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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO.

9, SEPTEMBER 2011

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Rotor Design for Sensorless Position Estimation in Permanent-Magnet Machines


Rafal Wrobel, Alan S. Budden, Dan Salt, Derrick Holliday, Phil H. Mellor, Andrei Dinu, Parmider Sangha, and Mark Holme

AbstractA high-frequency injection sensorless rotor position estimation algorithm is incorporated directly into the niteelement design process to realize a permanent-magnet (PM) machine that is suited to zero- and low-speed sensorless control. The machine design is tightly constrained by an existing stator assembly, only enabling the redesign of the replacement PM rotor, and by the requirement that the manufacture of the resulting machine must be simple while meeting aerospace standards. Experimental results conrm that the resulting machine matches the original performance specication and that it operates under position sensorless control. Index TermsPermanent-magnet (PM) machine, sensorless control.

I. I NTRODUCTION RUSHLESS permanent-magnet (PM) machines offer a power dense actuation technology that is increasingly being deployed in more electric applications in the aerospace and automotive sectors. Correct commutation of the machine phases requires knowledge of the angular position of the PM rotor which, for brushless dc operation, is usually achieved using Hall-effect transducers. For high-performance brushless ac operation, a resolver or an encoder is typically required which may add considerable cost to the drive system while reducing its ruggedness. One method of overcoming these disadvantages is to use sensorless control, where the rotor position is estimated by applying signal processing techniques to measurements of the machines voltages and currents, obtained using low-cost, rugged, and remotely positioned transducers that are normally already included in the drive system for current control strategies or fault detection [1]. Sensorless position estimation in PM machines is reliant upon the existence of a measurable electrical parameter that is related to rotor position. When the machine is operating

Manuscript received April 16, 2010; revised August 26, 2010 and October 25, 2010; accepted October 28, 2010. Date of publication November 18, 2010; date of current version August 12, 2011. R. Wrobel, D. Salt, D. Holliday, and P. H. Mellor are with the University of Bristol, BS8 1TH Bristol, U.K. (e-mail: R.Wrobel@bristol.ac.uk; Daniel.Salt@bristol.ac.uk; D.Holliday@bristol.ac.uk; P.H.Mellor@Bristol. ac.uk). A. S. Budden is with the Controls Division, Rotork Controls Ltd., Bath BA1 3JQ, U.K. (e-mail: a.s.budden@ieee.org). A. Dinu, P. Sangha, and M. Holme are with Engine Control Systems, Goodrich Corporation, Birmingham B28 8LN, U.K. (e-mail: andrei. dinu@goodrich.com; Parminder.Sangha@goodrich.com; Marc.G.Holme@ goodrich.com). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TIE.2010.2093484

at speed, the electromotive force (EMF) generated across the machine supply terminals provides a suitable rotor-positiondependent quantity [2][6]. When the rotor is stationary or operating at low speed, however, no rotor-position-dependent parameter is readily available, and more complex methods that typically depend upon detection of the machines rotordependent inductance prole are used [7][19]. Typically, a PM machine may exhibit some degree of magnetic saliency which will cause a rotor-position-dependent variation in the inductance of the stator windings. This can be detected by the injection of a low-magnitude high-frequency voltage set into the stator and the measurement of the resulting currents [10], [13]. The degree of saliency, and therefore the resulting inductance variation, is highly dependent upon machine design, and comparisons between different PM machines have shown that, under specic operating conditions, certain rotor topologies and saliency proles are more suited to sensorless control than others [20]. The rotor topology inuences the selection of an appropriate injection-based sensorless control strategy, particularly for use under high-load conditions [21], and rotor geometry has signicant inuence on the accuracy of the estimation method [22], [23]. To capitalize on the advantages of sensorless control, therefore, consideration may be given to the saliency prole at the design stage of the PM machine. Design methodologies for ux bridges that introduce measurable saliencies in structurally symmetrical machines, at the expense of a relatively complex and difcult-to-manufacture rotor structure, have been proposed [24]. Finite-element (FE) and experimental studies of the effects of magnetic saturation and cross-coupling between the d- and q-axis uxes on the accuracy of injectionbased sensorless control in machines with interior magnet rotor topologies have resulted in design recommendations relating to rotor geometry, the magnitude of the PM ux, and the relative magnitudes of the d- and q-axis uxes [25][27]. In summary, therefore, multislot distributed stator windings provide a clear saliency prole when compared to concentrated wound machines where slotting effects are signicant. Consequently, there is a compromise between the benets of torque dense rugged machine construction and the ideal design when a measurable saliency prole to enable rotor position detection and simplicity of manufacture are both major considerations. The design of a PM rotor for a concentrated wound torque dense brushless dc machine that exhibits a saliency prole suited to voltage-injection-based sensorless control is presented. The design methodology directly combines a sensorless position estimation algorithm with FE analysis [28][30]. The

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011

Fig. 1. Baseline concentrated wound surface magnet topology.

