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Persistence and the Science Pipeline: Women of Color and their Persistence in Science Majors Robert Ceglie PhD,

Mercer University, ceglie_rj@mercer.edu Paper presented at the AERA Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, April 8-12, 2011. Abstract: Underrepresentation of women and students of color continues to be of concern to science educators. Despite progress of increasing representation of women in science pipelines, women of color have not made the same strides. Despite being the fastest growing population of college students, women of color have made insufficient gains in college science degree attainment. Using a qualitative methodology, sixteen women of color who were majoring in a science field participated in three-part, in-depth interviews. The aim was to understand the factors that have supported the participants persistence in science majors during their college years. The most prominent themes that led to persistence included academic preparation for college science, faculty support, importance of high school and college science experiences, family support, science support programs, altruistic beliefs and the importance of religion.

Introduction: The preparation of students to enter science careers has been a growing concern by educators, researchers and policy makers. Despite decades devoted to improving science instruction, the results have not demonstrated appreciable results (Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21st Century, 2010; National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). The inadequate preparation of science students leads to an underprepared population of candidates to pursue science related careers. This has important implications for the welfare of the United States economy to advance science and technology as well as in the preparation of a literate society who can make informed decisions concerning public policy. This concern was highlighted in the highly publicized report, Rising Above the Gathering Storm which issued a series of recommendations to improve the state of science and math instruction (Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21st Century, 2007). One key recommendation was for educators to explore ways to enlarge the science pipeline of students who are prepared to enter college and graduate with degrees in science fields. Unfortunately, the recent update of this

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report offers that our nations outlook has worsened and our overall public school system has shown little sign of improvement, particularly in mathematics and science (Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21st Century, 2010, p.4). These findings offer a bleak portrait of science education and poses important challenges to continue to engage in research to address these concerns. One important factor for enlarging the science pipeline is to address the demographic shifts in the United States which have altered the student population. The changing demographics in classrooms have forced teachers to reevaluate their teaching styles and to reconsider the learning styles of their students. Thus, teachers and educators need to continue to find ways to adapt curriculum and instruction to allow access and opportunities for success in science for the diverse population of students (Lee & Luykx, 2006). The diversification of classrooms poses a significant challenge to the historical roots of science as many scholars contend that science was written by and for White men (Barton & Yang, 2000; Harding, 1998; Gilbert & Calvert, 2003; Tobias, 1990). Although the mantra of science for all can be found in virtually all science reform documents, the achievement gaps and underrepresentation statistics demonstrate that science is still only being achieved by some. There is ample evidence of studies that have documented unequal access to science, especially for women and minority groups (Clewell & Campbell, 2002; Hubbard & Stage, 2009; Kim & Sax, 2009). Unfortunately, racism, sexism, and elitism continue to be problems which prevent or dissuade some groups of students from engagement in science and often position women and non-mainstream students as outsiders to the science community (Carlone, 2003; Eisenhart & Finkel, 1998; Hanson, 2006; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). These inequalities appear to be a more critical factor for women of color, as gender and racial biases have led some science educators to suggest that minority women are at a double disadvantage because both factors appear to hinder their access to science (Clewell & Anderson, 1991; Cobb, 1993; Vining Brown, 1994). Evidence is demonstrated by the lack of participation of these groups in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) majors. The problem is exasperated for African American and Hispanic women who account for the most underrepresented groups. This fact is a pressing problem, as these two groups of women represent the two fastest growing minority populations in college (Baldwin, 2009; Hrabowski, 2003).

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Despite progress to eliminate gender and racial inequities in science fields, underrepresentation of women and individuals of color continues to remain an important concern. Since colleges and universities are the final and perhaps most significant gatekeeper for science careers, attention to their efforts to provide access to a broad participation in science has been under scrutiny (Johnson, 2007; Stage & Hubbard, 2009). Statistical reports have documented that there continues to be an overrepresentation of White male students entering science, yet they are being outpaced by women of color in the college population (Lewis, Menzies, Njera, Page, 2009; NSF, 2009). This is problematic as it means that many students, most particularly women of color, continue to be underrepresented in science and related fields despite their increased presence in college programs (Hanson, Fuchs, Aisenbrey, & Kravets, 2004; National Science Board, 2006; NSF, 2009). If minority women are to gain equitable access to science careers, then one avenue of research is learn from those students who are actively navigating science majors. In doing so, educators will be better able to understand the types of support or assistance will help to reverse these trends which seemingly push women of color out of science. In referring to the research on African American students in science fields, Bradford Lewis (2003) calls for a research agenda that will allow the field to gain a greater depth of understanding of the intricacies of underrepresentation (p. 369). The current study responds to Lewiss call by utilizing a qualitative approach which focuses on college students who are currently engaged in the struggle to continue to remain in science fields.

Literature Review: The majority of the research examining science learning has been conducted through work with populations at the K-12 levels. This is important as it provides the foundation for gaps and discrepancies in learning which may carry into college level instruction. Early studies such as the one by Kahle and Lakes (1983) found that gender differences existed which favored boys participation in school science activities. In addition, they found that there was a science educational achievement discrepancy that favored boys at age 13 and 17. This results from this study prompted researchers to explore the reasons for these gender differences. Feminist scholars suggested that science and scientific inquiry have historically been male biased (Clewell & Anderson, 1991; Haraway, 1988; Harding, 2001) thus creating gender role stereotypes. The historical representation of science has traditionally been portrayed as White, male, and Western

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(Lederman, 2003) and has consistently rejected women as equal participants in the community of science (Kahveci, Southerland, & Gilmer, 2007). In a commentary concerning the state of gender inequity in science, Muriel Lederman (2003) sums up many researchers views when she stated that the Norms of science instruction derive from the norms of science, and gender/equity is not a concern of science (p. 604). Further, she urges scientists and science educators to promote a science that is welcome to all types of people, regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity. The years following the Kahle and Lakes study led to an effort to understand and ameliorate gender bias in science. Toward that end, researchers suggested numerous potential explanations for gender disparities. These explanations include: decreased interest (Hanson & Johnson, 2000), lower grade school science achievement (Hazari, Tai, & Sadler, 2007; Kahle, 2004), gender bias in testing (Davis, 1999), lower academic preparation (Miller, 2005), and test style differences (Hazel, Logan & Gallagher, 1997). The variety of explanations illustrates the number of complex factors which may dissuade female participation and completion in college science programs. A significant body of literature focused on high school as critical years for students because courses taken during these years often have a direct relationship to success in science majors (Astin & Astin, 1993; Crisp, Nora, & Taggert, 2009; Ethington & Wolfle, 1988). Recent surveys of high school females illustrate that they are less likely to take calculus and physics courses as compared to males (National Science Board, 2006). However, traditional trends have changed considerably during the past decade, with gendered patterns in course taking tendencies shifting. Recent statistics illustrate that females are now completing pre-calculus, trigonometry, chemistry and advanced biology at higher rates than males (National Science Board, 2006). This trend has not necessarily altered the imbalances at the collegiate levels, but these data dispel some of the myths that females are not taking enough science and math courses in high school. At the collegiate level, women constitute a disproportionately low proportion of science degree holders. Women have made tremendous gains in many science programs, most notably in biology and chemistry fields. However, women remain largely underrepresented in other STEM fields such as physics and engineering. In 2005, men earned the majority of bachelor degrees awarded by engineering (80%), computer sciences (78%), and physics (79%) programs (National Science Board, 2008). Thus, the progress for women in science has improved considerably;

