexual reproduction leads to genetic variation Variation and Evolution Evolution is the consequence of the following factors: The potential for a species to increase numbers Genetic variability of offspring due to mutation and recombination Finite supply of resources required for life Ensuing selection by the environment of those offspring better able to survive/reproduce Variation and Evolution Some characteristics give individuals an advantage over others in surviving and reproducing. The proportion of individuals with advantageous characteristics increases. Example of Variation Driving Natural Selection Natural selection favors long necks. Better chance to get higher leaves. Favored characteristic passed on to next generation. Example Continued Original group exhibits variation in neck length. After generations, still variation in group, but tendency is toward longer neck. Support For Theory of Evolution Chemistry-all living things have same nucleic acids Nucleic acids all have same structure and function (DNA is always similar) Leads to similarities in proteins and enzymes\ Same proteins=same DNA Support for Theory of Evolution Cell Structures All living things made of cells (organelles similar) Anatomical Features Organisms have similar features. Basis for development of five kingdoms Embryology

o Early embryos of organisms resemble each other o Geographic Isolation leads to Speciation o When small group is separated from main population, the gene frequency is changed. o New population becomes its own species. o Different mutations occur within main population and new population o Different environmental factors may be acting on each population leading to different adaptations o How Life May Have Begun on Earth o Heterotroph Hypothesis o First life forms not able to make their own food o Organisms made of simple sugars, amino acids and nucleic acids o Molecules worked together to form cell like structures o Used anaerobic respiration ( like yeast) o O2 in atmosphere allowed for aerobic respiration o Levels of organization o Living organisms interact with and are dependent upon their environment and each other. o The components of living systems interact to maintain balance. o The most basic level is a single organism. o Groups of organisms belonging to a single species form a population. o An ecological community formed by the living organisms in an area. o Ecosystem- the living things in an area and the physical factors of the environment that influence them. o The biosphere encompasses all the levels of organization to represent the portions of the earth that can sustain life. o An ecosystem is the living community and the non-living environment together as an interdependent and relatively stable system. o An ecosystem involves interaction between abiotic and biotic factors. o The abiotic factors are non living and influence an organisms ability to live and reproduce, o The biotic factors are living and also have an influence on survival and reproduction. o The non-living environment as well as its interacting species shapes an ecosystem. o The world contains a wide diversity of physical conditions, which creates a variety of environments. o Requirements of a self-sustaining ecosystem. o There must be a constant source of energy. o There must be a living system capable of incorporating this energy into energy rich organic compounds. o Energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction from the sun through photosynthetic organisms to herbivores and then carnivores and decomposers. o Food chains and webs illustrate the interrelationships and interdependence of producers consumers and decomposers in an ecosystem.

o The energy for an ecosystem made from organic compounds created by producers (autotrophic nutrition) o Consumers are organisms that arent able to synthesize own nutrients and must get hem from organisms (heterotrophic nutrition) o Consumers include herbivores and carnivores. o Decomposers are organisms, which break down organic wastes, and dead organisms into simpler substances to the environment to be reused. o Energy pyramid o Used to show flow of energy through levels of an ecosystem. o Base made of producers. o 2nd- herbivores. o Higher levels are carnivores. o A small amount of energy is stored from one organism to the next. o The remaining energy is dissipated as heat. o This is why energy from the sun is constantly needed. o Number of producers must be greater than consumers to account for energy lost through heat. o There must be a recycling of materials between organisms and abiotic environment. o Chemical elements (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) pass through food webs and are combined and recombined. o Carbon dioxide and water are used in photosynthesis to make glucose. o These compounds are returned to the environment during cellular respiration. o Maintaing a stable environment o The number of organisms a habitat is limited by energy. Water, oxygen, and minerals. o Ability to recycle dead organisms through bacteria, fungi needed to maintain stable environment. o Interactions among living things o Competition- when organisms living in the same limited abiotic and biotic factors can be between members of the same species or different species. o More similar the requirements the more intense the competition. o 2 types of organisms compete, one will be successful and the other will be eliminated. o This establishes 1 species per ecological niche. o Niche- organisms role in the environment. o Interactions between organisms may be negative, neutral, or positive. o Ecosystems can change o Changes occur until a stable ecosystem is formed. o Ecological succession o Community of organisms modifies the environment making it more suitable for another community. o Long-term changes help community reach a point of stability. o Ecosystems can change. o A stable ecosystem can be altered through activities of organisms or through changes in climate/ natural disasters.

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An altered ecosystem can undergo succession again. This may lead to the original stable community being reestablished. Evolutionary changes Result in diversity of organisms and roles in the ecosystem. Biodiversity increases stability of ecosystem and provides variety of genetic materials. This may lead to future agricultural/ medical discoveries. Diversity increases the chance that some species would survive large environment changes. Improvements in agriculture health and medicine have produced a dramatic rise in the human population. This increase in population size leads to an increase in pollution and higher demand for the worlds resources. Humans are using up the earths resources, including fossil fuels. Burning fossil fuels in cars and power stations produces carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and other greenhouse gasses. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere and causes the temperature of the earth to rise. This leads to disruption of the weather patterns. Some weeds may thrive on the extra carbon dioxide while other plants are killed. Sulphur dioxide will dissolve in rain producing acid rain. Acid rain damages trees and pollutes rivers and lakes. Acid rain causes erosion of building and statues particularly if they are made of limestone. Deforestation In many countries people are chopping down forests to provide timber or space for agriculture for the growing population. This causes several problems : Burning timber increases the level of carbon dioxide in the air. Less trees means less carbon dioxide absorbed for photosynthesis. Soil is eroded as it is exposed to wind and rain. Less water is transpired into the atmosphere. Many animals and plant habitats are destroyed causing extinction of species. Intensive farming Farming has become more intensive to provide a higher % yield from land. Many people regard intensive farming of animals to be cruel. In order to produce more food from the land farmers have to use more fertilizers and pesticides. Problems with fertilizers Fertilizers enable farmers to grow more food as they are replacing the nutrients removed from soil by plants. However if too much fertilizer is added and it then rains the fertilizer finds its way into rivers and lakes. This causes the water plants to grow and as there is competition for light some will die.