Fig. 2.

Proposed IPM arrangement.

design is constrained by the requirements for the rotor to t within an existing stator, to meet stringent aerospace design standards, and for sensorless position estimation to operate at zero and low speeds where the torque demand does not exceed 0.5 p.u. Particular consideration is given to choice of the dimensions of the PM segments to result in a usable saliency prole while maintaining low torque ripple. The method is illustrated for the case where the machine is unloaded and does not incorporate saliency variation resulting from saturation, although the method may readily be extended to include load current as an additional design parameter. The effect of saturation on the machine incorporating the new rotor is however illustrated using FE analysis. Mechanical ruggedness and simplicity of manufacture are also key design considerations. II. D ESIGN C ONSIDERATIONS A prototype PM machine had previously been designed and optimized to meet stringent power density and performance requirements. Specically, the machine is designed for deployment in an aerospace actuator application requiring high peakto-average torque ratio and low operating duty. This machine comprises a concentrated wound stator with 1.5 slots per pole and a uniformly magnetized rotor with NdFeB magnet segments bonded to the surface of a magnetically permeable steel hub, as shown in Fig. 1. The magnets are further retained using a metallic sleeve that encapsulates the rotor. The saliency exhibited by the baseline surface magnet machine is insufcient for the new requirement that it should operate under position sensorless control. The interior PM (IPM) rotor topology exhibits more favorable saliency characteristics [31], [32] and was therefore chosen as the basis for the development of a new rotor. Importantly, while having a saliency prole suited to injection-based sensorless control, the new rotor must also be a direct physical replacement for the existing surface-mounted PM rotor, must match the torque capability of the existing baseline machine, and must be compatible with established aerospace manufacturing practice. A. Manufacturing Considerations The rotor generally consists of a solid magnetically permeable back-iron structure proled to accept the PMs and

xed to the rotor shaft. To simplify manufacture, the proposed rotor would use soft magnetic composite (SMC) pole pieces with rectangular PMs arranged in between a spoke pattern. This offers a quick and simple assembly process and reduced complexity when compared to designs that use laminations. The proposed rotor design is shown in Fig. 2, where the composite pole pieces and PMs are bonded to a nonmagnetic steel hub and the structure is secured using a thin sleeve. B. Sensorless Control Algorithm The high-frequency injection-based sensorless algorithm is a key inuence on the design of the new rotor. This section therefore describes the sensorless technique that is considered in combination with the FE techniques of Section III during the rotor design process. The standard dq model for a PM machine is shown in v dq = Rs + pLd r Ld r Lq Rs + pLq idq + 0 m r . (1)

If the angular frequency i of the injected voltage is sufciently high, the stator resistance may be considered negligible in comparison with the stator reactance. Equation (2) therefore expresses the resulting approximate high-frequency machine model in the stationary reference frame. The inductance terms L are obtained by transforming the dq-axis inductances into the two-phase stationary reference frame v v ji L i . ji L i (2)

If the balanced high-frequency voltage set shown in (3) is injected into the model of (2), the resulting high-frequency current can be calculated as shown in (4), where I1 and I2 are dependent upon the machine inductance and the magnitude and frequency of the injected voltage set [33] v = Vi i = I1 sin(i t) cos(i t) cos(i t) cos(2r i t) I2 . sin(i t) sin(2r i t) (3) (4)

The rotor position information r contained in the second term of (4) is obtained by using the Park transform to rotate

WROBEL et al.: ROTOR DESIGN FOR SENSORLESS POSITION ESTIMATION IN PERMANENT-MAGNET MACHINES

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Fig. 3.