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however, there are still systematic barriers that seem to impede an equitable representation in all science fields. Confounding the concerns related to gender in science are the inequities based on race and ethnicity. These inequities are apparent in the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) data (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). In terms of gender, the most recent results illustrate that males performed higher on the science assessments than females. When examining race and ethnicity, White students have consistently outperformed Black and Hispanic students for both males and females. The gap between White students and Black or Hispanic students continues to range between 26 and 35 points using the NAEP scaled scores. When comparing both gender and race, the data is more discouraging. Using the 2009 data, the gap between White males in12th grade (162) and Black females (123) demonstrates a 39 point gap. These findings at the pre-college level reveal that patterns of differential treatment for women and students of color in science likely begin prior to entry to college. One of the most important sources of lower achievement by students of color on standardized testing is because they are overrepresented in urban, low achieving, poverty stricken schools (Norman, Ault, Bentz, & Meskimen, 2001). As a result, students of color tend to take less stringent courses compared to their White peers and have historically been overrepresented in lower tracked science classes (Oakes, 1990). Opponents of tracking argue the surplus of evidence that tracking limits students educational pursuits. A consistent low track status leads to students graduating from high school without the prerequisite knowledge needed for quantitative science related fields. More importantly, as Singham (1998) highlights, remedial courses tend to promote low level thinking through rote memorization, which further hampers success in higher level science and math classes. In addition, research evidence supports the assertion that tracking practices are not based on student ability (Zuniga, Olson, & Winter, 2005), and consequently, tracking is disproportionately effecting science students of color and subsequently leading to lower representation in science related fields (Gilbert & Yerrick, 2001; Oakes, 1990; Rascoe & Atwater, 2005). Okhee Lees work with diverse student populations suggests there are additional cultural differences that exist among students from differing racial or ethnic backgrounds. She advocates that researchers and educators must consider the growing body of literature (Lee, Deaktor, Hart, Cuevas, & Enders, 2005; Lee, 2003; Moje, Collazo, Carillo, & Marx, 2001; Rodriguez, &

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Berryman, 2002) indicating that there is a mismatch between a students cultural knowledge and the science discourse commonly found in schools. Evidence of cultural incongruence implies that differences are related to attitudes, interest, and motivation in science. Educators have investigated how cultural congruity may be a salient factor for underrepresented groups and their participation in college science. In 1996, Gloria and Kurpius created a cultural congruity scale to examine college completion and persistence factors for Hispanic students. They found that positive cultural congruity was a strong predictor of academic persistence in college for Chicano/a students. Using this same instrument, studies have validated this finding with Hispanic students (Gloria, Castellanos, & Orozco, 2005) as well as with Hispanic students who are majoring in science fields (Cole & Espinoza, 2008). No studies have utilized this instrument with African American students; however, given the research referenced above, it is likely that these same cultural incongruities exist within this group of students. The inequities in science for students of color become most apparent when examining the numbers of these students graduating with science degrees at Unites States colleges and universities. According to the National Science Foundation report Women, Minorities and Persons with Disabilities Science and Engineering (2007), underrepresented minorities (defined as Blacks, Hispanics, Native Americans) only accounted for less than 16% of all science and engineering bachelor degrees awarded in 2004, yet this group of students accounts for 30% of college enrollment. These statistics indicate a pressing problem because of the projected growth of students of color entering college. Estimates suggest that by year 2050, the current minority groups will collectively represent a majority of the United States population (U.S. Census Report, 2008). The largest increases will occur in the Hispanic and African American populations, both which currently represent a small fraction of all science degrees awarded. The underrepresentation problem is compounded when examining data of the number of women of color who are attaining science degrees. Using the data from the Women, Minorities and Persons with Disabilities Science and Engineering (NSF, 2007, 2009) reports, it can be calculated that African American women only represented 5.4% of science degree recipients in 2004. This discrepancy is even worse for Hispanic women who account for only 4.1% of science degree recipients. By comparing the degree recipient data with the college representation statistics it is found that African American women are 29.9% underrepresented in science degree

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recipients and this number is 39.7% for Hispanic women. These findings illustrate that despite attempts to increase broader participation in science fields, African American and Hispanic women are still far from attaining equal participation in science.

Theoretical Framework: Studies of the persistence of college students gained prominence in the 1970s with the goal of understanding the factors influencing students to complete college degrees. Much of the early research was conducted with White students, and later in the 1980s was replicated with students of color. In the early 1970s, William Spady (1971) investigated the different academic predictors that fostered assimilation into the collegiate environment and degree completion. His model utilized academic ability factors such as SAT scores, courses taken and high school grades, but also incorporated issues such as student relationships with peers and social integration. Modifications to this model come from Tinto (1993), who designed and revised a series of quantitative predictive models. Tinto suggested that background variables (e.g. family, peers) in students lives were much larger factors contributing to persistence than originally expected. His posited that these background variables influence social integration experiences differently, consequently leading to different outcomes. Tinto noted that the more frequently students are involved in shared experiences, both academically and socially, the more likely they will be motivated to learn. William Tierney (1997) challenged the notion that all students need to be assimilated into the current culture of the school in order to achieve success. He argued that students may not have cultural congruence with the college community because of their own unique cultural views. Cultural incongruence with college life would be exasperated when combined with reported cultural discrepancies with some students and science (Cole & Espinoza, 2008; Lee, 2003; Moje, Collazo, Carillo, & Marx, 2001; Rodriguez, & Berryman, 2002). The evolution of persistence studies have continued to rely on quantitative measures but have shifted toward understanding factors which influence minority student retention. This is likely a response to the data which illustrates that students of color have consistently achieved lower graduation rates when compared to their White peers (Snyder & Dillow, 2010). Hurtado and Carters (1997) research established that minority students have a more difficult time adjusting and integrating into college life. This lack of adjustment often corresponded to the type

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of racial climate found on the college campus. The climate, coupled with an absence of social and peer support for minority students appears to influence a students sense of belonging. A strong sense of belonging has been found to be prominent factor for students of color (Johnson et al., 2007) with a low measure being linked to departure from college for minority students (Cole & Espinoza, 2008). Nora, Barlow and Crisp (2005) contributed to the persistence literature by exploring additional factors that may have more bearing on students from lower income families as well as for first generation and minority students. Financial factors, family support and campus climate were given a more prominent place in their most recent study of persistence. Sylvia Hurtado and colleagues (2007) built on prior work to create the most current college persistence model which incorporates minority students while also focusing on science fields. Using data from the Higher Education Research Institutes 2004 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, Freshman Survey, and the 2005 Your First College Year Survey, they explored the key factors influencing a science students transition into college and persistence strategies. Their findings revealed many similarities to Tintos, Hurtado and Carters, and Nora, Barlow and Crisps models, and likewise suggested that numerous factors contribute to persistence. However, what is unique to Hurtados model is that it combines the most salient persistence factors found from science students with factors that may be unique to underrepresented groups. In addition, this work from Hurtado and her more recent studies have demonstrated an important combination of key factors allowing for an examination of individual, social, and structural factors which influence a students continuation in science programs of study (Hurtado, Eagan, Cabrera, Lin, Park & Lopez, 2008; Hurtado, Cabrera, Lin, Arellano & Espinosa, 2009). One weakness in this and previous persistence models is the reliance on quantitative measures taken from survey instruments. While quantitative models may be helpful to understand the key factors which lead to persistence, researchers also need to consider how unique individual factors and experiences may be important contributors at an individual scale. The theoretical lens used in this study employs a qualitative framework of science persistence based on the work by Hurtado and colleagues (2007). Since Hurtados persistence model has been designed to address students of color and has been utilized with populations of students majoring in science fields, it offers the most comprehensive framework to guide studies of persistence of women of color in science majors. Hurtados findings on persistence factors

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(e.g., family background, social support, college environmental factors) guide the understanding of how the women were influenced to persist in their science majors. The research question which guided this study was: What factors of underrepresented women of color influence their persistence in science majors? Methodology: Participant recruitment This study used a qualitative framework to understand what experiences and factors provide support for women of color who major in a science field. Sixteen undergraduate women of color who were currently or previously majoring in a science field were recruited to participate in the study. Participants were recruited from two cohorts of students engaged in academic activities at a large northeastern state university (State University). State University is a predominantly White institution and serves as the flagship university and main campus for the state. The first group of six participants was recruited during their participation in a summer science research program at State University. Students in this group only attended the summer program at State University and were otherwise enrolled in colleges in the southern part of the United States, most of which were small historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs). The aim of the summer program was to bring students of color to State University and create opportunities to engage in research projects with STEM faculty for sophomore, junior and senior students. The faculty directors of the summer program were approached to seek permission to speak to program participants during one of their seminars. After a short presentation of the research, contact information was provided for interested individuals. Six individuals provided contact information and agreed to participate in the study. A second group of participants were recruited from students who were enrolled full time at State University. State University had recently begun a small support program for underrepresented students enrolled in STEM majors. Contact was made with the director of this program which resulted in opportunities to offer various workshops to program participants concerning science career options. It was through these interactions that potential participants were informed of the ongoing study. Ten individuals demonstrated interest and were subsequently recruited to participate. The final participant pool consisted of sixteen women who

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were sophomores, juniors or seniors in college. Of the sixteen participants, seven indicated they were African American, seven as Latina, one as Haitian, and one as African.