Sensorless rotor position estimation scheme.

the currents to a reference frame that is synchronous with the injected voltage set. This also has the effect of introducing current terms rotating at twice the injected frequency. High-pass ltering then results in the currents given in ix iy = I2 cos(2r 2i t) . sin(2r 2i t) (5)

Finally, applying the Park transform to rotate the terms of (5) through an angle of = 2i t and then low-pass ltering result in a signal in which angle is directly related to rotor position, as shown in ix iy = I2 cos(2r ) . sin(2r ) (6)

requires consideration of two pole pitches. To simulate rotation of the rotor, the moving-band technique is used, and the solver used in the FEM analysis considers the magnetostatic eld and accounts for material nonlinearity. The magnet depth is expressed in terms of the ratio of the inner dimension Rm to the outer radius Rr , and the width is expressed as the ratio of an angle m subtended by the magnet to the pole pitch p , as shown in Fig. 2. These quantities are represented in the set of dimensionless parameters x, as shown in (7), which is used to specify the motor structure used in the FEM analysis x= m Rm , . p Rr (7)

A simple arctangent calculation or a tracking observer [11], [33] may be used to complete the sensorless scheme which is summarized in Fig. 3. For machines with sinusoidal saliency proles, plotting ix versus iy results in a circular locus or saliency ngerprint. In practical machines, however, the saliency ngerprint rarely follows this xed circular prole, as a result of slotting and saturation for example, and this introduces error to the estimated rotor position. This error can be compensated using a tracking observer or lookup-table techniques [11], [33]. III. FE D ESIGN The manufacturing considerations described in Section II-A dictate that torque and magnetic saliency are key design parameters. In addition, the predened stator structure and airgap and the proposed rotor structure and materials limit the design variables to the depth and width of the rectangular magnet segments. A. FE Modeling The FE method is used to calculate the torque and magnetic ux linkage of the phase windings at discrete rotor positions over an electrical cycle. Since the proposed IPM rotor machine exhibits radial ux, analysis can be carried out using 2-D FE modeling techniques with the calculation area being limited to the machines cross section. For simplicity, end effects have been neglected: The validity of this approach is justied by the accuracy of the experimental results presented in Section V. Due to the periodicity shown in Figs. 1 and 2, the analysis only

Torque is calculated using the coenergy method shown in (8), where W is the magnetic coenergy, is the angle dening the relative position between the rotor and the stator, and is the angular rotation between eld solutions T = W =
I=const

W () W ( )

. (8)
I=const

The calculated torque is averaged over successive 60 elec commutations of a (0, +1, 1) Irated winding current pattern to emulate brushless dc operation. Saliency torque is accounted for by adjusting the commutation angle to yield a maximum average torque. The average torque Ti developed by the ith motor version is normalized to the average constant torque T produced by the baseline prototype machine. The magnetic ux linkage for a single coil of the stator winding is found using (9), where A is the magnetic vector potential (i.e., A = Az ), nt is the number of turns in a single coil, l is the active length of the machine, and S is the crosssectional area of a coil for positive or negative current ow only (S = S+ = S ). To derive the ux linkage for a complete stator phase winding, the number of coils per phase must be incorporated into = nt l S
S+

A dS
S

A dS .

(9)

Based on the magnetic ux linkage of (9), the saliency ratio i for the ith motor version, dened by (10), where Ld and Lq are the d- and q-axis inductances, respectively, is calculated. Note that (10) is the inverse of the more usual denition

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011

TABLE I ROTOR D ESIGN DATA

Fig. 4. Distribution of the relative average torque versus m /p and Rm /Rr .

Fig. 6. Fig. 5. Distribution of the saliency ratio versus m /p and Rm /Rr .

FE model for rotor version 3.

of the saliency ratio and reects the inverse saliency that is characteristic of the IPM machine i = (Lq )i . (Ld )i (10)

Both the torque and saliency ratio calculations are repeated for different values of x, with target values of Ti /T = 1 to ensure the correct torque performance and i = 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . . , 2.5 to ensure a degree of rotor saliency that is suitable for sensorless control. The FE analysis incorporates an objective function, dened in (11), which seeks to minimize the error between the calculated and target values of torque and saliency f (x) = min n
x

i Ti 1 + 1 T

(11)

The normalized average torque and saliency ratio are both mapped in a 2-D solution space for discrete steps of m /p and Rm /Rr , as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. Fig. 4 shows that, in general, the torque developed by the motor increases as m /p (magnet width) increases and as Rm /Rr (magnet depth) decreases. The saliency surface, shown

in Fig. 5, is more complex and shows no simple trend in relation to changes to m /p and Rm /Rr . It is important to note that, to simplify the presentation of the design technique, the results shown in Figs. 4 and 5 are for an unloaded machine. However, the method may be easily extended to include specic load conditions, dened by the stator current vector, and a perturbation to represent the signal injection used in the sensorless technique. In doing this, crosscoupling and saturation effects are captured in the analysis. Table I presents the target torque and saliency ratio values and the corresponding values resulting from the FE design process which are also highlighted on the surface plots of Figs. 4 and 5. It is important to note that the saliency ratios shown in Table I result from calculation at a xed rotor position and that, beyond the limits of m /p = 0.73 and m /p = 0.93, none of the resulting rotor versions meets the design specication. Fig. 6 shows the FE model, together with the mesh discretization, for rotor version 3. Due to symmetry, the 2-D model includes only one-third of the motors cross section. The 14 rotor versions shown in Table I, resulting from the manipulation of the PM segment dimensions, are all capable of meeting the design specication and were therefore subject to more detailed investigation.

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Fig. 7.

Saliency analysis incorporated into the FE design procedure.

B. Saliency Analysis Ideally, in order to assess the suitability of a rotor design for zero- and low-speed sensorless position estimation, an accurate machine model would be combined with the voltage injection system and sensorless algorithm. The computational complexity of modeling the injection scheme prohibits the use of this direct approach. It has been shown, however, that the behavior of the sensorless scheme can be accurately reproduced using FE techniques by incorporating a suitable three-phase current pattern and calculating the resulting ux linkage in the machine winding [34]. For each of the 14 candidate rotor designs shown in Table I, FE simulations were carried out, where the machine windings were energized using a balanced three-phase set of sinusoidal currents superimposed upon the dc excitation current. The three-phase current set is dened by (12), where i is the angle of the injection signal for a given sample and is equivalent to i t in the practical system described in Section II-B Ia sin(i ) Ib = Ipk sin(i 2/3) . (12) Ic sin(i + 2/3) Using the FE postprocessor, the corresponding ux linkages a , b , and c of the stator phase coils are found from the vector potential solution for each rotor angle, as described by (9). The computational overhead is minimized by considering the symmetry of the results which enables calculation to be carried out over only one-sixth of an electrical cycle. The ux linkage that is attributable to the three-phase current set only, without any contribution from the fundamental excitation current or PMs, is found using (13), where inj is the phase ux linkage including the injected three-phase set and m is the ux linkage without signal injection (i )|=const = inj (i )|=const m |=const . (13)

Fig. 8. Saliency ngerprint for rotor version 1.

The ux linkages are processed in the same way as the practical sensorless rotor position estimation scheme, and saliency ngerprints for a given rotor topology can be produced. The process is summarized in Fig. 7, which is equivalent to Fig. 3, where is obtained by applying the Clarke transform to the ux linkages abc obtained from the FE process. Fig. 8 shows a saliency ngerprint for rotor version 1, whose characteristics are dened in Table I, obtained using FE techniques. The ideal circular prole shows sinusoidally varying

saliency, while the inner distorted triangular prole describes the saliency of rotor version 1. The lines extending from the center of the plot, through the saliency ngerprint to the ideal circular saliency characteristic, show the relationship between the two plots at evenly spaced rotor positions and demonstrate the tendency for the estimated rotor positions to cluster around the apexes of the saliency ngerprint. Fig. 9 shows the corresponding estimated rotor position for rotor version 1, obtained using FE techniques, and highlights the signicant distortion resulting from the nonideal saliency prole. The analysis shown in Figs. 8 and 9 was repeated for all 14 rotor versions dened in Table I. Figs. 10 and 11 show the resulting saliency ngerprint and estimated rotor position for rotor version 14 and highlight the signicant distortion of the saliency ngerprint and the consequent reduction in position accuracy as the PM dimensions are varied. The maximum position error over one complete electrical cycle, commonly used as a measure of the effectiveness of sensorless position estimation strategies, was calculated for each rotor version to enable identication of the best candidate design and comparison with other published sensorless techniques. The calculated maximum errors, expressed in electrical radians, for all 14 rotor versions are summarized in Fig. 12. The gure shows that rotor versions 13 provide the most accurate sensorless position estimate and are therefore the most likely candidates for further development.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 58, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER 2011

Fig. 9. Estimated rotor position for rotor version 1.