Data collection The primary source of data was collected through the use of a three-phase, in-depth interview protocol as described by Seidman (2006). All participants were individually interviewed twice using a semi-structured protocol which focused on their experiences with science. These interviews lasted between 60 to 120 minutes. The interviews were captured on a digital voice recorder and transcribed verbatim from this source. The first interview focused on high school experiences in science with an emphasis on family, social, school, and cultural factors that participants deemed important to them. This interview also elicited a family history of schooling and employment. The emphasis of the second interview was the participants science experiences while in college, including their aspirations after they completed their degree. Participants were asked to reflect on factors that have been influential to their persistence in a science major. Toward an effort to eliminate a presumption of support factors, students were asked broad questions related to support. These included a) What encouragement, discouragement, and/or support for science had you received prior to and during college, b) Who has this support come from, c) What encouragement, discouragement, or support have you received for your pursuit for a science major, d) What experiences have you encountered that have supported your pursuit in science, and e) What do you perceive as positive support for your persistence in science? In addition to individual interviews, participants engaged in one informal focus group which consisted of four to six students. The purpose of these was to provide an additional opportunity for the participants to discuss some of the themes that had emerged during the individual interviews. Since the participants are were women of color in science majors, individuals were asked to share any experiences with science that have been influential to their engagement in science majors. The unstructured format of the focus group provided an additional opportunity to gather information and to add to the trustworthiness of the data through triangulation. After completion of the interviews, participants were asked to choose a pseudonym for use in the transcripts. After transcription was completed, each participant was given a copy of the transcript to review. They were asked to comment, elaborate, clarify, or modify their transcript.

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This also allowed for triangulation of the data. All additional comments from the students were added to their interview transcripts. The coding of the data was performed by using the various persistence factors presented in Hurtados (2007) framework to initially guide the coding and new codes were created when different factors emerged. Once coding was complete, the data was reviewed through repeated readings to identify the frequency, omission, and/or declaration of emergent themes (LeCompte, 2000). This was done through constant comparative analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), where the data was compared with the themes as they began to emerge. In order to create a more complete academic portrait of each participant, students were asked to supply information pertaining to their high school and college course taking patterns. During the interviews, students were prompted for information concerning their high school background and courses taken. In addition, each participant was asked to provide a copy of their current college transcript. Using the transcripts, the college courses completed, and grade point averages for science and math were determined. These data allowed for contextual information pertaining to participants academic success and persistence in college. In addition, the academic data provided additional insights and support for triangulation of the interview data.

Findings: All sixteen women in this study began their college careers intending to major in one of the natural science fields (biology, chemistry, and physics). Of the sixteen, fourteen of the women remained in a natural science major or in a related field at the time of this study. The two students who left the natural sciences began as biology majors, but switched to psychology. The goal of this section is to uncover the various factors the women offered for their persistence in pursuit of a science degree. Through this analysis, elements of support, deterrence, and barriers to success were uncovered, however, only the elements of support were the focus of this inquiry. Participants nominated many common themes which they believed corresponded with support and persistence factors for their continuation in science majors. The most prominent themes included academic preparation for college science, faculty support, importance of high school and college science experiences, family support, science support programs, altruistic beliefs and the importance of religion.

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Academic Preparation for College Science The focus of several interview questions was to determine how well the women felt they were prepared for college level science. Students were asked to share their experiences and discuss their achievements along with the difficulties they encountered during high school. The belief of most women in the study was that they felt adequately prepared for college science. The majority of the participants claimed they did very well in their high school science classes and enjoyed the courses they took. This is not surprising, as a lack of success in high school would have steered the women away from science prior to arrival at college. These experiences with science would have provided an important foundation which contributed to success in early college science coursework. The high school science experiences that participants nominated as important contributors to academic preparation included the number and level of science courses completed, involvement with science related extracurricular activities, and participation in service related activities. All the participants were able to explain some element of their high school experiences which contributed to an interest and preparation in science. Jenn, a participant who attended a typical urban high school, shared that she was fortunate enough to have taken a number of advanced science classes, including Advanced Placement courses. It was in classes like these where she was able to be surrounded by peers who were also interested in science careers. This provided a positive environment that allowed her to thrive academically. Of the pre-college experiences, the participation in Advanced Placement (AP) coursework was a common academic factor among participants. Of the sixteen participants, seven reported that they had taken an AP course in a math or science discipline. Penelope, who attended a private high school, discussed the positive influence of the Advanced Placement curriculum. I took AP and we had a really strong course, but it got me used to the teaching methods the Lincoln school really prepared me for college. There were no surprises when I came [to college]. For Penelope, the rigors that are associated with Advanced Placement work prepared her for the level of work expected in typical college courses. Several women attended high schools that maintained programs with State University which allowed certain high level courses to count toward college credit. Delia was one who benefited from this program and explained that it was a great benefit that some of her high school coursework converted to college credit at State University. Delia attended a suburban high school and

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explained What happened was my AP biology class counted as State University credit as well. So I didnt end up taking the AP biology exam because I had the credit, because I was coming to State University. When she arrived at college freshman year, she had already accrued 33 credits because of her AP courses and the college credit program. Danora, who attended a rural public high school, described a similar situation where she was awarded a number of college credits upon entry at State University. She stated, They (her school) had an honors level and I always took honors classes. That helped me a lot because I came here with 24 credits already. For the women who were able to take rigorous courses during their high school years, their experiences provided them with the requisite background knowledge and expectations required to navigate through the early critical years in science majors. Specifically, those who took advanced and AP coursework recognized how the rigors of the curriculum helped prepare them for the high expectations needed for college science. In addition, those who received college credit during high school believed that this gave them a head start during their freshman year of college. The students who did not have access to Advanced Placement or higher level courses often reported a different perspective on their academic preparation. Carmens experiences with high school science and math coursework were not productive for her college preparation in science fields. She attended a large, inner city school with a minority population of over 90% and served students from low SES backgrounds. She shared, The biology when I took was horrible because it was biology for the bilingual cluster. It was given by a professor who didnt know biology. He wasnt a biology teacher. And it was only in a classroom, no lab experience. It was just the book and thats all. I have chemistry and physics on my transcript but I dont think it goes beyond whats in the transcript, because the classes were a joke, we didnt learn anything. We just did the basics. In Carmens situation, her language ability placed her in some lower level classes. Despite doing well in these classes, she reported that she learned very little. The picture she describes of her school and teachers does not portray a sense of academic rigor to prepare students for future success. In her case, she didnt originally gain access to a four year college, and took classes at a community college for two years in order to gain admission to State University. At the time of the interviews, she was in her fifth year of undergraduate schooling. Cleopatra, who attended the same school as Jenn, did not take any Advanced Placement classes and reported a different experience in her schooling. She explained that that she did well

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in her courses but did not feel challenged. This influenced her experiences at college. She explained, I came [to college] and I felt that I wasnt prepared. I felt like everybody was up here [pointing high] and I was down here somewhere [pointing low], kind of lost. I remember my freshman year [of college], my biology class, the first exam I got a 40. I read the whole book and I stayed up all night studying. In high school, I was a high honors student, so when I came here it was kind of shocking. Cleopatras experiences in high school seem to have more in common with what Carmen reported than what Jenn offered, despite attending the same high school. Since Cleopatra was placed in lower level classes and did not take any Advanced Placement or college credit eligible courses, she was unable to gain the academic preparation that may have been experienced by others. It is not unusual to hear college students talk about their difficult adjustment to college; however in the case of some students, it seems that the adjustment was primarily based on the level of content knowledge and rigor experienced during high school. Highlighting the previous examples, Jenn , Penelope, Delia and Danora took rigorous high school courses and had experienced a smooth and successful transition to college. However for Carmen and Cleopatra, they did not take the same level of rigorous high school coursework and this corresponded with more challenging transitions to the demands of college science. Evidence of their bumpy transition was apparent from their interviews, but also from an examination of their college transcripts. Their science grade point averages (Cleopatra 2.4, Carmen 1.8) illustrated that they encountered difficulties with their college coursework and in some cases, even repeating courses. The majority of participants provided details concerning extracurricular activities which supported their pursuits in science during their high school years. While extracurricular activities may not offer the academic rigor attained by coursework, the experiences with science would have enhanced and promoted interest and motivation. The three most referenced activities were participation in a) high school science clubs, b) high school science fairs, and c) science service related activities. Participants explained how these activities increased their interests and provided opportunities to engage with real life science. The level of academic advancement offered by these experiences varied, but membership was high for this group of participants. Participation in a science club may have given the students some added content knowledge, but more importantly, it would have likely contributed to increased self-confidence, interest, and

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exposure to a wider range of science activities than would have been possible in the typical classroom. Science fairs and science clubs provide opportunities for students to expand their science knowledge beyond the day-to-day curriculum. One key attribute that students acknowledged was how these type activities helped them feel like they were a part of science. Jenn shared an experience with the science fair during eighth grade when she worked on a science fair project. We came in second in our category, in the entire city. That in itself was a huge accomplishment. I used to think science was only for a certain type of people. But here my best friend and I, who are African American girls, won second place to a Hispanic boy, in our category. That in itself was really good. The recognition that a woman of color could be successful in science was an important revelation to Jenn and she expressed pride in this. In addition, the experience of being successful in science at a district level offered her encouragement that she could continue to be successful in science. In some cases, participants also assumed leadership roles in extracurricular science programs. Renae explained that when she was in high school, there was no science club, so she took the initiative to start one with a faculty sponsor. I would put [information about the club] in the bulletin and newspaper and I would go around to each homeroom class. We did different fundraisers, different awareness in different months and we did one successful walk for cervical cancer. We went to an elementary school and we did little experiments, like vinegar and baking soda. The kids were like wow, science is cool! In this case, Renae was able to utilize her interest in science to develop leadership skills while promoting science within her school and into the broader community. In addition, her involvement in this science club would have given her recognition as someone who was being successful in science while also providing service to the community. Science related service experiences were prominent activities for many of the participants who began these activities during high school and continued them through college. Service activities allow students the opportunity to interact with people who work in potential future professions. Volunteering at a hospital or clinic would give access to professionals engaged with science. These experiences can lead to networking and more advanced opportunities to interact

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with science. McLean was heavily involved with service activities at her high school and she strengthened her science interest with service for others. She described her experience in a CNA (certified nursing assistant) program where she volunteered at a nursing home. The CNA experience really helped. If you want to be in the medical field you have to be a people person. You have to love people, you have to have that passion to help others and I think that helped me. Just caring for others and serving them, actually feeling like I am making a difference. Her last thought demonstrates how she felt that this experience allowed her to feel closer to science while making a difference in the lives of others. Helen, whose goal is to become a veterinarian, spent one summer during high school working in an animal hospital. This was an important opportunity for her to learn more about a veterinarians work. She stated, I worked at an animal hospital during the summer. The feedback I got from the vet I got support from him, and he said I was a really great help. That was supportive...The summer before my senior year, hearing from somebody who is already established, he has his own practice and everything, and hearing him say that I did a good job and stuff like that. Clearly this experience provided a great deal of positive reinforcement for Helen and was a typical response from those who engaged in these types of service activities. Not only did these opportunities help increase an understanding of the science professions, but more importantly provided positive feedback that contributed to support the continued desire toward science careers. Since many of these programs were linked with their high schools, it illustrates that the students schools provided important out-of-class science opportunities which allowed students to become more fully engaged with science.

Support from Faculty I had really great teachers, all my science. I can definitely say it was teachers. This is how teachers helped me, any time I was struggling, different ways of learning science Helen Helens opening quote illustrates a common theme concerning the students high school science teachers. For the majority of the women in this study, there was the belief that the support of the students high school science teachers served as an important reason for their interests in science. This theme was consistent across the participants as each one reported at

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least one science teacher that provided motivation, support, or inspiration to pursue science as a career choice. McLean described having a number of high school teachers that pushed her toward science. She explained They just really encouraged me. I need someone to just tell me, I can do this. Sometimes I get discouraged and need someone to tell me you can do this, look at all of the potential that you have. In addition, McLean explained that her principal was also a very important person who provided support and guidance. McLean described the high school environment as like a family, providing a source for motivation to pursue science during high school. A few women described how some science teachers suggested science as a career path early in their high school careers. Participants explained that the teachers who encouraged them to pursue science were particularly influential and often gave them guidance and advice. Penelope explained that she had two science teachers that encouraged her purse science. My AP biology teacher, of course, was like, go into science. I remember my chemistry teacher, she came to talk to me and was like, you should definitely think of something with science because, she said the way I conducted labs and how I studied and I did well. The women who reported influential high school science teachers often discussed how they reinforced the notion that they were capable of being successful in potential science professions. Recognition by ones teachers would provide a boost in self-esteem and could catapult one into a future career in science. In contrast to the highly supportive nature provided by the high school science teachers, college science faculty were not universally described as supportive by the participants in this study. There was a wide variation about how college science faculty provided support for continuing in a science major. Marie believed the support imparted by faculty in her department was valuable. One advantage for Marie was that the physics department at State University was relatively small. In contrast to students in biology who regularly reported class sizes of over 200, Maries largest classes were only 30 students. Class size may be one key contributor to the perception that physics faculty were more helpful as there would be less competition for the teachers attention in class. She explained that they were supportive, The professors definitely .Professors, in terms of oh keep with the class. If youre struggling, they will always try to

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help. They are really good about that. When I asked for an example she described what happened following a poor performance on a recent exam. I failed a quantum exam. The professor is really really good about that. He is letting me retake it. See, a very understanding professor (laughs). I did not even ask him. I said, I need to talk to you about this. He said, I know, I know you can do better on this. Marie articulates that not only was this professor supportive, but he also knew her. Since he knew who she was and understood her capabilities, this would offer confidence that there are faculty who are looking out for her best interests. At State University, several of the women spoke highly of their chemistry professors. Ivette explained that my chemistry professor is very supportive about help and assistance. He has very long office hours for many days. He is very good at helping. Jenn concurred and added, I did really well in [chemistry] and I loved the teacher, he was an awesome teacher. He was just an awesome person just one of the kindest people that you would meet. Their high praise for this teacher is significant because State University has two chemistry education faculty who are devoted to improving chemistry outcomes in the introductory level courses. In other cases, students described experiences when science faculty were unsupportive. Carmen described difficulty she had in meeting with science professors for help. When I go to the classes, its about the material. You have to learn it, and you have to come back next week and we just go over it and thats it. Some professors say that these are my office hours, but if you want to talk to me, make an appointment. Some professors just have them once a week and they say they are busy and have research and have graduate students. I think that limits their time. That also limits the time they spend for the undergrads and the students in their classes. The reality of attending a research intensive university is that often professors are busy with nonteaching duties. Carmen explained that she frequently looked for professors after classes and had trouble meeting with some of them because of their busy schedules. Many participants believed that the inaccessibility of professors also led to a less supportive environment in the classroom. In addition, it was common for participants to describe their science courses as extremely competitive. Danora described a similar concern when she articulated that I have not really got much support from teachers. I asked her if this was specific to science faculty and she shared:

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Science teachers are really hard to get to know them, when you are in a lecture hall of 300. I get to know my TAs more than I know my professors. Right now in chemistry, if I have any questions, I go ask my chemistry TA. I have never gone to talk to my professor one on one. Delia described that she had particular difficulty creating relationships with her science faculty. In the natural sciences, I find it is hard, it is really hard to do that. I dont have an established rapport or relationships with my physics professor or my organic chemistry professor. It is just not there. And the classes are so huge. Its not really conducive to creating that type of relationship. Delia also confided that she believed that the pressure to succeed in the science classes created an unhealthy competition and she did not like what she described as the cutthroat competition in the classes. Many participants echoed this assertion and some explained that they considered leaving science because of the overly competitive nature. While faculty certainly contribute to the competitive atmosphere, the lack of faculty accessibility and support may be partially explained by the multiple responsibilities that science faculty face. Fighting for funding, demands of graduate students, and the pressure to publish may force them to put teaching as a lower priority. The examples also demonstrate that many of the participants were actively looking for opportunities to connect with their teachers, but were finding barriers to this occurring. In addition, the reports of very large introductory classes and the description of the competitive nature of these courses may inhibit the type of teacher support which participants experienced during high school. Not all college faculty were unsupportive, but it was clear that there was a significant difference between the supportive environment felt in high school compared to what many experienced in college. It is logical to assume that many potential scientists do not find this environment supportive and thus leave science for other majors where they find the environment more supportive. The two participants who left biology majors described how they felt that the faculty in psychology were more approachable and the environment was more supportive to their future careers.