Fig. 12.

Maximum error for rotor versions 114.

Fig. 13. Fig. 10. Saliency ngerprint for rotor version 14.

Variation in relative peak cogging torque.

C. Cogging Torque As well as the baseline torque and saliency requirements, the application for the new rotor design demands low cogging torque. FE analysis was used to investigate the cogging exhibited by each of the 14 candidate rotor designs. The results, which are shown in Fig. 13, show that rotor versions 37 all exhibit relatively low cogging torque. The design process outlined in Section III-AC shows that, in comparison with the candidate rotor designs shown in Table I, rotor version 3 exhibits the best combination of torque capability, saliency, position estimation accuracy, and low cogging torque. Rotor version 3 was therefore selected for manufacture. IV. M ANUFACTURE OF ROTOR V ERSION 3 Fig. 14 shows the construction of rotor version 3. Fig. 14(a) shows the simple structure consisting of the shaft and hub assembly, the PM segments prior to magnetization, and the SMC pole pieces. Both the SMC pole pieces and PM segments were machined to shape using the same technique, which signicantly simplies the manufacture and assembly of the

Fig. 11. Estimated rotor position for rotor version 14.

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TABLE II C ALCULATED AND M EASURED AVERAGE S ALIENCY R ATIOS

Fig. 14. IPM rotor version 3. (a) Rotor components. (b) Assembled rotor prior to the addition of the containment sleeve.

rotor. Fig. 14(b) shows the assembled rotor, with the magnets and pole pieces xed to the hub with adhesive, prior to the addition of the containment sleeve. The axial segmentation of the magnets and pole pieces is a result of limitations in the manufacturing process. V. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS Rotor version 3, shown in Fig. 14, was validated experimentally both by considering the electrical performance in relation to the baseline motor and by implementing an injection-based sensorless position estimation strategy using the new machine design. A. Electrical Performance An experimental test rig, designed to derive the saliency ratio over a complete electrical or mechanical cycle, was used to characterize both the baseline machine and the new machine incorporating rotor version 3. The resulting saliency ratios for both machines, averaged over a complete mechanical cycle, are shown in Table II. Also shown in Table II are the average saliency ratios calculated for both machines using FE modeling techniques. Both the calculated and measured saliency ratios are derived from the ux and current loci, respectively, resulting from the high-frequency injection signal at every rotor position [28]. These results highlight the good agreement between the theoretical and measured values and show that, in comparison to the baseline machine, the saliency of the machine incorporating rotor version 3 is signicantly increased as required for application of an effective sensorless control strategy.

Fig. 15. Normalized line-to-line back EMF. (a) Surface-mounted PM baseline machine. (b) IPM rotor version 3.

The normalized back-EMF waveforms for both machine variants, calculated using FE modeling techniques and measured experimentally over one complete electrical cycle, are shown in Fig. 15. Fig. 15 highlights the good agreement between the theoretical and measured back-EMF characteristics and demonstrates the accuracy of the FE modeling technique employed. The gure also highlights the agreement between the characteristics exhibited by the two machines. Since the rotor topologies are very different, the back-EMF waveforms are not expected to be identical, and this is apparent from Fig. 15,

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Fig. 16. Experimental sensorless control test platform.

Fig. 17. Uncompensated sensorless position.

which shows the different higher order harmonic content in each waveform. However, the fundamental back-EMF components are very similar and suggest that the torque capability of the new rotor, which was a major design consideration, closely matches that of the baseline machine. B. Sensorless Position Estimation An experimental test platform was used to verify the operation of a high-frequency injection-based sensorless rotor position estimation scheme applied to the IPM rotor machine. The test platform is based on a Texas Instruments TMS320C6713 digital signal processor (DSP) combined with a Xilinx XC2S300E eld-programmable gate array (FPGA). The DSP generates the injection signals and processes the currents, measured by two Hall-effect current transducers and captured using analog-to-digital converters, in order to estimate the rotor position. The FPGA is used to perform the pulsewidth modulation (PWM) generation based on instructions from the DSP controller and to provide an interface between the DSP and the analog I/O. A Mitsubishi intelligent power module is used to provide power to the machine, and a shaft-mounted resolver is included to allow the accuracy of the estimation algorithm to be quantied. The test rig allows the easily interchangeable PM test motors to be loaded both statically and dynamically. Fig. 16 shows a block diagram of the experimental system with a locking gearbox for static testing. With the machine operating under sensored control, the estimated rotor position, obtained using the high-frequency injection sensorless scheme where voltage is injected with an amplitude of 3 V and at a frequency of 300 Hz, and fundamental current Iq = 20 A, is shown in Fig. 17 and is compared with measured rotor position obtained from a resolver. It is important

Fig. 18.

Saliency ratio versus per-unit torque for rotor version 3.

to note that the estimated rotor position is not compensated to account for distortion of the high-frequency injected voltage set introduced by the PWM process [35]. The sensorless position signal shows distortion due to cogging but is in good agreement with the measured position signal. The results shown in Fig. 17 therefore conrm that the machine incorporating rotor version 3, which has been constrained to meet existing mechanical and electrical performance criteria, has a saliency prole that is suited to sensorless control. VI. S ALIENCY VARIATION Magnetic saliency is highly dependent upon the operating conditions of the machine. For example, high current may drive the machine into saturation, or current may be phase advanced in order to optimize torque production, with the result that the degree of saliency will vary. This, in turn, will affect the accuracy of saliency-dependent injection-based sensorless rotor position estimation techniques. Fig. 18 shows a simulation of the dependence of saliency upon per-unit torque, at a xed current angle, for the machine incorporating rotor version 3. The gure highlights the signicant reduction in saliency ratio as torque (current) is increased and shows that, above 1-p.u. torque, the saliency ratio reverses, i.e., Lq < Ld . As stated in Section II, the machine is designed to operate with a high peak-to-average torque ratio. Fig. 18 shows that

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the machine would be capable of operating under sensorless control under load conditions up to approximately 0.5-p.u. peak torque, thereby meeting the required operating specication. A full treatment of the effects of saturation on the operation and performance of the position-sensorless-controlled concentrated wound IPM machine will be presented in a forthcoming publication. VII. C ONCLUSION A high-frequency injection sensorless position estimation algorithm has been directly incorporated into the FE design procedure for an IPM machine, resulting in a machine that exhibits the required electrical characteristics while being tailored for sensorless control. To simplify presentation of the procedure, the analysis is based on the no-load condition. However, the method could easily be extended to incorporate a particular load condition so that factors such as cross-coupling and saturation are captured in the analysis. This is the subject of ongoing research. The design was highly constrained such that the rotor was required to t within an existing stator and to produce the same torque as the original motor. A simple manufacture and assembly process, which is compatible with existing aerospace practices, was achieved using SMC pole pieces and a nonmagnetic hub in place of the more usual laminated structure. The experimental results verify the machine performance and operation under the control of an injection-based sensorless rotor position strategy. R EFERENCES
[1] P. Acarnley and J. F. Watson, Review of position-sensorless operation of brushless permanent-magnet machines, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 352362, Apr. 2006. [2] R. Wu and G. R. Slemon, A permanent magnet motor drive without a shaft sensor, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 10051011, Sep./Oct. 1991. [3] N. Matsui, Sensorless PM brushless dc motor drives, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 300308, Apr. 1996. [4] L. A. de S. Ribeiro, M. C. Harke, and R. D. Lorenz, Dynamic properties of back-EMF based sensorless drives, in Conf. Rec. IEEE IAS Annu. Meeting, 2006, vol. 4, pp. 20262033. [5] S. Bolognani, R. Oboe, and M. Zigliotto, Sensorless full-digital PMSM drive with EKF estimation of speed and rotor position, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 184191, Feb. 1999. [6] A. Consoli, S. Musumeci, A. Raciti, and A. Testa, Sensorless vector and speed control of brushless motor drives, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 9196, Feb. 1994. [7] O. Wallmark and L. Harnefors, Sensorless control of salient PMSM drives in the transition region, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 11791187, Jun. 2006. [8] P. L. Jansen and R. D. Lorenz, Transducerless position and velocity estimation in induction and salient AC machines, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 240247, Mar./Apr. 1995. [9] O. Wallmark, L. Harnefors, and O. Carlson, An improved speed and position estimator for salient permanent-magnet synchronous motors, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 255262, Feb. 2005. [10] S.-Y. Kim and I.-J. Ha, A new observer design method for HF signal injection sensorless control of IPMSMs, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 25252529, Jun. 2008. [11] M. J. Corley and R. D. Lorenz, Rotor position and velocity estimation for a salient-pole permanent magnet synchronous machine at standstill and high speeds, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 784789, Jul./Aug. 1998. [12] F. M. L. de Belie, P. Sergeant, and J. A. Melkebeek, A sensorless drive by applying test pulses without affecting the average current samples, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 875888, Apr. 2010.