College Science Experiences The majority of the students in this study had engaged in some type of out of class science experiences during their time at college. The most common experience reported were formal or informal research experiences with science faculty. Since six of the students attended the

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summer science research program at State University, this finding was not unexpected; however, independent work with science faculty, medical personnel, or scientists had occurred for many of the women who had not participated in the summer program. The research experience during the summer program at State University appeared to be especially valuable for the women who attended Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). These students explained that they had very few research opportunities at their schools because their colleges did not have the faculty or the faculties to support student research. Thus, they described their attendance at the summer research program (SRP) as critical for them. Lana Cassidy, who attended a small HBCU explained, This experience [summer program] has been amazingI had never done any intense research until now and I really enjoy it. So I think this was beneficial to help steer me to what I want to do. This comment typifies how important the SRP was to those who had come from HBCUs. Renae, who also attended an HBCU, explained that she had no research opportunities at her college but recognized how critical these types of experiences were to her future participation in science. I know a lot of graduate schools, if you do not have research experience, than you basically dont have anything. They look at your application. Research experience, none, okay, so it is going to hurt, so I think yes it [research experience] is key. The other students attending HBCUs explained that their local colleges encouraged them to look for outside opportunities to attain research experience. Without this, the students would be at a disadvantage for graduate school admissions. More importantly, they would not have the same experiences as their peers who attended larger state universities. This would place them at a disadvantage for future participation in science, ultimately closing the pipeline to many science careers. All the students who attended State University would potentially have opportunities to engage in science research through the programs offered at the school; however it would require their efforts to uncover these opportunities. The universal view was that these experiences were critical to their future careers in science fields. In addition, participants discussed how these experiences offered unique networking opportunities and were critical for future endeavors in science. Carmen explained I think connections are very useful. [I will] be able to have that experience for my resume and my personal statement. Other students recognized that without

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these research opportunities they would be at a disadvantage. Most underclasswomen, regardless of institution, would not have had opportunities to work in research labs at this point during their college career. However, most of the sophomores in this study had already reported some type of science experience outside of their college campuses. A few of the women had volunteered at hospitals as a way to become more acquainted with the lives of doctors. Penelope was fortunate to have traveled to Ecuador during the last summer and volunteered in a dental clinic. She described the importance of her trip, I went to Ecuador, I went to the clinic and I saw a lot of poverty. I dont even know I cant put it into words. Just seeing so much, and thats why I want to go into the sciences. Ivette recently volunteered at a dental clinic and described her experience. I did a volunteer thing that was amazing. They have a bunch of volunteer dentists that come in and work on patients for absolutely free. Some people were waiting out there all night. Experiences such as ones reported by Penelope and Ivvette demonstrate the instances where first-hand science experiences allowed them to vision themselves in future profession, while at the same time making important networking connections in the science community. In addition, in both cases, the women explained how these experiences strengthened their commitments and both have indicated that they will continue volunteering in the coming years. Unfortunately, a few of the participants had not engaged in any substantial college science experiences outside of coursework. In two cases, the women mentioned that they were actively seeking out opportunities for the coming summer. It is unclear how much the lack of these opportunities would hinder the individuals persistence in science fields, but the women did understand that there is a premium placed on these types of opportunities for their success in future science careers.

Family Support The support offered by family has traditionally been an influential factor for completion of college degrees. Most persistence models, including Hurtados framework, suggest family is an important push or pull factor that can lend support for students completion of college degrees. The view is that students often rely on family for support, however in some cases, family responsibilities can interfere with school achievement. In this study, the overwhelming majority of students indicated that their major support for continuing in their science programs came from

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their families. Since the range of family experiences varied across the women, there were several types of support that the students reported. General Family Support Ten participants in this study will become the first college graduate in their family. Many of these women explained that although their parents did not have the knowledge about higher education, they were very influential as they provided encouragement and support for them completing their college degrees. The common sentiment regarding family support is typified in Maries explanation that they support me to do it. They are like, whatever makes you happy. Families like Maries, had little experience with college, and even fewer families had any science experience, thus they often just wanted to see their daughter attain a college degree, regardless of field. In another example, Renae, also a first generation college student described her family support: I have a strong family background, they dont know anything about the sciences, but they know this is something that I want to do and they are there, and they are supportive. And if I get discouraged, theyre there to remind me why I started. This sentiment was also described by Lana Cassidy, also a first generation college student who explained that her mom and grandmother were major sources of motivation and support. We are really close and they are just so positive about my education. Just as far as them being supportive, that is what keeps me motivated, continues to push me. None of these three women had parents that pushed them toward science; rather the motivation and encouragement was more general in nature. A few women did have family members who had graduated from college and those members were able to provide added guidance and support to the women. In addition, a few women did have family members who were in science. These family members provided further guidance for these women. Delia, whose mother was an ICU nurse, garnered additional support about her studies because of her mothers experiences. Delia described experiences with her mother when she saw her in action as a nurse. Her description of having science as a constant in life was likely created because of her mothers background in science. Some participants were fortunate to have had siblings who were involved with science majors and science careers. The advantage of having a family member in science to turn to for advice and support would be a luxury for any student but particularly for one who is underrepresented in the science fields.

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Penelope described an experience with her older brother, who graduated with a biological sciences degree. She stated, He went through it, he took the organic [chemistry] and everything, so he helps tooI see that he likes his job. I remember him coming home from college being so overwhelmed with so much work. But then, he really helps me and nags me to go into the sciences. Danoras older brother did not specifically study medicine, but he was working in a military career in the medical field. She explained that her parents often asked her why dont you go in to science field like her brother had done. Danora described how her brothers experiences motivated her to persist toward a science career. She noted I saw my brother. He was doing things medical oriented. He helped deliver babies, and I thought that was the coolest thing ever. I wanted to do something like that. For Delia, Penelope and Danora, these women had immediate family members to share in their struggles and be supportive because they knew the rigors of the major. In the case of Penelope and Danora, these womens brothers served as advisors to help them navigate and succeed in their science fields. Although the majority of the participants had aspirations to become a doctor, none of the students had family members that were doctors. Thus, it was interesting that so many of the students became motivated to enter the medical profession. A number of women described strong support for the goal of becoming a doctor. A small group of participants shared that there was strong familial support for entering medical careers because of the perceived status of being a doctor. Danora reported that her parents were strong supporters of her interest in science and also explained her perception of the reasons for this support. She shared some of her fathers remarks. He was like oh youre going to graduate, and youre going to be a doctor, and this is what youre going to do and I will buy your car. Danora was asked if she knew why he was focused on her becoming a doctor and she explained I dont know. I dont know if it was a dream of his to be a doctor, but I dont think so. But I think he just wants to say, This is my daughter, she is the doctor. Ivette expressed a similar sentiment when she stated that her parents are definitely a fan of the doctor. She also explained that her mother was very interested in how students of color were advancing in education. In general, Ivette believed that everyone wants their kids to be a doctor and this might be particularly the case for parents who have no other relatives who are in that profession. A few other students articulated that their families believed any career in science

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was a great white-collar career and attaining this type of job would make their families proud. In addition, participants explained that the family support to pursue science careers was a major motivation to continue to persist in their majors. It is important to note that the Latina students reported a much higher parental interest in their daughters pursuit of careers in medicine. Only one of the African American women reported a parent who described interest in their children becoming a doctor, yet this was a common finding in the Latina women. Based on these reports, it appears that there is a racial/cultural difference on the importance of entering the medical profession. With the examples of Latina women being advised to pursue medical careers from their families, it is possible that Hispanic families place a higher importance on the status of medical professions. Not all the participants described supportive family environments for their pursuit of science careers. Charlotte described a lack of support from her family. She added I have no family supporting my decision to be a doctor. As long as I got into college, that is good enough. Compared to my roommate, we had the same major, but her aunt is a doctor. So she has that family background that is her motivation and there is that much support for her, compared to me who didnt have that much support. Charlottes father died prior to her entry into college and she was primarily raised by her mother. In addition, she did not have older siblings to rely on for support and her move to American from Africa fractured some of her extended family. This case illustrates the need for someone - a teacher, advisor, mentor - to reach out to students, such as Charlotte, to provide the necessary support. Possibly, if Charlotte had this assistance, she would have continued to pursue a biology degree instead of switching to the social sciences. Dorothy also described a lack of parental support and likewise switched out of biology to a social science major. She explained that the lack of understanding about the rigor of science majors hampered her parents ability to support her. She shared, They dont know what research is, so its hard to go in that field because my family in not really familiar with it. I try to explain it to my mom, but she still doesnt understand. So that can be discouraging too, that there are not a lot of people, role models or people to look up to. The lack of family support for pursuit of degrees in science may not determine ones persistence, but it appears to be influential. Both Charlotte and Dorothy decided not to pursue medical school

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and both switched out of their biology major. Absence of family support appears to have influenced their decision, although additional factors most likely contributed to the two students choice to depart from their original science pursuits. Several other students in the study did not describe explicit family support for the pursuit of science, and yet they continued on. It is clear that parents did not need to have knowledge of science careers to offer guidance, but those who stressed sciences importance were able to provide more support.

Maternal Support The participants discussed the influence of the maternal parent with a much higher frequency than the paternal parent. Since all of the students in this study were women, the role of the mother may be something that is natural; however, the frequency with which the women discussed their maternal parent was distinct. Some women described how they could turn to their mothers for understanding. Jayne described how her mother would provide words of encouragement. She stated with my mom, I can sit there and cry. She will say you can do it, so thats why I think my mom is my biggest support system. Likewise, Dorothy explained that her mother was an important person she could always rely upon. My mom was always there for me if I needed anything. With school work, she was just always there for me. Anytime I had different accomplishments, she would tell me how proud she was. So that was very helpful. Charlottes mother was integral because after her fathers passing, she had nobody else to turn to. Her mother also recognized that education was critical to her daughters success. Charlotte offered the following description of her mothers support: She is a really hard-working, but she never had this opportunity. She always made us see what life would be like if you dont do well in school. That was the motivation for me, to just do better. She would tell us what is out there, if you dont get an education. I have a lot of family that dropped out of school, if I dont do well in school youll end up like them. Both Dorothy and Charlotte had mothers that supported them, but also pushed them to attain the type of education that their family had not been able to achieve. The possibility for a brighter future resulting from academic success was common when the women talked about their mothers. Some participants explained that their mothers had not been able to attain their own goals when they were younger. Cleopatra explained that her mother had made sacrifices to care for her as a child. She though she wanted to be a nurse. She made a

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sacrifice to stay home because she knew a nurses shift She has just been there for me throughout this whole journey. She calls me every day trying to encourage me. Penelope shared that her family had come from such poverty in Honduras and the stories that her mother shared motivated her to do her best to take advantage of the opportunities that her mother didnt have. All of the women above described how they relied on their mothers for support and motivation to continue to persist in college and their science majors. It is unclear why the women did not readily mention paternal support as the interview questions did not target one parent over the other. However, it does illustrate a distinction in the way the students viewed their familial support. Since the maternal parent was a more important to support persistence, it is important to recognize how this dynamic may be more critical for women pursuing science careers.

Science Support Programs at College The majority of the participants were involved with some type of support program designed to help support students of color persist in science programs. None of the programs described in this study were large scale efforts. Instead, these programs provided support by hiring dedicated advisors, offering special courses, providing tutors, and creating supportive peer environments. Students discussed these programs as influential factors that have helped them navigate through science. The program at State University, Project A, provided an advisor and tutors devoted solely to the participants. The advisor and availability of tutors were frequently mentioned by students as contributing to their persistence in science. The primary advisor for Project A students was Clair. Clair would help the students pick courses, advise them on academic issues, coordinate support activities, and provide tutors. For several of the women, Clair served as a mother figure. Ivette explained that Clair was integral in her picking the right mix of classes. Clair was great last semester. She would literally advise you as to the small details. The classes. When to take what. The small details. Cleopatra explained that the most beneficial factor was having someone who could help keep track of all the deadlines and opportunities for internships and research experiences. In addition to being their advisor, Clair also created opportunities for the women to bond with each other. As underrepresented students at a predominantly White campus, providing situations where the women could support each other was critical to the success of the program. Toward that end, a

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mentoring program was started which coupled the incoming students with those currently in the program. These peer relationships proved to be an important factor in creating small communities of practice of women who were working toward science degrees. The majority of participants discussed how important it was to have other women of color as a source of support. These relationships were unlikely to have occurred naturally as the students reported that most of their introductory classes were in excess of 250 students in a large lecture hall. The hope of the mentoring program would be to build a support system amongst the students where they could turn to each other for help and guidance; thus, creating small communities where the students support each other by sharing their collective experiences. Along with having a dedicated advisor, the availability of tutors was mentioned by most of the students in Project A. Although State University does provide tutoring services, tutors are more difficult to find for many of the science courses. Jenn described the importance of tutors, Project A is encouragement because they supply tutors. That in itself is a huge encouragement, look we are going to help you outProject A is helping to break the barrier of, the academic barrier by providing tutors. In addition to tutors, Project A offered special classes (that emphasized various issues concerning science careers). Penelope spoke about the positive nature of both of these: Project A. That has helped me a lot because I love the class, the INTD [interdisciplinary] class. I am in a room with other kids that are in the same position the Project A program, and everybody in that program as well. Youre not alone, even if you are struggling, working away, they let you know you are not alone. It is comforting. They provide tutors as well. That is definitely support right there. The efforts of the Project A staff to reach out to this population of students appears to be working. In the four years of the program, only a few students have completely left science related majors. In addition, the staff has recruited more students into this program. Project A is only able to provide a small book stipend to its students, yet the resources this program offers is invaluable to the students. There were six participants in this study who had no involvement with Project A. One of the students described a similar support program at her home institution. Jayne explained that her college provided support through a program called HBCUUP, which is a NSF funded program dedicated to helping students at HBCUs persist in science majors. Jayne explained

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I think HBCUUP is the best program for science majors at my school. They make sure you try to get your name out there. They get tickets to conferences all through the country. We have tutors and they have programs where you can network. They want you to be successful. They really care about you. Based on Jaynes description of the program, HBCU-UP seemed to provide many of the same supports that Project A had implemented. The women who did not have specific programs to support them at their colleges spoke more frequently about the importance of their peers and faculty as sources for support. In addition, four of the five students who were not involved with a specific support program attended minority serving institutions. These schools are often much smaller and stress the importance of community and teacher support. Jayne backed this up when she stated, I think our school with smaller classes, they can be able to help with people who are having a problem, and the people who want to be helped too. Thus, the students most likely turned to faculty members and their peers for support and assistance at their colleges. The students who participated in one of the science support programs nominated these programs as integral to their persistence in their science majors. The notion that there were dedicated people who were looking out for their interests appeared to be a key factor. While the participants nominated the importance of family support, it is possible that programs such as Project A create a climate that mirrors some of the key factors found within the family. Thus, these programs offered academic and moral support, guidance and motivation to continue in the science pipeline.

Altruistism in Science Careers Altruistic beliefs have been traditionally linked to student interest in science fields. This was true concerning the participants in this study as altruism was a commonly referenced factor for initial interest in science as well as a motivating factor to persist toward science careers. Penelope believed that it was important for her to help those who were less fortunate than her. She explained that even as she was struggling in science courses, I feel that it will be all worth it. Helping other people is what I want to do. You cant live in a world and not be empathetic to other people.Penelopes view suggests that it is vital to give back to the communities which are most in need.