[13] J.-H. Jang, S.-K. Sul, J.-I. Ha, K. Ide, and M. Sawamura, Sensorless drive of surface-mounted permanent-magnet motor by high-frequency signal injection based on magnetic saliency, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 10311039, Jul./Aug. 2003. [14] S. Kondo, A. Takahashi, and T. Nishida, Armature current based estimation method of rotor position of permanent magnet synchronous motor without mechanical sensor, in Conf. Rec. IEEE IAS Annu. Meeting, 1995, vol. 1, pp. 5560. [15] C. Silva, G. M. Asher, and M. Sumner, Hybrid rotor position observer for wide speed-range sensorless PM motor drives including zero speed, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 373378, Apr. 2006. [16] G. Foo and M. F. Rahman, Sensorless sliding-mode MTPA control of an IPM synchronous motor drive using a sliding-mode observer and HF signal injection, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 1270 1278, Apr. 2010. [17] G. Foo and M. F. Rahman, Sensorless direct torque and ux-controlled IPM synchronous motor drive at very low speed without signal injection, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 395403, Jan. 2010. [18] S. Sayeef, G. Foo, and M. F. Rahman, Rotor position and speed estimation of a variable structure direct-torque-controlled IPM synchronous motor drive at very low speeds including standstill, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 11, pp. 37153723, Nov. 2010. [19] A. S. Budden, R. Wrobel, D. Holliday, P. H. Mellor, and P. Sangha, Zero speed sensorless position detection for permanent magnet synchronous machines, in Proc. IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2005, vol. 1, pp. 24362441. [20] N. Bianchi, S. Bolognani, J.-H. Jang, and S.-K. Sul, Advantages of inset PM machines for zero-speed sensorless position detection, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 11901198, Jul./Aug. 2008. [21] N. Bianchi, S. Bolognani, J.-H. Jang, and S.-K. Sul, Comparison of PM motor structures and sensorless control techniques for zero-speed rotor position detection, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 2466 2475, Nov. 2007. [22] N. Bianchi and S. Bolognani, Sensorless-oriented design of PM motors, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 12491257, Jul./Aug. 2009. [23] S. Wu, D. D. Reigosa, Y. Shibukawa, M. A. Leetmaa, R. D. Lorenz, and Y. Li, Interior permanent-magnet synchronous motor design for improving self-sensing performance at very-low speed, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 19391946, Nov./Dec. 2009. [24] J.-I. Ha, M. Ohto, J.-H. Jang, and S.-K. Sul, Design and selection of AC machines for saliency-based sensorless control, in Conf. Rec. IEEE IAS Annu. Meeting, 2002, vol. 2, pp. 11551162. [25] N. Bianchi, S. Bolognani, and M. Zigliotto, Design hints of an IPM synchronous motor for an effective position sensorless control, in Proc. IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2005, pp. 15601566. [26] N. Bianchi and S. Bolognani, Inuence of rotor geometry of an interior PM motor on sensorless control feasibility, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 8796, Jan./Feb. 2007. [27] N. Bianchi, S. Bolognani, and A. Faggion, Predicted and measured errors in estimating rotor position by signal injection for salient-pole PM synchronous motors, in Proc. IEEE IEMDC, 2009, pp. 15651572. [28] A. S. Budden, R. Wrobel, D. Holliday, P. H. Mellor, A. Dinu, P. Sangha, and M. Holme, Impact of rotor design on sensorless position estimation, in Proc. IEEE IECON, 2006, pp. 787792. [29] K. Yamazaki and H. Ishigami, Rotor-shape optimization of interiorpermanent-magnet motors to reduce harmonic iron loss, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 6169, Jan. 2010. [30] W. N. Fu, S. L. Ho, and Z. Zhang, Design of position detection strategy of sensorless permanent magnet motors at standstill using transient niteelement analysis, IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 45, no. 10, pp. 46684671, Oct. 2009. [31] L. Harnefors and H.-P. Nee, General algorithm for speed and position estimation of ac motors, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 7783, Feb. 2000. [32] Y. Kano, T. Kosaka, N. Matsui, and T. Nakanishi, Design and experimental verication of a sensorless-oriented concentrated-winding IPMSM, in Proc. XIX ICEM, 2010, pp. 16. [33] M. W. Degner and R. D. Lorenz, Using multiple saliencies for the estimation of ux, position, and velocity in ac machines, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 10971104, Sep./Oct. 1998. [34] A. S. Budden, R. Wrobel, D. Holliday, P. H. Mellor, and P. Sangha, Sensorless control of permanent magnet machine drives for aerospace applications, in Proc. IEEE PEDS, 2005, vol. 1, pp. 372377. [35] D. Salt, D. Drury, and D. Holliday, Compensation of nonlinear distortion effects for signal injection based sensorless control, in Proc. IET PEMD, 2010, pp. 16.