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Delia expressed a similar view of how she can help others in need when asked why she continued to persist in science. I see so many problems. A lot of suffering, a lot of pain, a lot of injustice. And I think to myself, if I can get out there, if I can make it, maybe some of the work that I do will influence others to contribute to the solution She shared that her ultimate goal was to become a doctor and open a clinic in the inner city in order to help underserved populations. A few of the participants described a family link that fostered the altruistic beliefs. For example, Danora described the influence her mothers illness played on her decision to pursue medical school, but her goals extended beyond her mother. She explained that she wanted to have a clinic to help Hispanics. This aspiration was similar to what Delia described and demonstrates that for at least a segment of the participants, the ultimate goal was related to the personal experiences that occurred within their families which may have cultivated altruistic beliefs. In a similar way, Carmen used her personal family experiences as motivation. Carmen spent much of her life living in poverty in Columbia and she described a desire to return home and contribute to the community. Although she did not cite opening a clinic, her desire was to do something related to medicine to provide for the community. She believed that it was important to her to provide and assist others in need. During the interview with McLean, she revealed that she maintained a desire to work with Doctors without Borders. As a woman who grew up in a single parent family and encountered many obstacles completing her degree, she was undeterred. Finances, difficult classes, and uncooperative faculty did not hinder her desire to complete her degree in nutritional sciences and she felt the need to give back to, what I have got here. She added that I want it to be a place where (pause), underprivileged are served. People who do not have the finances to get adequate service. Along with her clear desire to help others, she also feels a need to give back to others who are less fortunate, a theme echoed by many other participants. Collectively, the women demonstrated the common sentiment that science was an avenue for helping people. The women articulated that their primary goal is to be able help, and to give back to others in need. The women came from strong families who sacrificed a great deal. In addition, participants explained that they were raised by their families to be appreciative for all they have in their lives, and to realize they are fortunate to have what they have been given.

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Thus, giving to those in need was a constant in their lives. Regardless of the final goals, the women did not regard science as a way to attain prestige, make money, or advance their careers. Instead, the women viewed science and medicine as the mechanism to improve society and those who are most in need of medical attention. Therefore, their persistence to continue in science is more deeply seated in their social responsibilities to those most in need.

The Influence of Religion The influence of religion as a contributing factor is absent from most persistence frameworks, including the one offered by Hurtado. However, in this study, six of the sixteen women described religion as a central factor in their lives and thus their academic pursuits. Religion was not referenced in the interview protocol, but the frequency of it being nominated as a support factor required an examination of its role. During the interviews it was learned that two of the students had family members who were pastors: Jenns father and Ivettes grandparents. Having family members who are actively involved in the daily operations of a church would likely be a constant reminder of the role of religion in ones life. Neither women articulated any pressure to be religious; instead they welcomed the support that religion brought to their lives. Jenn described her religious nature, I am very very religious, God does everything for a reason and me coming here and me being a pre-dental student has a lot to do with the fact that I came to State University. The influence of her religious beliefs became apparent when she discussed her ability to get in to dental school. I am hoping and praying, I honestly feel like, I really truly feel like, with God on my side with Christ, I can do it. I really feel like and believe through Christ and prayer I can make it. These beliefs appear to be quite strong and provide a sense of purpose, while also providing a source that Jenn can count on for strength and support. Ivvette shared that her parents were from Puerto Rico and religion was an important part of her life as she was heavily involved with the Pentecostal Church. She first mentioned religion when she described a three-year bible study program she hoped to someday attend. It was during this conversation when she disclosed how religion is my biggest support. Ivvette explained that religion has become a major source of support, especially during her time in college. Its definitely my support now, through education. It is what I rely on the most. The relevance of religion for Ivvette seemed to take on more importance during her transition and challenges in college. She described how religion offered support to help her manage the day-to-day social and

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academic issues that often come with the college experience. If anything is on my mind. If I pray about it I feel like it is resolved ... I really think that has got me through a lot of stuff. I trust in God for a lot of my issues. In her description, religion was central to her daily life, and also gives a sense that there is someone or something she can to turn to when times are difficult. When Ivvette described the challenges she encountered in her science studies, the value of religion was evident. The discussion of the importance of religion was articulated by McLean. Initially when asked to describe her identity she revealed, I would say my identity is just being a Christian woman. Not saying Christian Black woman, but just being a Christian woman who is just devoted to a higher being, devoted to God, and just sees that as the purpose. This statement illustrates the influence that religion had on her sense of self and how religion has influenced her purpose in life. McLean was one of the few women to described specific examples of the support provided by religious beliefs. When asked for an example, McLean shared a story where she felt God was actively acting on her behalf. She had been attempting to save money to take a service trip to African to volunteer in high need areas, but was having difficulty financing the trip until she met a person who donated money to assist her. McLean believed that the meeting of the person was a direct result of an intervention with God. She explained that as long as I keep believing in God and just putting my faith and trust in him. He keeps taking care of me. This belief was clearly connected to the type of support that she needed to maintain her academic standing. McLean, like others, did not articulate a specific connection to science and religious belief, rather the support attained from religion aided all aspects of participants lives. Two participants suggested that the influence of religion was often stronger in those with African American and Hispanic backgrounds. Penelope believed that religion was very important in many Hispanic families. Roman Catholicism in Latin families is really strong. In every house there is usually, the Last Supper, the Virgin Mary everywhere. And prayer is really strong. Its how I find strength and hope. I guess culturally too, it does help. It is part of my culture. I was growing up that way, it helps. Similarly, Ivette explained that she believed that religion was such a large part of her life because of her background as a Hispanic woman. She shared

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I think it is very common in both Latin and African American cultures. I see it more common in African American culture, than they do in Spanish. It is because we have grown up learning that God is our source of peace. When we have problems, He is the one that we turn to.It is definitely a factor. It is one of those support factors. It is definitely one of those supports, it keeps you going. The support received from religion for many of the women was a significant influence on their abilities to respond to and persevere through adversity. For many, they spoke of religion and family as interchangeable elements of their support systems. The variety of religious affiliations suggests that the denomination is irrelevant; having the sense that a higher being is looking out for them was the critical factor. All the students who discussed religion also described having family members who were religious. This was especially so for the Latina students who frequently referenced the influence of religion as a product of their cultural values derived from their family backgrounds. Regardless of the origin of the religious beliefs, it was clear that the women viewed the belief in God, and the support they attained from that belief, as being essential in the daily lives. The findings from this study demonstrated that there were a number of important factors which contributed to the participants persistence in science majors. The majority of these factors aligned with what has been hypothesized in Hurtados persistence framework. Strong academic preparation for college science through high school experiences was important to support students during their entry to college. Support from faculty provided motivation, guidance and encouragement for most students. The significance of family, especially from the maternal parent, provided motivation and support for continuing college and bettering oneself. College support programs have become increasingly popular for underrepresented students and those who participated in these programs described the significance of these programs. It is unclear how altruistic forces arise, but most participants maintained altruistic beliefs which motivated them to pursue science careers. Finally, the important role of religion for a number of the participants offered these women an overall sense that a higher power is supporting their lives. Collectively, these factors were the most frequently nominated by participants in this study.

Discussion:

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The persistence framework by Hurtado (2007) offered a guide to focus on key support factors that help a students continuation in a college science major. The history of persistence models began more than thirty years ago and the models have been primarily developed to create statistical representations based on survey data to find which factors are most important in student completion of college degrees. The adaptation to individual populations of students, such as women of color, is a more recent innovation which was utilized in this study. The qualitative approach used in this study provides a needed extension of current persistence models in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the problem. It is the belief that this can accomplished by examining personal narratives and experiences of individuals who are engaged in science majors. Given the importance of diversifying science, this aim of this study was to elicit the types of support factors which contributed to persistence in science majors. As future college graduates, all participants described some aspect of their lives that made the completion of a college degree a great accomplishment. Regardless of their future science endeavors, the women were able to reach a point in science that most women of color have not been able to attain. Using Hurtados persistence framework as a guide, the factors that have supported and hindered participants capacity to continue in science were examined. The level of high school academic preparation in science and math coursework is regarded as one of the best predictors for college science success (Astin & Astin 1993; Hurtado et al., 2007; Nora, Barlow & Crisp, 2005). This is a logical conclusion, as a lack of proper science or math background will preclude students from being admitted into certain science courses both in high school and college. The importance of math background is often related to the type of science classes a student can take. Thus, a students placement in high school math courses can be just as important as the science coursework completed. In many cases, not completing math prerequisites blocks students access to certain science majors. This is especially the case for chemistry, physics and engineering programs where a strong math background is essential. Students entering these programs with lower academic background abilities are bound to struggle, and without the proper support, are likely to exit from STEM majors. The women in this study came from a variety of backgrounds but they were consistent in that most reported that they came to college with strong science backgrounds. However, not all students were equally prepared because the quality of the classes varied considerably. In addition, access to Advanced Placement and advanced courses was not consistent across all