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Rafal Wrobel received the M.Sc.Eng. degree from the Technical University of Opole, Opole, Poland, in 1998 and the Ph.D. degree from the Technical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland, in 2000. During 2001, he was an Assistant Professor with the Technical University of Opole. Since 2002, he has been a Research Fellow with the University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K. His research interests include electromagnetic, thermal, and mechanical eld analysis and the optimization of electrical drives, with emphasis on permanent-magnet machines.

Phil H. Mellor received the B.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Liverpool, Liverpool, U.K., in 1978 and 1981, respectively. He held academic positions at the University of Liverpool from 1986 to 1990 and The University of Shefeld, Shefeld, U.K., from 1990 to 2000. He is currently a Professor of electrical engineering with the University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K. His research activities include high-efciency electric drives and actuation and generation systems for application in more electric aircraft and hybrid electric vehicles.

Alan S. Budden received the M.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical and electronic engineering from the University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K., in 2000 and 2005, respectively. His Ph.D. research focused on sensorless rotor position measurement in permanentmagnet brushless machines at zero and low speeds. He continued this work in collaboration with Goodrich Corporation, Actuation Systems, before joining the Controls Division, Rotork Controls Ltd., Bath, U.K., where he is currently the Senior Electronics Design Engineer that is responsible for new technology research for industrial actuation.

Andrei Dinu received the Ph.D. degree in electrical and electronic engineering from De Montfort University, Leicester, U.K., in 2000, with a thesis concerning the sensorless control of induction motors using hardware-implemented neural networks. In August 2000, he was appointed Lecturer at De Montfort University, where he conducted research in the eld of electrical drive control until 2003, when he moved to industry. He rst worked as a Design Engineer with Datalink Electronics, Loughborough, U.K. In 2004, he joined Goodrich Corporation, Birmingham, U.K., as a Control Systems Engineer, where he is currently an Engineering Consultant involved in R&D with the Electromagnetic Systems Technical Center.

Dan Salt received the M.Eng. degree in electrical and electronic engineering from the University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K., in 2007, where he is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in electrical and electronic engineering. His research interests include power electronics, high-performance ac machine drives, and sensorless control of permanent-magnet machines.

Parmider Sangha received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K., and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Bath, Bath, U.K. He is currently an Engineering Consultant with Electrical Power Systems, Goodrich Corporation, Electrical Power Systems, Birmingham, U.K. His main interests include electromagnetics, the development of numerical analysis techniques, and the design and development of electrical machines for aerospace applications.

Derrick Holliday received the B.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical and electronic engineering from Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, U.K. After working as a Research Associate with Heriot-Watt University, he took a lectureship at the University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K., where, as a Senior Lecturer, his research interests include highefciency electrical machines and drives, pulsewidth modulation, sensorless control, and microelectromechanical systems.

Mark Holme received the Honours degree in engineering from Coventry Polytechnic, Coventry, U.K., and the Masters degree in power electronics and drives from the University of Birmingham, Birmingham, U.K. He has over 20 years of experience in the eld of power electronics and motor drives, covering research and development, product design, and project management, and has led a number of programs to further the application of motor drives in aircraft applications. He is currently the Engineering Manager of motor drive systems with Engine Control and Electrical Power Systems, Goodrich Corporation, Birmingham.

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