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participants. It was clear that those who entered college with Advanced Placement coursework or completion of rigorous college level courses were at an advantage, and science educators need to continue to maintain the importance of these courses for college preparation. However, these courses alone did not equate to science success. In addition, the lack of these courses did not automatically deter a student from successful science pursuits. Since many participants who lacked these opportunities still felt prepared for college, they were likely able to capitalize on other sources of support to compensate for any academic deficiencies. Many students reported using science tutors to assist them during their freshman and sophomore years, and this support was likely critical to their persistence in science majors. These findings also help dispel the myth that students must take the highest level courses in high school. Many students have little control over their course assignments in high school and thus college science faculty must be cognizant that entry level content knowledge should not be the primary indicator of future success in science classes. Thus, courses that weed out students early in their college career may be eliminating individuals who could be successful in science. The support offered by teachers and faculty was reported as an important factor which promoted interest and motivation to pursue science careers. Since most students came to college with the belief that they were adequately prepared for college science, it is important to identify what factors contributed to these beliefs. The attainment of high grades and rigorous coursework were highlighted as key factors. However, the importance of high school teachers ability to motivate and instill confidence in these women was also a significant factor. The finding that every participant could identify at least one supportive high school science teacher demonstrates the critical role that these teachers played in the lives of these students. These teachers were also likely a key factor considering the life histories of the women in this study. Because so few participants had family members with college experience and even fewer had family members in science, the women clearly benefited from teachers to help guide them toward potential careers in science. It is critical that as educators continue to look at ways to support diversification in science, adequate attention is placed on the role of high school teachers as sources of guidance, motivation and support. The majority of students engaged in substantial science activities in high school and continued this participation in college. These experiences may have filled the gap felt because of the difference in teacher support experienced during life in college. Participants did not

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experience the same supportive environment with college science faculty as they had during high school years. In addition, negative feelings toward the competitiveness and the chilly climate in science pose an important problem. Unfortunately, these qualities of science instruction continue to plague college science teaching (Blickenstaff, 2005; Johnson, 2007; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). Regardless of some negative experiences, a number of women were able to successfully navigate (often with help from science support programs) to remain engaged with college science. This engagement appeared to be largely derived from undergraduate research and similar opportunities that helped students feel like that were a part of science. These experiences included working in labs, internships and volunteer activities. It is logical to conclude that involvement in these activities would provide a wealth of positive attributes including stimulating and sustaining interest, building confidence, making connections with science peers and faculty, and allowing students to become more engaged with science. These activities create a wider range of networking opportunities and in most cases these types of experiences would be essential to future science careers (Cole & Espinoza, 2008). The few women in the study who described a lack of involvement in these activities at college were not able to tap into the value of these activities and thus the lack of these experiences may accelerate a departure from science. At State University, Project A was highlighted as a major source of support for students persistence in science. Through special classes, tutoring, and advisors, Project A assisted many of the women to persist. Although students had advisors through the normal channels of college (namely, with their respective science departments), the women active in Project A were afforded an additional advisor, Clair. It is important to note that Clair was not a science person herself. However, the students viewed her as an important advocate for them and someone they could go to for support. Clair would listen to their concerns and do what she could to advise and support the women. Students confided that, in several cases, the advice from Clair differed from what their academic advisor had suggested. However, the women had very strong relationships with Clair and they valued her opinion because it was delivered by someone they trusted. Clair had the time, effort, and dedication to support the women. The emergence of Clair as a support person suggests that the faculty and assigned science advisors were not helpful for the majority of the women. Students were not enthusiastic about the support they received from their science advisors and many students articulated difficulty approaching science faculty. While it would be admirable if science faculty were more attentive

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to this important duty, the institution places unreasonable demands on their time, and for some of them, advising undergraduates, and in many cases quality teaching, are not main foci. While an outsider might expect that faculty would support students science persistence, workload demands and institutional norms, especially at a larger, research-oriented university, create conditions where this is rarely the case. The unfortunate consequence for many science students is they do not get the type of advice and support that they need. If this is the case, then those students who arrive in science programs better prepared academically and have forms of capital such as parents or siblings that have experienced college, would be at a distinct advantage. Since the population of participants was largely first generation students, they likely lacked some of this cultural capital that supported their mainstream peers (Jehangir, 2009, 2010; Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004). Thus, this group of students often needs to find alternative forms of support or draw of their cultural capital, bring their stories and lived experiences into the learning process (Jehangir, 2010, p 549). Science educators and faculty need to become better aware of the challenges that many underrepresented students experience and find ways to capitalize on these students diverse forms of capital, instead of marginalizing them from science (Johnson, 2007; Kahveci, Southerland, & Gilmer, 2007). In addition, colleges and universities need to continue to explore ways to support programs such as Project A as a mechanism to help sustain persistence in science majors for those who have been traditionally excluded from science. As noted, Project A was not an extensive or high cost program, but the resources offered allowed students to gain opportunities that would have been unlikely without it. The influence of family support was integral to the science persistence for almost all the women. Although science-specific support from families was less common, all the women had family that strongly encouraged them to continue in their pursuits. The role of maternal support was a much stronger factor than the assistance provided by the fathers. This situation was more prevalent among the Latina participants compared to the other participants. Some research suggests that Latinas are counseled out of college attendance by family because of differences in cultural values that place women as the home keepers (Rodriguez, Guido-DiBrito, Torres & Talbot, 2000). The data from this study suggest that this is not the case for these women, as family support was crucial to their persistence. Students did not describe instances where parents discouraged them; instead, they spoke of parents motivating them to continue to pursue their

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dreams. Several women explained that their pursuit of science symbolized a major accomplishment for their families. One implication is for colleges to identify ways to make stronger connections will families, especially for students from cultures who place a strong emphasis on family. Since participants discussed how their peers became important replacements for family in their college life, it is important to explore ways to create small communities of practice for those students who appear to need a stronger connection with like minded peers. The importance of altruistic beliefs systems surfaced as another strong support factor. The belief in the need to help other people and give back to the community demonstrated a strong commitment to the power and importance of science. It is probable that as these women began to realize how science could support their altruistic aspirations, it strengthened their interest, motivation, and persistence toward their science goals. Many women explained how their aspirations in science would allow them to give back to the community. The altruistic nature of minority science students has been reported elsewhere (e.g. Carlone & Johnson, 2007) and these findings correspond with what was uncovered in this study. It is unclear if ethnic and racial minorities have a stronger connection with these beliefs, however it was clear that the women in this study linked their altruistic beliefs with their pursuit of careers in science. The role of religion as a factor contributing to persistence was not expected as a salient factor and none of the interview questions even prompted a discussion of religious beliefs. Little has been written about what role, if any, religion has for college persistence. Thus, the students prevalent discussion of God, religion, and prayer as influential factors for support was an unexpected finding. Studies investigating religiosity of African American (Taylor, Chatters, & Levin, 2004) and Hispanic populations (Antrop-Gonzalez, Velez, & Garrett, 2007) suggest that religion may have a more influential role in the lives of these populations of students than for students from other cultures. Consistent with the research, the women described religion as something they could turn to when they needed support and guidance, especially when they were faced with adversity. Thus, religious beliefs and practices were powerful influences on student persistence in college science. Students did not describe specific connections between religion and science, but several discussed the contradictions between scientific worldviews and religious beliefs. In these cases, it may be more difficult for the women to blend their core religious beliefs with what is presented in science. Although science is only one way of knowing, it was unclear how the combination of science and religion complicated the students beliefs. What is clear, is

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that religion is an import factor for many populations of students and thus educators need to explore what ways this form of capital can be utilized to support these students endeavors. In conclusion, the experiences of the women in this study were significant and influential to their persistence in science majors. This study was able to identify and explore the factors most influential to the students as they worked toward their science degrees. The qualitative framework of this study allowed for an in-depth exploration of these factors. This work contributes to the body of literature which has used quantitative measures to help educators understand why populations of students persist in science disciplines. The advantage of this study is that it offered a more concerted understanding that is often missed in the current quantitative survey studies. The findings provide insight into a group of women that have not been well represented or well researched within the larger science education community. If broader representation is expected in the science disciplines then a deeper understanding of the motivations, support systems and sources of capital of these populations of students is essential.

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